Process Control

Moataz Sherif
Senior Instrumentation and Control Engineer
Process Control

● Process Control Definition

● Basic Elements of Control Loop

● Open Loop and Closed Loop Control

● Closed Loop Control Modes 2

Process Control Definition

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Process Control Definition

• A process is broadly defined

as an operation that uses

resources to transform inputs
into outputs.
• It is the resource that provides

the energy into the process for 4

the transformation to occur.

Process Control Definition

• Each process exhibits a particular dynamic (time varying) behavior that

governs the transformation.
• That is, how do changes in the resource or inputs over time affect the
transformation.
• This dynamic behavior is determined by the physical properties of the
inputs, the resource, and the process itself.
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Process Control Definition

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Terminology:

• The manipulated variable (MV) is a measure of resource being fed

into the process, for instance how much thermal energy.
• A final control element (FCE) is the device that changes the value of
the manipulated variable.
• The controller output (CO) is the signal from the controller to the
final control element. 7
Terminology:

• The process variable (PV) is a measure of the process output that

changes in response to changes in the manipulated variable.

• The set point (SP) is the value at which we wish to maintain the

process variable at.

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Process Control Definition

• Process control is the act of controlling a final control element to change

the manipulated variable to maintain the process variable at a desired set

point.
• A corollary to our definition of process control is a controllable process

must behave in a predictable manner.

• For a given change in the manipulated variable, the process variable must
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respond in a predictable and consistent manner.
Basic Elements of Control Loop

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Basic Elements of Process Control

Controlling a process requires knowledge of four basic elements:

• the process itself

• the sensor that measures the process value

• the final control element that changes the manipulated variable

• the controller. 11
Basic Elements of Process Control

• Input devices used to see what’s

going on in the process

• Control Systems make decisions

based on process inputs, operator

inputs, and control software
• Output devices control the

process
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Basic Elements of Process Control

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Open Loop and Closed Loop Control

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Open Loop Control

• The open-loop control is where output variable does not have any

influence on the input variable.

• In open loop control the controller output is not a function of the

process variable.
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Open Loop Control

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Open Loop Control

• the controller output is fixed at a value until it is changed by an

operator.
• Many processes are stable in an open loop control mode and will
maintain the process variable at a value in the absence of a
disturbances.
• Disturbances are uncontrolled changes in the process inputs or 17

resources.
Example for Open Loop Control

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Example for Open Loop Control

• A system consists of the "valve" with the output variable "volumetric

flow" and the input variable "control valve setting".
• This system can be controlled by adjusting the control valve. This
allows the desired volumetric flow to be set.
• if the applied pressure fluctuates, the volumetric flow will also
fluctuate. 19

• In this open system, adjustment must be made manually.

Example for Open Loop Control

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Closed Loop Control

• process where the controlled variable is continuously monitored and

compared with the reference variable.

• Depending on the result of this comparison, the input variable for the

system is influenced to adjust the output variable to the desired value

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despite any disturbing influences.
Closed Loop Control

• Closed loop control is also called feedback or regulatory control.

• The output of a closed loop controller is a function of the error.

• Error is the deviation of the process variable from the set point and is
defined as

E = SP - PV
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Example for Closed Loop Control

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Closed Loop Control

• The controller now passes a signal to the manipulating element dependent

on the deviation.
• If there is a large negative deviation, that is the measured value of the

volumetric flow is greater than the desired value the valve is closed further.
• If there is a large positive deviation, that is the measured value is smaller

than the desired value, the valve is opened further.

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Example for Closed Loop Control

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Closed Loop Control

• Setting of the output variable is normally not ideal:

➢ If the intervention is too fast and too great, influence at the input
end of the system is too large. This results in great fluctuations at
the output.
➢ If influence is slow and small, the output variable will only
approximate to the desired value. 26
Closed Loop Control Modes

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Closed Loop Control Modes

• Closed loop control can be, depending on the algorithm that

determines the controller output:
▪ Manual
▪ On-Off
▪ PID
▪ Advanced PID (ratio, cascade, feedforward) 28

▪ or Model Based
Manual Control Mode

• In manual control an operator directly manipulates the controller

output to the final control element to maintain a desired setpoint.

• Used in abnormal conditions when maintenance is required for

measuring instruments.
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Manual Control Mode

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On-Off Control Mode

• provides a controller output of on or off in response to error.

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On-Off Control Mode

• Upon changing the direction of the controller output, deadband is the

value that must be traversed before the controller output will change its
direction again.

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On-Off Control Mode

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PID Control Mode

• provides output that changes from 0 to 100% in response to error.

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PID Algorithm

• A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID controller) is a

common feedback loop component in industrial control systems.

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PID Algorithm

• The PID can adjust process outputs based on the history and rate of
change of the error signal, which gives more accurate and stable
control.

• PID controllers can be easily adjusted (or "tuned") to the desired

application.
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PID Algorithm

• Kp: Proportional Gain - Larger Kp typically means faster response

since the larger the error, the larger the feedback to compensate.
• Ki: Integral Gain - Larger Ki implies steady state errors are eliminated
quicker..
• Kd: Derivative Gain - Larger Kd decreases overshoot, but slows down
transient response. 37
PID Algorithm

1- Proportional:

• To handle the immediate error, the error is multiplied by a constant

Kp (for proportional), and added to the controlled quantity.

