CHAPTER 1.

The Remedial Classroom: Organization and Management

OVERVIEW

A remedial program primarily helps students address language skills deficits by helping them
acquire self-confidence to face their own weakness and overcome these through the acquisition of self-
help strategies.

General Instructional Guidelines (Strickland, 1998)

a. Instruction is systematic when planned, deliberate in application, and proceeds in an orderly

manner.
 No one-size-fits-all teaching

b. Intensive instruction on any particular skill or strategy should be based on the need.
 Needs analysis
 Intensity in remediation vary based on individuals and in groups

c. There is no substitute for ongoing documentation and monitoring of earning to determine

the order in which skills should be addressed and the level of intensity required to help a child or
group succeed in a particular area.

d. To track specific goals and objectives within an integrated language-arts framework, teachers
must know the instructional objectives their curriculum requires at the grade or year level they
teach.

Lesson 1: Organization

CURRICULUM

INSTRUCTION ASSESSMENT

a. Curriculum

1. Base goals and standards for language learning on theory and research
i. Teachers should be using research-based strategies in teaching
ii. Put all theories in practice

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 2. Relate teacher beliefs and knowledge about instruction to research
i. All beliefs of the teacher (approaches, methodologies, and strategies should
always have a theoretical explanation)

3. Organize the curriculum framework so that it is usable

i. The curriculum should be systematic
ii. Consider the needs of the students in crafting the syllabus
iii. Consider theoretical paradigms and frameworks to support the organization

4. Select materials that facilitate accomplishment of school goals

i. Prepare materials that will support the syllabus
ii. Materials and activities should be aligned to the goals of the school
iii. Materials and activities should be based on the curriculum guide of a certain
level or grade

b. Instruction

1. The program must identify instructional strategies and activities for learners.
i. Use appropriate learning methods and strategies based on the needs of the students
ii. Learning styles
iii. Learning modalities
iv. Differentiated instructions
v. Multiple intelligences

2. Instruction must be based upon what we know about the effective teaching of language skills.
i. Supported by the theories and principles of teaching and learning
ii. Assessment should be holistic
iii. Always use Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives to double check if TLP is
complete

3. Those involved in designing or selecting instructional activities need to consider the variables
that contribute to success in language learning, given its interactive and constructive nature.
i. Consider other factors of learning like learning styles, individual differences, context,
environment, cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills, and etc.
ii. Prepare activities that are based on the four macro skills and viewing skill

4. Time must be provided in classroom for practice.

i. Give them time to think, practice and to give them time for your guidance for the
things they find difficult.

5. Composing should be an integral part of the program.

i. Among the five macro skills, writing is the last line of display of the skills.
ii. Every activity should have a writing task before moving on to the next level
iii. The macro skills are integral: before writing, all skills should have been utilized.

6. Students should be given opportunities to become independent and to self-monitor their

progress.
i. Learning procedure should allow students to have guided and independent practice
for formative and summative assessment.
ii. Teach them of metacognitive skills to assess and monitor themselves

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 iii. Self-motivation and self-assessment is essential to be developed.

7. The climate in a school must be conducive to the development of the students.

i. The school must be helpful for students.
ii. It must be warm and accommodating.
iii. The environment should also act as a scaffold.
iv. Comfort and security must be felt.
v. Motivating and peaceful environment is helpful for the students.

8. The school must develop an organization; structure that meets the individual needs of the
students.
i. There should be assigned personnel that will help the students when they are in need
or confused.
ii. The teacher and all stake holders in the program should be accommodating and warm
when addressing the students’ need.

9. The program must provide for coordination among all language programs in the school.
i. Maximize the use of school organizations that will make the program rich with
connections so that students will not feel isolated.
ii. Establish the sense of positive remediation by making them feel belongingness in the
school
iii. Providing avenues for learning outside the classroom is more authentic
iv. Authentic learning is a good remedial approach.

c. Assessment

1. Use assessment to guide instruction

a. Formative assessment
b. Summative assessment

2. Develop scoring guides and rubrics

a. Assess holistically (if you’re after the overall impact of the output) or analytically (if you
want to focus on a certain criteria)
b. Validity and fairness of assessment

3. Seek alignment among various layers of assessment

a. Assessment for learning (diagnostic)
b. Assessment as learning (formative)
c. Assessment of learning (summative)

Lesson 2: Management

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 School-based remedial sessions tend to involve 3 to 10 learners, and typically last between 30 to
50 minutes, depending on whether they are in the elementary or secondary level. A plan to maximize the
utilization of that time should be a high priority. To ensure that the program is effective, one must
consider the six components of an ideal remedial program (Manzo & Manzo, 1993). These principles
may also be applicable in remediation for other skills aside from reading.

1. The Orientation Component

The orientation component provides continuity and focus to the remedial session. It may be
an engaging question or statement related to local or national news, or even school life. It must focus on
structured routines, materials, equipment, venue, people involved, and the objective of the program.

