Chapter 01

Computer

Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know about
computers. Purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you about computer and its fundamentals.

Functionalities of a computer

Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

 Takes data as input.

 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
 Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 Generates the output

Definition
Computer is an electronic data processing device which

 accepts and stores data input,

 processes the data input, and
 generates the output in a required format.
Advantages
Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.
High Speed

 Computer is a very fast device.

 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will
spend many months for doing the same task.
Accuracy

 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has been
given.

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Storage Capability

 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many others.
Diligence

 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.
Versatility

 A computer is a very versatile machine.

 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.
Reliability

 A computer is a reliable machine.

 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation

 Computer is an automatic machine.

 Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
 Once a program is given to computer i.e. stored in computer memory, the program and
instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper
work and results in speeding up a process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
Reduction in Cost

 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially
reduces the cost of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages
Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's arena.

 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

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  Each instruction has to be given to computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency

 It functions as per a user’s instruction, so it is fully dependent on human being.

 Environment
 The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling

 Computers have no feelings or emotions.

 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike a
human being.

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 Chapter 02
Data and Information
Data
Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts or instructions in a formalized
manner which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or
electronic machine.
Data is represented with the help of characters like alphabets (A-Z,a-z), digits (0-9) or special
characters(+,,/,*,<,>,= etc.)

Information
Information is organized or classified data which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics

 Timely - Information should be available when required.

 Accuracy - Information should be accurate.
 Completeness - Information should be complete.
Data Processing Cycle
Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase
their usefulness and add values for particular purpose. Data processing consists of basic steps
input, processing and output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.

 Input - In this step the input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing.
The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic

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 computers are used, the input data could be recorded on any one of several types of
input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes and so on.
 Processing - In this step input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form.
For example, paychecks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales
for the month may be calculated from the sales orders.
 Output -Here the result of the proceeding processing step are collected. The particular
form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may
be pay-checks for employees

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 Chapter 03
APPLICATIONS
Following list demonstrates various applications of computers in today's arena.
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
made it an integrated part in all business organisations.
Computer is used in business organisations for:

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee’s database
 Maintenance of stocks etc.
Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.
Banks provide following facilities:

 Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits,
overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The
insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers for
their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing

 procedure to continue with policies

 starting date of the policies
 next due installment of a policy
 maturity date
 interests due
 survival benefits
 bonus
Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.
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  The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer
students.
 There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer to
educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried
out on this basis.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are following:

 Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write
and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
 At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of
computerised catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The computers are
being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning
and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by
computerised machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:

 Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality
such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
 Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful
drug’s side effects etc.
 Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design).that provides creation and modification of
images. Some fields are:
 Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of Ships, Buildings,
Budgets, Airplanes etc.
 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and improvement
of integrated systems of people, materials and equipments.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

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Military
Computers are largely used in defence. modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Military also
employs computerised control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used
are:

 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant for. Some main areas in
this category are:

 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing
Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category are:

 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Male/Female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of driving licensing system
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

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 Chapter 04
Software and Hardware
Software:
Software is a collection of programs, procedures, instructions that perform some task on the
computer.
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program
is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software

 System Software
 Application Software
1. System Software
System software is a set of program that to control and manage the operations of a
computer hardware. It controls the usage and allocation of different hardware
components. It enables application program to execute properly.

The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared by
computer manufactures. These software products comprise of programs written in low-
level languages which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software
serves as the interface between hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,
Assemblers etc.

Features of system software are as follows

o Close to system
o Fast in speed
o Difficult to design
o Difficult to understand
o Less interactive
o Smaller in size
o Difficult to manipulate
o Generally written in low-level language

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 2. Application Software
It is used to perform specific application or task of computer users. Application software
products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All
software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of
Application software.
Some task are
 Creating documents for any task
 Manage employee record in any organization etc

Features of application software are as follows

 Close to user
 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space
Types of Application software

 General purpose application software

o Microsoft Word
o Microsoft Excel
o Microsoft Powerpoint
o Database Management system
 Customized application software
o Inventory Management System
o School Management System
o Payroll system
o Hotel Management
 Utilities
o Drivers
o Anti-Virus
o

Hardware:

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Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer i.e. the components
that can be seen and touched.
Examples of Hardware are following:

 Input devices -- keyboard, mouse etc.

 Output devices -- printer, monitor etc.
 Secondary storage devices -- Hard disk, CD, DVD etc.
 Internal components -- CPU, motherboard, RAM etc.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work
together to make a computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into
the hardware
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are
complimentary to each other.

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 Chapter 05
CPU
CPU consists of the following features:

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of computer.
 It is the most important element of a computer system.

CPU itself has following two components.

 Control Unit (CU)

 Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU)

Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.

