INFO20003 Database Systems

Dr Renata Borovica-Gajic

Lecture 08
SQL

INFO20003 Database Systems

Week
© University 4
of Melbourne 1
 What is SQL

• SQL – or SEQUEL is a language used in relational databases

• DBMS support CRUD
– Create, Read, Update, Delete commands
• SQL supports CRUD
– Create, Select, Update, Delete commands
• Other info
– You can see the 2011 standard of SQL at
• http://www.jtc1sc32.org/doc/N2151-2200/32N2153T-text_for_ballot-
FDIS_9075-1.pdf
– Wikipedia has several sections on SQL (good for generic syntax)
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:SQL_keywords

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 4
 SQL Language

• Provides the following capabilities:

– Data Definition Language (DDL)
• To define and set up the database
• CREATE, ALTER, DROP
– Data Manipulation Language (DML)
• To maintain and use the database
• SELECT, INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE
– Data Control Language (DCL)
• To control access to the database
• GRANT, REVOKE
– Other Commands
• Administer the database
• Transaction Control

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 5
 How We Use SQL

• In Implementation of the database

– Take the tables we design in physical design
– Implement these tables in the database using create commands
• In Use of the database
– Use Select commands to read the data from the tables, link the
tables together etc
– Use alter, drop commands to update the database
– Use insert, update, delete commands to change data in the
database

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 6
 SQL Context in Development Process
1.

2.

3.

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 7
 Create Table: Review

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 8
 Foreign keys: Review

• We looked at Customer
– A customer can have a number of Accounts
– The tables get linked through a foreign key

CustID Customer CustMiddle CustLast Business CustType

FirstName Name Name Name
1 Peter Smith Personal
2 James Jones JJ Company
Enterprises

AccountID AccountName Outstanding CustID

Balance
01 Peter Smith 245.25 1
05 JJ Ent. 552.39 2
06 JJ Ent. Mgr 10.25 2

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 9
 SQL CREATE Statement (With FK)

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 10
 Insert Data

Specifies which columns

1) will be entered

2)
No column specification means
ALL columns need to be entered

Customer
CustID CustomerFirst CustMiddle CustLastName BusinessName CustType
Name Name
1 Peter NULL Smith NULL Personal
2 James NULL Jones JJ Enterprises Company
3 NULL Smythe Company

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 11
 What does NULL mean?

Null Island: The Busiest Place That Doesn't Exist:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjvIpI-1w84
by the channel MinuteEarth

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 12
 Query Table with SELECT statement

• Select statement allows us to query table(s)

* (star): Allows us to obtain all columns from a table

All columns

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 13
 The SELECT Statement: Detail
• A cut down version of the SELECT statement – MySQL

• SELECT [ALL | DISTINCT] select_expr [, select_expr ...]

– List the columns (and expressions) that are returned from the query
• [FROM table_references ]
– Indicate the table(s) or view(s) from where the data is obtained
• [WHERE where_condition]
– Indicate the conditions on whether a particular row will be in the result
• [GROUP BY {col_name | expr } [ASC | DESC], ...]
– Indicate categorisation of results
• [HAVING where_condition]
– Indicate the conditions under which a particular category (group) is included in
the result
• [ORDER BY {col_name | expr | position} [ASC | DESC], ...]
– Sort the result based on the criteria
• [LIMIT {[offset,] row_count | row_count OFFSET offset}]
– Limit which rows are returned by their return order (ie 5 rows, 5 rows from row 2)

Order is important! E.g. Limit cannot go before Group By or Having

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 14
 Select Examples

SELECT * FROM Customer;

= Give me all information you have about customers

SQL

RESULT

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 15
 Select Examples : Projection

SQL

Result
In Relational Algebra:
 CustLastName(Customer)
In SQL:
SELECT CustLastName
FROM Customer;
NOTE: MySQL doesn’t discard duplicates.
To remove them use DISTINCT in front of
the projection list.