2. Direct Instruction Component

This is the instructional heart of the remedial session. It should never be traded away, even
for one period, without some compelling reason.

3. Reinforcement and Extension Component

This period of time ideally should build on the direct instructional period and be spent in
empowered reading, writing, and discussion of what was read. Writing activities may vary from simply
listing key words to summarizing and reacting.

4. Schema-Enhancement Component

This unit of time should be spent in building a knowledge base for further reading and
independent thinking. It is an ideal time to teach study skills such as outlining, note taking, and memory
training. Ideally, it should flow or precede Component 3.

5. Personal-Emotional Growth Component

There is little learning or consequence that can occur without the learner involvement and
anticipation of personal progress.

6. Cognitive Development Component

This component should contain an attempt to enhance basic thinking operation such as: inference,
abstract verbal reasoning, analogical reasoning, constructive-critical/ creative reading, convergent and
divergent analysis, problem-solving, and metacognition.

CHAPTER 2. Remedial Instruction in Reading

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 OVERVIEW

Remedial reading programs is imperative to improve both reading fluency and reading
comprehension, particularly to elementary school students because fluency and comprehension are
particularly important at this stage of development and early intervention can impact the progression of
reading difficulties.

Lesson 1: Correction of Terms

A. Correcting Perceptual and Decoding Deficits in Word Recognition

We can identify the student who has insufficient competence in the visual analysis of words in two ways.
First, the student, when pronouncing words verbally, selects inappropriate elements to sound out and
often he/she tries again and again to use the same analysis even when it does not work. The second way
can be done when the teacher shows him/her the word covering up parts of it, if the student is able to
recognize it, then at least one of his/her problems in word recognition is faulty visual analysis (Ekwall &
Shanker, 1988).

B. Definition of Terms

1. Alphabetic Knowledge: understanding that letters represent sound so that words may be read by
saying the sounds represented by the letters, and words may be spelled by writing the letters that
represent the sounds in a word.
2. Sight-Word Knowledge: all words any one reader can recognize instantly (with automaticity) not
necessarily with meaning.
3. Basic Sight Words: a designated list of words, usually of high utility.
4. Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence: (a.k.a. graphophonic knowledge) the readers’
ability to use phonics, phonemic, and structural analysis knowledge.

C. Correcting Sight-Word Knowledge Deficit

1. Write a sentence on the chalkboard with the new word used in context. Underline the word.
2. Let students read the sentence and attempt to say the new word using context clues along with
other word-attack skills. If you are introducing a new story, it is especially important that you do
not tell them each new word in advance, as this deprives them of the opportunity to apply word-
attack skills themselves.
3. Discuss the meaning of the word or how it is used in talking and writing. Try to tie to something
in their experience. If possible, illustrate the word with a picture or a concrete object.
4. Write the word as students watch. Ask them to look for certain configuration clues such as double
letters, extenders, and descenders. Also ask them to look for any well-known phonograms or
word families, e.g. ill, ant, ake, but do not call attention to little words in longer words.
5. Ask students to write the word themselves and to be sure have them say the word while they
write it.
6. Have students make up and write sentences in which the word is used in context. Have them read
these sentences to each other and discuss them.

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D. Correcting Basic Sight Vocabulary Deficit

1. Have the students trace the word; write it on paper, or use chalk or magic slates.
2. Have the students repeat the word each time it is written.
3. Have the students write the word without looking at the flash card; then compare the two.
4. Create “study buddies.” Match learners in the classroom with fellow students who have mastered
the words. Take time to teach the “tutors” how to reinforce new words. Provide a big reward to
both tutor and learner once the learner has attained the goal.
5. Provide reinforcement games for students to use on their own or with their study buddies. Games
may be open-ended game boards or developed by levels according to the sublists.
6. Provide charts, graphs, and other devices for students to display their progress. These serve as
excellent motivators, especially since students are competing with themselves rather than each
other.
7. Use your imagination. Have students dramatize phrases, build a sight-word “cave,” practice
words while lining up, read sight-word “plays,” etc.

E. Correcting Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence

Vowel Rules or Principles and Accent Generalizations

1. In words containing a single vowel letter at the end of the word, the vowel letter usually
has the long vowel sound. (Note that this rule refers to words and not just syllables.)