Functions of this unit are:

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

Arithmetic Logic Unit

This unit consists of two subsections namely

 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

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Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above
operations.

Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, merging
compare numbers, letters, or special characters etc

Chapter 06

CPU Cycle

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 Chapter 06
Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored.
Memory is primarily of three types

 Primary Memory/Main Memory

 Cache Memory
 Secondary Memory

Memory

Cache Memory secondary

Primary Memory
Memory

RAM ROM Magnatic Tab Magnatic Disk Optical Disk Flash Memnory

SRAM PROM HDD CD Memory Card

DRAM EPROM FDD DVD Pen Drive

EEPROM BRD

HVD

Abbreviations:
RAM: Random Access Memory
SRAM: Static Random Access Memory
DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory
ROM: Read Only Memory
PROM: Programmable Read only Memory
EPROM: Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory
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EEPROM: Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory
HDD: Hard Disk Drive
FDD: floppy Disk Drive
CD: Compact Disc
DVD: Digital Versatile Disc
BRD: Blu Ray Disc
HVD: Holographic Versatile Disc
1. Primary Memory/Main Memory:
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently
working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made
up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.

 It is known as main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.
1.1 RAM
RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program and program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the
machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location
inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount
of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if
there is a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often
used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the
amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
1.1.1 Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as
power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down
due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no

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 capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM
for the same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs
higher. So SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of the Static RAM
 It has long life
 There is no need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
1.1.2 Dynamic RAM(DRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in
order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh
circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is
used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
 It has short data lifetime
 Need to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Lesser in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
1.2 ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but
cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions
that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap.
ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.
ROM have Three Types
 PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)
 EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

1.2.1 PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys
a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the

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 PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can
be programmed only once and is not erasable.

1.2.2 EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to
40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming,
an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for
more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this
charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window(lid). This
exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use the quartz lid
is sealed with a sticker.

1.2.3 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take
about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased
and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing
the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified
2. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of
data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and
programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where
CPU can access them.

Advantages The advantages of cache memory are as follows

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows

 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.

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3. Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than
main memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does
not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For
example: disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as backup memory.
 It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

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 Chapter 07
Memory Units
Memory Units Memory unit is:

 the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.

 that in which storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

Following are the main memory storage units:

Bit- (Binary Digit) A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
component in an electric circuit.

Nibble- A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte- A group of 8 bits is called byte or A Group of 2 nibbles. A byte is the smallest unit which can
represent a data item or a character.

higher storage units are following

S.No Unit Description

1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
2 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
3 GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
4 TeraByte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB
5 PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

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 Chapter 08
Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. A
motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and
other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a
computer.

Features of Motherboard A motherboard comes with following features:

 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
 Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
 Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to be compatible with motherboard to
function properly.
 Motherboards, cases and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.
Popular Manufacturers
 Intel
 ASUS
 AOpen
 ABIT
 Biostar
 Gigabyte
 MSI
Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is
securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to
connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for CPU whereas for memory,
normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drive, hard
drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed
There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards
and other expansion cards can be connected to motherboard.
On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect monitor, printer, mouse,
keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports which allow
compatible devices to be connected in plugin/plug-out fashion for example, pen drive, digital
cameras etc.

Chapter 09
Number System

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When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can
understand only numbers. A computer can understand positional number system where there are
only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the
position they occupy in the number.
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using
 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system).
Decimal Number System
The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the
successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands
and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number
1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position,
and 1 in the thousands position, and its value can be written as
(1x1000)+ (2x100)+ (3x10)+ (4xl)
(1x103)+ (2x102)+ (3x101)+ (4xl00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following number
systems which are frequently used in computers.
S.N. Number System and Description

1 Binary Number System Base 2. Digits used: 0, 1

2 Octal Number System Base 8. Digits used: 0 to 7
3 Hexa Decimal Number System Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used: A- F Binary
Number System
Characteristics of binary number system are as follows
 Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
 Also called base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20

 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2x where
x represents the last position - 1. Example Binary Number: 101012 Calculating Decimal
Equivalent:
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Characteristics of octal number system are as follows
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
 Also called base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x where
x represents the last position - 1. Example Octal Number: 125708
Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
 Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F =
15.
 Also called base 16 number system
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example
160  Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16).
Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1. Example Hexadecimal Number:
19FDE16 Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Examples: 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

5= 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

12= 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

255= 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Rafique Sultan System/Network Engineer, Information and Communication Technology Section,

Karakoram International University Gilgit-Baltistan, Ghizer Campus. Ph. 05814-961718
Rafique Sultan System/Network Engineer, Information and Communication Technology Section,
Karakoram International University Gilgit-Baltistan, Ghizer Campus. Ph. 05814-961718