• Kp is only valid in the band over which a controller's output is

proportional to the error of the system.
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PID Algorithm

2- Integral:

• To learn from the past, the error is integrated (added up) over a

period of time, and then multiplied by a constant KI (making an

average), and added to the controlled quantity.

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PID Algorithm

3- Derivative:

• To handle the future, the first derivative (the slope of the error) over

time is calculated, and multiplied by another constant KD, and also

added to the controlled quantity.

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PID Interacting Algorithm

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PID Interacting Algorithm

• The series or "interacting" form, where the output of each part of the

controller is used as the input for another part, so that separate P, D

and I controllers are connected together in series.

• This is effectively how older pneumatic and analog electronic

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controllers worked. It is the more restricted form of the two.
PID Non-interacting Algorithm

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PID Non-interacting Algorithm

• The parallel or "non-interacting" form, where the P, I and D parts of

the controller are all given the same error input in parallel and their

output is added together.

• This allows independent adjustment of the proportional, integral and

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derivative constants.
PID Response Graph

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PID Response Graph – single-step change

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Cascade Control Mode

• Cascade control uses the output of a

primary (master or outer) controller to

manipulate the set point of a

secondary (slave or inner) controller as

if the slave controller were the final 47

control element.
Cascade Control Mode

• The purpose of cascade control is to achieve greater stability of the

primary process variable by regulating a secondary process variable in
accordance with the needs of the first.
• An essential requirement of cascaded control is that the secondary
process variable be faster-responding than the primary process
variable. 48
Cascade Control Mode - Example 1

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Cascade Control Mode - Example 1

• heated air is used to evaporate water from a granular solid.

• The primary process variable is the outlet air exiting the dryer, which

should be maintained at a high enough temperature

• This outlet temperature is fairly slow to react, as the solid material

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mass creates a large lag time.
Cascade Control Mode - Example 1

• There are several parameters influencing the temperature of the outlet air.

• These include air flow, ambient air temperature, and variations in steam

temperature.
• If any of these parameters were to suddenly change, the effect would be

slow to register at the outlet temperature

• Correspondingly, the control system would be slow to correct for any of
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these changing loads.
Cascade Control Mode - Example 1

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Cascade Control Mode - Example 1

• Installing a second temperature transmitter at the inlet duct of the

dryer, with its own controller to adjust steam flow at the command of
the primary controller will be a great solution.
• Now, if any of the loads related to incoming air flow or temperature
vary, the secondary controller (TC-1b) will immediately sense the
change in dryer inlet temperature and compensate by adjusting steam
flow through the heat exchanger. Thus, the “slave” control loop (1b)
helps stabilize the “master” control loop (1a) by reacting to load 53

changes long before any effect might manifest at the dryer outlet.
Cascade Control Mode - Example 2

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Cascade Control Mode - Example 2

• The “secondary” or “slave” flow controller works to maintain

feedwater flow to the boiler at whatever flow rate is desired by the
level controller. If feedwater pressure happens to increase or decrease,
any resulting changes in flow will be quickly countered by the flow
controller without the level controller having to react to a consequent
upset in steam drum water level. 55
Cascade Control Mode - Example 2

• Thus, cascade control works to guard against steam drum level

instability resulting from changes in the feedwater flow caused by
factors outside the boiler.
• As stated previously, the slave (flow) controller effectively shields the
master (level) controller from loads in the feedwater supply system,
so that master controller doesn’t have to deal with those loads. 56
Feedforward Control

• It is based on that if all significant loads on a process variable are

monitored, and their effects on that process variable are well-

understood.
• A control system programmed to take appropriate action based

on load changes will shield the process variable from any ill effect.

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Feedforward Control

• The feedforward control system

uses data from load sensors to
predict when an upset is about to
occur, then feeds that information
forward to the final control element
to counteract the load change
before it has an opportunity to 58

affect the process variable.

Feedforward Control

• Feedback control systems are reactive, taking action after to changes

in the process variable occur.

• Feedforward control systems are proactive, taking action before

changes to the process variable can occur.

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Feedforward Control

• A very similar control strategy commonly

used on large steam boilers for the precise
control of steam drum water level.
• Such a control system is called “three-
element” because it makes use of three
process measurements:
• Feed water flow rate
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• Steam drum water level

• Steam flow rate
Feedforward Control

• Feedwater flow is controlled by a dedicated flow controller (FIC),

receiving a remote Setpoint signal from a summing relay (LY).

• The summer receives two inputs: a steam flow signal and the output

signal (trim) from the level controller (LIC).

• The feedforward portion of this system (steam flow feeding forward

to water flow) is intended to match the mass flow rates of water into 61

the boiler with steam flow out of the boiler.

Feedforward Control

• If steam demand suddenly increases, this feedforward portion of the

system immediately calls for a matching increase in water flow into the
boiler, since every molecule of steam exiting the boiler must come from
one molecule of water entering the boiler.
• The level controller and transmitter act as a feedback control loop,
supplementing the feedforward signal to the cascaded water flow controller
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to make up for (“trim”) any shortcomings of the feedforward loop.