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 16
 Select Examples: Selection
In Relational Algebra: In Relational Algebra:
 cond1cond 2  cond3(Rel)  CustLastName( CustLastName ="Smith"(Customer))

In SQL: In SQL:
WHERE cond1 AND cond2 SELECT CustLastName
OR cond3 FROM Customer
WHERE CustLastName = “Smith”;

SQL

Result

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 17
 Select Examples: LIKE clause

• In addition to arithmetic expressions, string conditions are specified

with the LIKE clause
% Represents zero, one, or multiple characters
LIKE “REG_EXP”
_ Represents a single character

Examples: SQL:
WHERE CustomerName Finds any values that start with "a"
LIKE 'a%'
WHERE CustomerName Finds any values that end with "a"
LIKE '%a' Result
WHERE CustomerName Finds any values that have "or" in
LIKE '%or%' any position
WHERE CustomerName Finds any values that have "r" in the
LIKE '_r%' second position
WHERE CustomerName Finds any values that start with "a"
LIKE 'a_%_%' and are at least 3 characters in
length
WHERE ContactName Finds any values that start with "a"
LIKE 'a%o' and end with "o"

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 18
 Column renaming

We can rename the column

name of the output by using
the AS clause

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 19
 Aggregate Functions
Aggregate functions operate on the (sub)set of values in a column
of a relation (table) and return a single value
• AVG() • COUNT()
– Average value – Number of values
• MIN() • SUM()
– Minimum value – Sum of values
• MAX()
– Maximum value
• Plus others
– http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.5/en/group-by-functions.html

• All of these except for COUNT(*) ignore null values and return
null if all values are null. COUNT(*) counts the number of
records.
INFO20003 Database Systems © University
- - of Melbourne 20
 Aggregate Examples: Count/AVG

COUNT() - returns the number of records

AVG() - average of the values

Examples:
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID) = How many customers do we have
FROM Customer; (cardinality)

SELECT AVG(OutstandingBalance) = What is the average balance of

FROM Account; ALL ACCOUNTS

SELECT AVG(OutstandingBalance)
= What is the average balance of
FROM Account
Accounts of Customer 1
WHERE CustomerID= 1;

SELECT AVG(OutstandingBalance) = What is the average balance

FROM Account PER CUSTOMER
GROUP BY CustomerID;

INFO20003 Database Systems © University of Melbourne 21

 GROUP BY clause

• Group by groups all records together over a set of attributes

• Frequently used with aggregate functions

• Example:
What is the average balance PER CUSTOMER
SELECT AVG(OutstandingBalance)
FROM Account
GROUP BY CustomerID;
Returns one record per each customer

INFO20003 Database Systems © University of Melbourne 22

 HAVING Clause

• The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword
cannot be used with aggregate functions
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
HAVING condition
ORDER BY column_name(s);

• Example:
List the number of customers of each country, but ONLY include
countries with more than 5 customers
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), CountryName
FROM Customers
GROUP BY CountryName
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5;Condition over the aggregate

INFO20003 Database Systems © University of Melbourne 23

 ORDER BY Clause

• Orders records by particular column(s)

ORDER BY XXX ASC/DESC (ASC is default)

SQL

RESULT

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 24
 Limit and Offset
• LIMIT number - limits the output size
• OFFSET number - skips first ‘number’ records

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 25
 Joining tables together

• SELECT * FROM Rel1, Rel2; - this is a cross product

Not quite useful…

Typically we would like to find:
For every record in the Customer table list every record in the Account table

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 26
 Joins: Different Types

• Inner/Equi join:
– Joins the tables over keys
CONDITION

• Natural Join:
– Joins the tables over keys. The condition does not have to be specified
(natural join does it automatically), but key attributes have to have the
same name.

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 27
 Joins: Different Types

• Outer join:
– Joins the tables over keys
– Can be left or right (see difference below)
– Includes records that don’t match the join from the other table

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 28
 JOINS depicted as Venn Diagrams

T1.ID T2.ID

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 29
 JOINS depicted as Venn Diagrams

• T1 INNER JOIN T2 ON T1.ID = T2.ID

• T1 NATURAL JOIN T2

T1.ID T2.ID

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 30
 JOINS depicted as Venn Diagrams

• T1 LEFT OUTER JOIN T2 ON T1.ID = T2.ID

T1.ID T2.ID

✅ ✅

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 31
 JOINS depicted as Venn Diagrams

• T1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN T2 ON T1.ID = T2.ID

T1.ID T2.ID

✅ ✅

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 32
 JOINS depicted as Venn Diagrams

• T1 FULL OUTER JOIN T2 ON T1.ID = T2.ID

T1.ID T2.ID

✅ ✅ ✅

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 33
 What’s examinable

• You need to know how to write SQL

–DDL
–DML

INFO20003 Database Systems © University of Melbourne 34

 Next Lecture

• SQL Summary
‒ Overview of concepts, more examples

INFO20003 Database Systems © University

- - of Melbourne 35