There is a similar rule for single word letters at the end of syllables

2. In syllables containing a single vowel letter at the end of the syllable, the vowel letter may have
either the long or short vowel sound. Try the long sound first. (Note that this has the same effect
as rule 1.)
3. A single vowel in a syllable usually has the short vowel sound if it is not the last letter or is not
followed by r, w, or l. When explaining this to students it is often helpful to indicate that a single
vowel in a closed syllable is usually short. Students should be taught that a closed syllable is one
in which there is a consonant on the right-hand side. They will also need to know, as indicated
above, the r, w, and l control rules.
4. Vowels followed by r usually have a sound that is neither long nor short
5. A y at the beginning of a word has the “y” consonant sound; y at the end of a single-syllable
word, when preceded by a consonant, usually has the long I sound; and y at the end of a
multisyllable word, when preceded by a consonant, usually has the long e sound. (Some people
hear it as short i.)
6. In words ending with vowel-consonant-silent e the e is silent and the first vowel may be either
long or short. Try the long sound first. In teaching this rule, stress that the student should be
flexible; i.e. try the short vowel sound if the long one does not form a word in his or her
speaking-listening vocabulary. It has been demonstrated that students who are taught to be
flexible in attacking words when applying rules such as this become more adept at using word-
attack skills than those who are not taught this flexibility.
7. When aj, ay, ea, ee, and oa are found together, the first vowel is usually long and the second is
usually silent.
8. The vowel pair ow may have either the sound heard in cow or the sound heard in crow.
9. When au, aw, ou, oi, and oy are found together, they usually blend to form a diphthong.
10. The oo sound is either long as in moon or short as in book.
11. If a is the only vowel in a syllable and is followed by l or w, then the a is usually neither long nor
short.

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NOTE: Accent has less importance for a corrective reader than the vowel rules. This is true partially
because a student who properly attacks a new word in his or her speaking-listening vocabulary but not
sight vocabulary is likely to get the right accent without any knowledge of accent generalizations.

Also, teach students the use of affixes so they will have better understanding of contractions,
inflectional and derivational endings for change tense, number form and function. These will lead to
students’ sufficient use of structural analysis strategy.

Syllabication Principles

1. When two consonants stand between two vowels, the word is usually divided between the
consonants, e.g., dag-ger and cir-cus. In some of the newer materials, materials are divided after
the double consonant, e.g., dagg-er. It should be remembered that in reading we are usually
teaching syllabication as a means of word attack. Therefore, we should also accept a division
after double consonants as correct even though the dictionary would not show it that way.
2. When one consonant stands between two vowels, try dividing first so that the consonant goes
with the second vowels, e,g., pa-per and motor, Students should be taught that flexibility is
required in using this rule; if this does not give a word in the student’s speaking-listening
vocabulary, then the student should divide it so that the consonant goes with the first vowel, as
in riv-er and lev-er.
3. When a word ends in a consonant and le, the consonant usually begins the last syllable, e.g., ta-
ble and hum-ble.
4. Compound words are usually divided between word parts and between syllables in these parts,
e.g., hen-house and po-lice-man.
5. Prefixes and suffixes usually form separate syllables.

Lesson 2: Remediation through Phonemic Awareness

The following are Critical Phonemic Awareness skills students should learn

1. Sound Isolation. Example: The first sound in sun is /ssss/.

Example Instruction: In sound isolation use conspicuous strategies.
a. Show students how to do all the steps in the task before asking children to do the task.
Example: (Put down 2 pictures that begin with different sounds and say the names of the
pictures.) "My turn to say the first sound in man, /mmm/. Mmman begins with /mmm/.
Everyone, say the first sound in man, /mmm/."
Non-example: "Who can tell me the first sounds in these pictures?"
b. Use consistent and brief wording.
Example: "The first sound in Mmman is /mmm/. Everyone say the first sound in man,
/mmm/."
Non-example: "Man starts with the same sound as the first sounds in mountain, mop, and
Miranda. Does anyone know other words that begin with the same sound as man?"
c. Correct errors by telling the answer and asking students to repeat the correct answer.
Example: "The first sound in Man is /mmm/. Say the first sound in mmman with me, /mmm/.
/Mmmm/."
Non-example: Asking the question again or asking more questions. "Look at the picture
again. What is the first sound?"

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2. Blending (Example: /sss/ - / uuu/ - /nnn/ is sun). In blending instruction, use scaffold task
difficulty.
a. When students are first learning to blend, use examples with continuous sounds, because the
sounds can be stretched and held.
Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he says /mmm/ - /ooo/
- /mmm/ he means mom."
Non-example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he says /b/ - /e/
- /d/ he means bed."
b. When students are first learning the task, use short words in teaching and practice examples.
Use pictures when possible.
Example: Put down 3 pictures of CVC words and say: "My lion puppet wants one of these
pictures. Listen to hear which picture he wants, /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/. Which picture?"
Non-example: ".../p/ - /e/ - /n/ - /c/ - /i/ - /l/. Which picture?" (This is a more advanced model
that should be used later.)
c. When students are first learning the task, use materials that reduce memory load and to
represent sounds.
Example: Use pictures to help them remember the words and to focus their attention. Use a
3-square strip or blocks to represent sounds in a word.
Non-example: Provide only verbal activities.
d. As students become successful during initial learning, remove scaffolds by using
progressively more difficult examples. As students become successful with more difficult
examples, use fewer scaffolds, such as pictures.
Example: Move from syllable or onset-rime blending to blending with all sounds in a word
(phoneme blending). Remove scaffolds, such as pictures. "Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. Which
picture?" "Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. What word?"
Non-example: Provide instruction and practice at only the easiest levels with all the
scaffolds.

