Cell Structure

& Function
Cells: the basic unit of life
Discovery of Cells

• 1665- English Scientist, Robert Hooke, discovered

cells while looking at a thin slice of cork.
• He described the cells as tiny boxes or a honeycomb
• He thought that cells only existed in plants and fungi
Anton van Leuwenhoek
• 1673- Used a handmade microscope to observe
pond scum & discovered single-celled organisms
• He called them “animalcules”

• He also observed blood cells from fish, birds, frogs,

dogs, and humans
• Therefore, it was known that cells are found in
animals as well as plants
Cell Advancements

• Between the Hooke/Leuwenhoek discoveries

and the mid 19th century, very little cell
advancements were made.
• This is probably due to the widely accepted,
traditional belief in Spontaneous Generation.
• Examples:
-Mice from dirty clothes/corn husks
-Maggots from rotting meat
Development of Cell Theory

• 1838- German Botanist, Matthias Schleiden,

concluded that all plant parts are made of cells
• 1839- German physiologist, Theodor Schwann,
who was a close friend of Schleiden, stated that
all animal tissues are composed of cells.
Development of Cell Theory

• 1858- Rudolf Virchow, German physician,

after extensive study of cellular pathology,
concluded that cells must arise from
preexisting cells.
 Cell Theory

• The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory

• 1. All organisms are composed of one or more
cells. (Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-39)
• 2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living
things. (Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-39)
• 3. All cells are produced by the division of
preexisting cells. (Virchow)(1858)
Modern Cell Theory

• Modern Cell Theory contains 4 statements, in

addition to the original Cell Theory:
• The cell contains hereditary information(DNA) which
is passed on from cell to cell during cell division.
• All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition and metabolic activities.
• All basic chemical & physiological functions are
carried out inside the cells.(movement, digestion,etc)
• Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular
structures within the cell(organelles, nucleus, plasma
membrane)
 Examples of Cells

Amoeba Proteus

Plant Stem

Bacteria

Red Blood Cell

Nerve Cell
 Cell

• Smallest unit that is capable of

performing life functions.
• Types of Cells
– Prokaryotic
– Eukaryotic
 Cell Structure
• Most cells are cuboidal or spherical
• Some can be weird shapes (ameba)
• Some can change shapes (WBC)
 Why are cells small?
• Cells must exchange gases & other
molecules with environment…
• Nutrients in, Wastes out
• As size increases, the rate of diffusion
exchange slows down. For example,
hypoxia is observed when the diameter
of tumor is larger than 2 mm
• This is due to the ratio of surface area
to volume
 Limits to cell size
• volume to surface area ratio is very
important to a cells ability to take in
sufficient nutrients and expel waste
products.

• It does, on the other hand, have to be

large enough to carry on its function, and
house and replicate DNA and organelles.
Sizes of cells and
organelles
Bacteria 1 –5 m

Animal and Plant cells 10-50 m

Nucleus 5-6 m
Mitochondria 2-3 m
Chloroplasts 5-
10 m

Nerve cells >1m

 Two Basic Cell Types
• Prokaryotic cells –
cells lacking
internal
membrane-bound
structures
• Most unicellular
organisms, such
as bacteria, are
prokaryotes.
 Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus. They also
do not have any membrane bound organelles..
Two Basic Cell Types cont.
• Eukaryotic cells –
cells containing
membrane-bound
structures
• Most multicellular
organisms, such
as plants and
animals, are
eukaryotes.
 Eukaryotic organelles comprise four
functional categories

manufacture

breakdown

energy processing

support, movement and communication

Prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells
 Organelles are functional units
inside a cell

Cytoplasm Nucleus
cytosol nucleolar
organelles nuclearplasm
EUKARYOTIC CELL SURFACES
AND JUNCTIONS

• Cell surfaces protect, support, and

join cells
• Cells interact with their
environments and each other via
their surfaces
 Cell/Plasma Membrane
• Boundary between the cell and external
environment
– Controls movement of substances in and out
of the cell
• Gives the cell shape and flexibility
• Selectively permeable
• Phospholipid bilayer
• Contains protein molecules to aid in
transportation
How Can A Hydrophilic Molecule
Pass through A Hydrophobic
Membrane?
Lipid Bilayer and Membrane
Hyrodphilic Polysaccharides
head