3. Segmenting (Example: The sounds in sun are /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/) In phoneme segmentation
instruction, strategically integrate familiar and new information.
a. Recycle instructional and practice examples used for blending. Blending and segmenting are
sides of the same coin. The only difference is whether students hear or produce a segmented
word. Note: A segmenting response is more difficult for children to reproduce than a
blending response.
Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to say the sounds in words. The sounds in mom
are /mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/. Say the sounds in mom with us. "
b. Concurrently teach letter-sound correspondences for the sounds students will be segmenting
in words.
Example: Letter sound /s/ and words sun and sit. Put down letter cards for familiar letter-
sounds. Then, have them place pictures by the letter that begins with the same sound as the
picture.
Non-example: Use letter-sounds that have not been taught when teaching first sound in
pictures for phoneme isolation activities.
c. Make the connections between sounds in words and sounds of letters.
Example: After students can segment the first sound, have them use letter tiles to represent
the sounds.
Non-example: Letters in mastered phonologic activities are not used. Explicit connections
between alphabetic and phonologic activities are not made.
d. Use phonologic skills to teach more advanced reading skills, such as blending letter-sounds to
read words.

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 Example: (Give children a 3-square strip and the letter tiles for s, u, n.) Have them do
familiar tasks and blending to teach stretched blending with letters.

Lesson 3: Remedial Vocabulary Instruction

Vocabulary is initially acquired in four ways:

 Incidentally, through reading and conversation

 Through direct instruction, as when a teacher or auto-instructional program is used intentionally
build vocabulary power
 Through self-instruction, as when words are looked up in a dictionary or their meaning are sought
from others in a conscious manner.
 Through mental manipulation while thinking, speaking ,and writing

1.

Considerations in remedial vocabulary instruction

Connect vocabulary instruction to the natural processes of word learning. The literature on
vocabulary acquisition tends to divide the teaching of vocabulary into five phases. These are:

a. Disposition – opening the student’s mind and will to engage new words.
b. Integration – establishing ties between the meaning of a new word and the student’s
existing knowledge.
c. Repetition – provisions for practice distributed over time, as well as opportunities for
frequent encounters with the word in similar and differing contexts.
d. Interaction and meaningful use – social situations conducive to using new words in
interactions with others and, thus, mentally referencing new words in listening, reading,
writing, and speaking.
e. Self-instruction – maintaining an awareness of new words outside the classroom.

2. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary Building

a. Identify the relevant and irrelevant features of the concept in question.
b. Provide examples of the concept.
c. Provide examples of irrelevant but loosely related concepts with which it might be
compared.

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 d. Relate the concept by some possible smaller or subordinating concepts.
e. Relate or categorize the concept by some possible larger or superordinating concepts.
f. Relate or categorize the concept alongside equal or coordinating terms.

3. Subjective Approach to Vocabulary (SAV)

a. Identify two to four words to be taught or pre-taught if SAV is used as a pre-reading activity.
If a word list is used, be sure to include as many words as possible that impart concepts and
feelings that you would wish students to learn.
b. The teacher tells the student the full meaning of a word, much as it might be found in a
dictionary. It is recorded in a Word Study Journal as the “objective” or dictionary meaning.
c. The teacher asks the student, “What does this word remind you of?” or “What do you
picture or think of when you hear this word?” Explain that discussion of a personal
association with a word can be very helpful in remembering and clarifying its meaning.
d. The teacher talks to the student through this personal search for meaning by asking further
clarifying questions, and in group situations by pointing out those images suggested that
seem most vivid. The teacher may add his or her own images. Students are then directed to
write some “subjective” or personal associations for the new word under the previously
written dictionary definition in their journals. Drawings can be added.
e. Silent reading follows next when SAV is used as pre-reading vocabulary development.
When it is being used for general vocabulary development, students are given 5 to 10
minutes to study and rehearse the new and previously recorded words.
f. The teacher let the student close the Word Study Journal and asks him/her the meanings of
the words studied that day and a few others from previous days. This step can be tied to seat
exercises in conventional workbooks such as crossword puzzles, category games, etc. This
manipulation and reinforcement step can be made easier by selecting the words to be taught
from the exercise material.

4. Motor Imaging
It appears that even the highest forms of vocabulary and concept learning have psychomotor
foundations, or equivalents. Hence, motor movements associated with certain stimuli can become
interiorized as a “symbolic meaning” (Piaget, 1963 in Manzo and Manzo1993). There are three
considerable advantages to knowing this where remediation is concerned:

a. First, since physical-sensory or proprioceptive learning can be interiorized, they also can be
self-stimulating, and as such, they are easier to rehearse and recall with the slightest mental
reminder, as well as from external stimulation.
b. Second, proprioceptive learning is so basic to human learning that it is common to all
learners, fast and slow, and hence, ideal for heterogeneously grouped classes.
c. Third, the act of identifying and acting out a word becomes a life experience in itself with
the word – a value that Frederick Duffellmeyer (1980) in Manzo and Manzo (1993)
demonstrated when he successfully taught youngsters words via the “experiential” approach.

PROCEDURE

1. Take a difficult word from the text, write it on the chalkboard, pronounce it, and tell what it
means.
2. Ask students to imagine a simple pantomime for the word meaning (“How could you show
someone what this word means with just your hands or a gesture?”)

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 3. Tell students that when you give a signal, they will do their gesture pantomimes
simultaneously.
4. Select the most common pantomime observed. Demonstrate it all to the students, saying the
word while doing the pantomime.
5. Repeat each new word, this time directing the class to do the pantomime while saying a
brief meaning or simple synonym.
6. Let the students encounter the word in the assigned reading material.
7. Try to use the pantomime casually whenever the word is used for a short time thereafter.
CHAPTER 3. Remedial Instruction in Listening

OVERVIEW

Listening is the ability to accurately receive and comprehend messages in the communication
process to gain information. It is one of the essential parts of communication. Poor listening skill is
vulnerable to misunderstandings and communication barriers.

Lesson 1: Factors Affecting Student’s Listening Comprehension

Listening comprehension refers to the ability of a person to understand what is what is said
holistically. Good listening comprehension might improve and hurdle directly or indirectly by two
factors. These are:

a. Internal Factors – refer to the learner characteristics, language proficiency, memory, age,
gender, background knowledge as well as aptitude, motivation, and psychological and
physiological factors

b. External Factors – are mainly related to the type of language input and tasks and the context
in which listening occurs

Internal Factors

There are various factors affecting the listening comprehension of the listeners. Some essential
matters are listed below.

1. Psychological aspect that includes the personal barriers, emotions or moods, motivation, aptitude,
attitude, and memory span of the learners.
2. Physiological factors such as hunger, tiredness, sleepiness
3. Problems in language proficiency. It includes phonetic discrimination and varieties, grammar
issues, lexicological problems.
4. Vocabulary
5. Level of familiarity
6. Other factors such as age, attention span, memory span, reaction and sensitivity.

External Factors

External factors also affect the students’ comprehension in listening to particular sounds, words,
languages.

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 1. Accents, pronunciation, and language rhythm
2. Speaking pace and speaking techniques and styles
3. Environmental factors
4. Material factors
5. Language and content recognition
6. Context refers to utterance’s spatial-temporal location. Physical situation or the setting
7. Co-text-restricts our interpretation of the response. Co-text is another major factor influencing the
interpretation of meaning. It refers to the linguistic context or the textual environment provided
by the discourse or text in which a particular utterance occurs. Co-text constrains the way in
which we interpret the response.

Lesson 2: How to Improve Student’s Listening Comprehension

According to Veraflor (2016), the following are the ways to improve listening comprehension.

1. Teach pronunciation, stress, and intonation of the critical sounds of English

2. Practice sound discrimination, liaisons, and incomplete plosives
3. Recognized stressed and unstressed words
4. Enrich vocabulary
5. Teach grammar
6. Practice inferring information not directly stated
7. Improve skills in predicting
8. Teach note-taking skills

In addition by FluentUp (2017):

1. Listening consistency.
2. Listening with text.
3. “Write what you hear” practice
4. Listening repetition
5. Speak with native speakers.

CHAPTER 4. Remedial Instruction in Speaking

OVERVIEW

Speaking is one of the most crucial skills to cultivate and improve in order to communicate
effectively. It is one of the most challenging components of language learning. Hence, learners must be
scaffolded to achieve the primary goal of fluency.

Lesson 1: What Makes Speaking Difficult?

Speaking skills is one of the macro skills that must be given attention. Studies show that language
learners experience difficulties when it comes to mastering it. As cited in the book of Brown (2001),
Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (Second Edition), Dunkel 1991;

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Richards 1983; Ur 1984 eight characteristics of spoken language can make either oral performance easy
or difficult.

1. Clustering
2. Redundancy
3. Reduced forms
4. Performance variables
5. Colloquial language
6. Rate of delivery
7. Stress, rhythm, and intonation
8. Interaction

On the study of Heriansyah (2017), Speaking Problem Faced by the English Department Students
of Syiah Kuala University, reveals that problems experienced by students in speaking are lack of
vocabulary, not confident to speak, not used to talking in the class, difficult to express words and
sentences. Zooming in, Heriansyah divided the difficulties into two kinds, linguistic and non-linguistic
problems.