Hydrophobic Integral Peripheral

tails protein protein Cholesterol
HO
 Nucleus Nucleolus
Rough ER

Mitochondria

Lysosome

Smooth ER

Golgi

Plasma membrane
 Cytoplasm
• Clear gelatinous fluid
• Surrounds all the organelles
• Contains water and salts
– Grandma’s jello
 The Nucleus
• Contains genetic information (DNA)-
instructions to make protein
• Surrounded by the nuclear envelope of
two membranes fused at nuclear pores
where molecules and ions enter and leave
the nucleus.
• Nucleoplasm
• Nucleolus
 DNA in the Nucleus
• Chromatin
– Fine strands of DNA
– Like angel hair pasta

• Chromosome
– Condensed DNA
– Like bow tie pasta
 Mitochondrion
• These organelles are the sites of
respiration and convert the chemical
energy of sugars and other organic
compounds into the high-energy
phosphate bonds of an ATP molecule.
• These are also bound by a double
membrane. The inner membrane is the
folded (the folds are called cristae)
• Contain own DNA
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• 2 types- Rough and Smooth
• Connected and continuous with the
nuclear envelope.
 Rough ER
• Rough because it is embedded with
Ribosomes
• Ribosomes- protein synthesis site of
secretory proteins
– Proteins are then converted to glycoprotein
and packaged in transport vesicles for
secretion
• Site of membrane synthesis
 Smooth ER
• Site of synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and
steroids
– Note that the production of steroid hormones is tissue
specific. For example, it is the smooth ER of the cells of the
ovaries and testes that synthesize the sex hormones.
– The smooth ER of the liver has several additional functions.
Enzymes in the smooth ER regulate the release of sugar
into the bloodstream. Other enzymes break down toxic
chemicals. As the liver is exposed to additional doses of a
drug the liver increases the amount of smooth ER to handle
it. It then takes more drug to get past the detoxifying ability
of the liver. We become more tolerant of the drug.
• Finally the smooth ER functions to store
calcium ions. Ca+ ions are required for
muscle contraction
 Golgi Apparatus
• It is a series of folded membranes like the
ER
• It functions in processing enzymes and
other products of the ER to a finished
product
• It is the source of the production of
lysosomes
• Packages and distributes cell products to
both internal cell compartments & export
 Lysosomes and Peroxysomes
• Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive
enzymes for:
▪ Digestion of nutrients.
▪ Degradation of damaged or unneeded cell
components.
▪ Breakdown of extracellular material.
▪ The membrane of a lysosome will fuse with the
membrane of vacuoles releases these digestive
enzymes to the interior of the vacuole to digest the
material inside the vacuole.

Peroxysomes are organelles that contain

oxidative enzymes for formation and
breakdown of peroxides, e. g. H O .
 Vacuoles
• Membrane bound structures that
have many functions
–Mostly storage
• Store food, water or waste
• Digest food
• Pump water
 Cytoskeleton
• Present in all eukaryotic cells
• Basis for cell shape and internal
organization
– Meshwork of tiny fibers that support the
structure
• Allows organelle movement within cells and,
in some cases, cell motility
 3 Types of fibers
• Microfilaments
– solid helical rods composed of the protein actin.
There is a twist double chain of actin molecules that
make up microfilaments. These are found in cells
that must contract such as muscle cells.
Intermediate filaments are variable but in general
are ropelike structures made of twisted filaments of
fibrous proteins. These function in bearing tension
and anchoring organelles.
Microtubles are straight, hollow tubes composed of
proteins called tubulins. These anchor organelles
and provide tract along which organelles may
move. They also make up flagella and cilia.
 Cilia and Flagella

Found on cells, such as protists, that are motile.

Cilia are short and numerous.
Longer less numerous appendages are flagella.
These are composed of a core of microtubules
wrapped in an extension of the plasma
membrane.
Energy is required to move the cilia or flagella in
a whiplike motion to propel the cell.
Table 4.20
(continued)
Cellular Transport
 About Cell Membranes
1.All cells have a cell
membrane
2.Functions:
a.Controls what enters
and exits the cell to
maintain an internal
balance called
homeostasis
TEM picture of a
b.Provides protection and real cell membrane.
support for the cell
 About Cell Membranes (continued)
3.Structure of cell membrane
Lipid Bilayer -2 layers of
phospholipids
a.Phosphate head is polar
(water loving) Phospholipid
b.Fatty acid tails non-polar
(water fearing)
c.Proteins embedded in
membrane
Lipid Bilayer
 Polar heads Fluid Mosaic
love water Model of the
& dissolve. cell membrane

Non-polar
tails hide
from water.
Carbohydrate cell
markers

Proteins
 About Cell Membranes (continued)
• 4. Cell membranes have pores (holes) in it
a.Selectively permeable: Allows some
molecules in and keeps other molecules out
b.The structure helps it be selective!