1. Linguistic Problems
a. Lack of vocabulary
b. Lack of grammar knowledge
c. Poor pronunciation

2. Non-linguistic Problems
a. Not being brave enough to speak
b. Not being confident to speak
c. Being afraid of speaking
d. Being afraid of making errors
e. Being afraid of being mocked by friends
f. Being nervous to speak
g. Not used to talking in class
h. Difficult to express words or sentences
i. Confused how to use appropriate words

Lesson 2: Teaching Pronunciation

Below are techniques and practice, materials (as cited in Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwin, 1996) in
teaching pronunciation which have been used traditionally and continues to be utilized in speaking
classes.

1. Listen and imitate. Learners listen to a model provided by the teacher and then repeat or imitate
it.

2. Phonetic training. Articulatory descriptions, articulatory diagrams, and a phonetic alphabet are
used.
3. Minimal Pair drills. These provide practice on problematic sounds in the target language
through listening discrimination and spoken practice. Drills begin with word-level then move to
sentence-level.
4. Contextualized minimal pairs. The teacher established the setting or context then key
vocabulary is presented. Students provide meaningful response to sentence stem.

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 5. Visual aids. These materials are used to cue production of focus sounds.
6. Tongue twisters
7. Developmental approximation drills. Second language speakers take after the steps that
English-speaking children follow in acquiring certain sounds.
8. Practice of vowel shifts and stress shifts related by affixation
Vowel shift: mime (long i) mimic (short i)

Sentence context: Street mimes often mimic the gestures of passersby.

Stress shift: PHOtograph phoTOGraphy

Sentence context: I can tell from these photographs that you are very good at

photography.

9. Reading aloud/recitation. Passages and scripts are used for students to practice and then read
aloud focusing on stress, timing, and intonation.
10. Recording of learners’ production. Playback allows for giving of feedback and self-evaluation.

Lesson 3: Use of Accuracy-based Activity

Accuracy precedes fluency. Form-focused activities prepare students for communicative tasks.
These activities have a high degree of control and focuses on specific language components. To strike a
balance, Hedge (2000) describes how to make accuracy-based activities meaningful.

1. Contextualized practice. This aims to establish the link between form and function. The activity
should highlight the situation where the form is commonly used.

2. Personalizing language. Personalized practice encourages learners to express their ideas,

feelings, and opinions. These activities help learners to use language in interpersonal
interactions. A variety of gambits or useful expressions should be provided.

3. Building awareness of the social use of language. This involves understanding social
conventions in interaction. Communication strategies are directly taught and practiced through
contextualized activities.

4. Building confidence. The key is to create a positive climate in classroom where learners are
encouraged to take risks and engage in activities.

Lesson 4: Talking to Second-language Learners in the Beginning Level

Cary (1997) suggests that teachers need to make speech modifications as a form of instructional
support when teaching with second language learners.

1. Speak at standard speed. This means providing more and slightly longer pauses
to give students more time to make sense of the utterances.

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 2. Use more gestures, movement, and facial expressions . These provide emphasis
on words and give learners extra clues as they search for meaning.

3. Be careful with fused forms. Language compressions or reduces forms can be

difficult for learners. Use these forms without overusing or eliminating them
altogether.

4. Use shorter, simpler, sentences.

5. Use specific names instead of pronouns.

CHAPTER 5. Remedial Instruction in Writing

OVERVIEW

Writing is the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation, and spaces) to
communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable print. It is the activity or skill of marking coherent words
on paper and composing text.

Lesson 1: Areas of Difficulty For Students With Writing Problems

Students with writing problems show:

 Less awareness of what constitutes good writing and
how to produce it;
KNOWLEDGE  Restricted knowledge about genre-specific text
DIFFICULTIES structures (e.g., setting or plot elements in a narrative);
 Poor declarative, procedural, and conditional strategy
knowledge (e.g., knowing that one should set goals for
writing, how to set specific goals, and when it is most
beneficial to alter those goals);
 Limited vocabulary;
 Underdeveloped knowledge of word and sentence
structure (i.e., phonology, morphology, and syntax);
 Impoverished, fragmented, and poorly organized topic
knowledge;
 Difficulty accessing existing topic knowledge; and
 Insensitivity to audience needs and perspectives, and to
the functions their writing is intended to serve.

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 Students with writing problems:
 Often do not plan before or during writing;
 Exhibit poor text transcription (e.g., spelling,
handwriting, and punctuation);
 Focus revision efforts (if they revise at all) on superficial
aspects of writing (e.g., handwriting, spelling, and
SKILL DIFFICULTIES grammar);
 Do not analyze or reflect on writing;
 Have limited ability to self regulate thoughts, feelings,
and actions throughout the writing process;
 Show poor attention and concentration; and
 Have visual motor integration weaknesses and fine
motor difficulties.