Pores
 Structure of the Cell Membrane
Outside of cell
Carbohydrate
Proteins chains
Lipid
Bilayer

Transport
Protein Phospholipids
Inside of cell
(cytoplasm)
Types of Cellular Transport
Weeee!!
• Passive Transport !

cell doesn’t use energy

1. Diffusion high
2. Facilitated Diffusion
3. Osmosis low

• Active Transport This is

cell does use energy gonna
be hard
1. Protein Pumps work!!
high

2. Endocytosis
3. Exocytosis low
 Passive Transport
• cell uses no energy
• molecules move randomly
• Molecules spread out from an area of
high concentration to an area of low
concentration.

• (High→Low)
• Three types:
3 Types of Passive Transport

1. Diffusion
2. Facilitative Diffusion – diffusion with
the help of transport proteins
3. Osmosis – diffusion of water
 Passive Transport:
1. Diffusion
1. Diffusion: random movement
of particles from an area of
high concentration to an
area of low concentration.
(High to Low)
• Diffusion continues until all
molecules are evenly spaced
(equilibrium is reached)-Note:
molecules will still move around
but stay spread out.
http://bio.winona.edu/berg/Free.htm
 Passive Transport:
2. Facilitated Diffusion A B
2. Facilitated diffusion:
diffusion of specific particles
through transport
proteins found in the
membrane
a.Transport Proteins are Facilitated Diffusion
specific – they “select” diffusion (Lipid
only certain molecules (Channel Bilayer)
to cross the membrane Protein)
b.Transports larger or
charged molecules

Carrier Protein
 Passive Transport: 2. Facilitated Diffusion
Glucose
molecules
Cellular Transport From a-
High
High Concentration

Cell Membrane

Protein
Low Concentration channel
Low
Transport
Through a →
Protein
 Passive Transport:
3. Osmosis
• 3.Osmosis: diffusion of
water through a
selectively permeable
membrane
• Water moves from high
to low concentrations
•Water moves freely
through pores.
•Solute (green) to large
to move across.
 Active Transport
•cell uses energy
•actively moves molecules to where they are
needed
•Movement from an area of low concentration
to an area of high concentration

•(Low → High)
•Three Types:
 Types of Active Transport

1. Protein Pumps -
transport proteins that
require energy to do
work
•Example: Sodium /
Potassium Pumps
are important in nerve Protein changes
responses. shape to move
molecules: this
requires energy!
Types of Active Transport

• 2. Endocytosis: taking
bulky material into a cell
• Uses energy
• Cell membrane in-folds
around food particle
• “cell eating”
• forms food vacuole &
digests food
• This is how white blood
cells eat bacteria!
 Types of Active Transport

3. Exocytosis: Forces
material out of cell in bulk
• membrane surrounding the
material fuses with cell
membrane
• Cell changes shape –
requires energy
• EX: Hormones or
wastes released from
cell
 Effects of Osmosis on Life
• Osmosis- diffusion of water through a
selectively permeable membrane

• Water is so small and there is so much

of it the cell can’t control it’s movement
through the cell membrane.
 Hypotonic Solution
Hypotonic: The solution has a lower concentration of
solutes and a higher concentration of water than
inside the cell. (Low solute; High water)

Result: Water moves from the solution to inside the

cell): Cell Swells and bursts open (cytolysis)!
 Hypertonic Solution
Hypertonic: The solution has a higher concentration
of solutes and a lower concentration of water than
inside the cell. (High solute; Low water)

shrinks

Result: Water moves from inside the cell into the

solution: Cell shrinks (Plasmolysis)!
 • Osmosis
Animations for

Isotonic Solution isotonic, hypertonic,

and hypotonic
solutions

Isotonic: The concentration of solutes in the solution

is equal to the concentration of solutes inside the cell.

Result: Water moves equally in both directions and

the cell remains same size! (Dynamic Equilibrium)
What type of solution are these cells in?

A B C

Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic

 How Organisms Deal
with Osmotic Pressure
•Bacteria and plants have cell walls that prevent them
from over-expanding. In plants the pressure exerted on
the cell wall is called turgor pressure.

•A protist like paramecium has contractile vacuoles that

collect water flowing in and pump it out to prevent them
from over-expanding.

•Salt water fish pump salt out of their specialized gills so

they do not dehydrate.

•Animal cells are bathed in blood. Kidneys keep the

blood isotonic by remove excess salt and water.