Students with writing problems:

 Often do not develop writing goals and subgoals or
flexibly alter them to meet audience, task, and personal
demands;
 Fail to balance performance goals, which relate to
documenting performance and achieving success, and
mastery goals, which relate to acquiring competence;
 Exhibit maladaptive attributions by attributing academic
MOTIVATION success to external and uncontrollable factors such as
DIFFICULTIES task ease or teacher assistance, but academic failure to
internal yet uncontrollable factors such as limited
aptitude;
 Have negative self efficacy (competency) beliefs;
 Lack persistence; and
 Feel helpless and poorly motivated due to repeated
failure.

Lesson 2: Qualities of Strong Writing Instruction

In order for teachers to support all students' writing ability development, certain qualities of the
writing classroom must be present. Four core components of effective writing instruction constitute the
foundation of any good writing program:

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 1. Students should have meaningful writing experiences and be assigned authentic writing tasks
that promote personal and collective expression, reflection, inquiry, discovery, and social change.

2. Routines should permit students to become comfortable with the writing process and move
through the process over a sustained period of time at their own rate.

3. Lessons should be designed to help students master craft elements (e.g., text structure, character
development), writing skills (e.g., spelling, punctuation), and process strategies (e.g., planning
and revising tactics).

4. A common language for shared expectations and feedback regarding writing quality might
include the use of traits (e.g., organization, ideas, sentence fluency, word choice, voice, and
conventions).

Lesson 3: Adaptation For Struggling Writers

1. Accommodations in the Learning Environment

a. Increase instructional time for writing.
b. Provide quiet and comfortable spaces for students to work.
c. Provide unimpeded access to writing tools.
d. Let students identify and select meaningful reinforcements for achieving writing goals (e.g., a
reinforcement menu).
e. Consult with an occupational therapist to identify specialized adaptations (e.g., chair and desk height).

2. Accommodations in Instructional Materials

a. Simplify language of writing prompts.
b. Highlight (e.g., color code) key words and phrases.
c. Transition from simple to more elaborate graphic organizers and procedural checklists.
d. Post strategies, graphic organizers, and checklists in classroom and give students personal copies.
e. Develop individualized spelling lists.
f. Have students keep a personal dictionary of “demon” words and frequently used spelling vocabulary.
g. Provide paper positioning marks on students’ desks.
h. Provide pencil grips for students.
i. Provide raised- or colored-lined paper.
j. Provide students with personal copies of alphabet strips.

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3. Accommodations in Teaching Strategies
a. Devote more instructional time to writing mechanics.
b. Provide physical assistance during handwriting practice.
c. Re-teach writing skills and strategies.
d. Expect and support mastery learning of skills and strategies (e.g., memorization of strategy steps).
e. Use cross-age peer tutors to reinforce skills and strategies.
f. Assign homework designed to reinforce writing instruction.
g. Help students set specific and challenging yet attainable goals for the writing process (e.g., completing
a planning sheet before beginning to draft) and written products (e.g., a quantity goal of including 10
descriptive words in a story, which is perhaps linked to a quality goal of improving word choice by
two points on an analytic quality scale).
h. Help students develop self-instructions (e.g., “I can handle this if I go slow.”) and self-questions (e.g.,
“Am I following my plan?”) that focus on positive attributions for success and task progress.
i. Teach students to evaluate and adjust their writing behaviors and writing strategy use to improve their
writing productivity and performance.
j. Promote maintenance and generalization of writing strategies by doing the following:
 Modeling and discussing how strategies may be used in multiple contexts;
 Relating writing performance to strategy use;
 Having students teach others how to use strategies;
 Having students keep a strategy notebook which they can consult at any time;
 Ensuring all staff and caregivers are familiar with and prompt the use of the strategies; and
 Reviewing strategies often.
4. Modifications to Task Demands
a. Increase amount of time allotted for completing written assignments.
b. Decrease the length and/or complexity of written assignments.
c. Have students complete text frames (i.e., partially finished texts).
d. Reduce or eliminate copying demands (e.g., teach students abbreviations for note taking, supply
worksheets with math problems from textbook).
e. Allow students to use temporary/invented spelling.
f. Pre-teach spelling vocabulary for assignments.
g. Evaluate spelling using correct letter sequences (e.g., hopping has 8 possible correct letter sequences)
rather than number of words spelled correctly to measure and reward incremental progress attributable
to partial correct spelling.
h. Permit students to dictate written work to a scribe.
i. If students have adequately developed keyboarding skills, permit them to write papers with a word
processor.
j. Permit students to use outlining and semantic mapping software to facilitate planning.
k. Permit students to use voice recognition technology to facilitate text transcription.
l. Permit students to use integrated spell checker and/or word prediction software to facilitate correct
spelling.
m. Permit students to use speech synthesis technology to facilitate revising and editing.
n. Selectively weight grading for content, organization, style, and conventions.
o. Grade assignments based on the amount of improvement rather than absolute performance.
p. Assign letter grades for body of work collected over time (i.e., portfolio assessment) rather than for
each paper.
q. Provide feedback on content, organization, style, and conventions for some rather than all assignments
(which may reduce students’ anxiety about writing).
r. Provide feedback on targeted aspects of writing rather than all aspects to avoid overwhelming students.

5. Modifications to Learning Tasks

a. Permit students to dramatize or orally present a written assignment, either in lieu of writing or in
preparation for writing.
b. Assign students suitable roles (e.g., brainstorm manager) for the creation of a group-generated paper.

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Lesson 4: Teaching Handwriting

The following are research-based suggestions for teaching handwriting.

1. Curriculum Considerations

a. The initial use of one type of script (e.g., manuscript versus cursive or different versions of
manuscript) does not appear to affect handwriting performance.
b. Special emphasis is placed on difficult-to-form letters and those that are frequently reversed.
c. Lowercase letters are introduced before upper-case letters, unless they are formed using
similar strokes (e.g., C, c).
d. Letters that share common strokes are grouped together (e.g., o, c, d, a).
e. The introduction of easily confused letters (e.g., b, d, p, q) is staggered.
f. The formation of individual upper- and lowercase letters and, for cursive, difficult letter
transitions (e.g., roam) are modeled.
g. Visual cues, such as numbered dots and arrows, and verbal descriptions are used to guide
letter formation.
h. Activities to reinforce letter recognition and naming are combined with handwriting practice.
i. Students practice using a comfortable and efficient tripod pencil grasp.
j. Students are shown and expected to use appropriate posture and paper positioning for their
handedness.
k. Handwriting fluency is developed through frequent writing and speed trials, with an emphasis
on maintaining legibility.
l. Opportunities are provided for distributed practice and judicious review of individual letters
and letter sequences.
m. Students are permitted to develop their own handwriting style and to choose which script
(manuscript, cursive, or even a blend) they prefer to use after mastering handwriting
(manuscript tends to be more legible than cursive and can be written just as quickly if given
equal emphasis).
n. Students are prompted to identify when a high degree of legibility is and is not necessary.

2. Weekly Routines

a. In the primary grades, 60–75 minutes per week is allocated for handwriting instruction.
b. Students are encouraged to compare letters to discover patterns and to highlight their
similarities and differences.
c. Students are given opportunities to reinforce target letters by tracing them (a dashed or faded
model), copying them, and writing them from memory.
d. Students’ handwriting is monitored and immediately reinforced for correct letter formation,
spacing, alignment, size, slant, and line quality.
e. Students are asked to self-evaluate their handwriting and to set goals for improving specific
aspects of their handwriting each day.
f. Students are encouraged to correct poorly formed letters and to rewrite illegible work.

Lesson 5: Teaching Spelling

1. Curriculum Considerations

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 a. Spelling vocabulary includes words drawn from children’s reading materials, children’s
writing, self-selected words, high-frequency word lists 1,2, and pattern words.
b. Students are typically taught phonemic awareness and phoneme-grapheme associations
(reserving the least consistent mappings, such as consonants /k/ and /z/ and long vowels, for
last) in kindergarten and first grade. Common spelling patterns (e.g., phonograms or rime
families 3,4,5) are taught in first and second grades. Morphological structures (i.e., roots and
affixes 3,4,5,6) and helpful spelling rules (e.g., add es to make words ending in s, z, x, ch, or
sh plural) are taught in second grade and beyond.
c. Students are taught systematic and effective strategies for studying new spelling words (e.g.,
mnemonic spelling links, multi-sensory strategies).
d. Previously taught spelling words are periodically reviewed to promote retention.
e. Correct use of spelling vocabulary in students’ written work is monitored and reinforced.
f. Students are taught and encouraged to use dictionaries, spell checkers, and other resources to
determine the spelling of unknown words
g. Spelling “demons” and other difficult words are posted on wall charts.

2. Weekly Routines

a. A minimum of 60–75 minutes per week is allocated for spelling instruction.

b. Students take a Monday pretest to determine which words they need to study during
subsequent activities and to set spelling performance goals.
c. After studying new spelling words, students take a Friday posttest to determine which words
were mastered.
d. Immediately after taking a spelling test, students correct their misspellings.
e. The teacher conducts word sorts and guided spelling activities to explicitly teach spelling
patterns and rules at the beginning of the week.
f. Daily opportunities are provided for cumulative study and testing of new spelling words (e.g.,
through computer-assisted instruction).
g. Students work together each day to learn new spelling words.
h. While studying, students monitor their on-task behavior or the number of times they correctly
spell a target word, to promote active learning.

References
 https://pdfcoffee.com/remedial-instruction-handoutdocx-pdf-free.html

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 https://www.scribd.com/document/506740594/Lesson-1-The-Remedial-Classroom-Organization-
and-Management

 https://www.academia.edu/29063383/Remedial_Program

 https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/nueva-ecija-university-of-science-and-technology/
bachelor-of-secondary-education/see-24-reviewer-natin-compilation-of-notes/40284450

 Elective 1- Remedial Instruction Module (Revised 2021)

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