Design

Handbook
A Methodical Framework

Wim Zeiler
First print
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

Design Handbook
A Methodical Framework
Wim Zeiler

First edition

Noordhoff Uitgevers Groningen/Utrecht

 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

Cover design: Rocket Industries, Groningen

Cover illustration: Getty Images
Translation into English: Annelies Gallagher

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ISBN ----
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© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

Preface: from methodical design

to integral design

In the educational sector, a lot of emphasis is often placed on the conceptual

architectural and less on the constructional development of a particular
design. However, it is also of great importance to provide knowledge on how
you can achieve building a design in the best possible way while ensuring it
really provides an optimal solution for the given design task. The process of
achieving a good design includes the consideration of a number of aspects
such as, usability, feasibility, sustainability and energy issues. The use of a
design method makes the design process systematic, integrated and
transparant, and therefore with significant less risk.
The described methodological approach is based on the work of Prof. dr. ir.
HH van den Kroonenberg (professor in the field of Design and Constructional
Engineering –, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Twente) and the additional work by ir. F.J. Siers to promote these ideas.
Further parts of text by Dirk-Jan Verheyden and Steve Landuit were used for
the chapters on value analysis and design for X.
As a design novice, you will be introduced to a methodical approach of
designing. You can then judge for yourself which components of the
methodical design process are useful for you and which are less useful.
Methodical design leaves room for an individual design approach that every
experienced designer has developed in practice. For experienced designers,
the book is intended as an overview of methods and structure in support of
their skills, and least of all as a mandatory process.
The advantage of the design method described here is its ease of use,
allowing the reader to use the described methods systematically and realize
the design tasks, even if they are completely new. It also provides room for
you to develop your own approach and apply this effectively in new
situations. During the design process, you will create an overview of the
areas that could be studied and investigated, helping you to expand your
knowledge. That way, you will gain more insights into how the different
disciplines are interconnected. Methodical design can certainly not be seen
as a prescription or recipe that always ensures a good design. Success is not
assured and depends on many factors. Nevertheless, it does provide a solid,
systematic and intelligent way to proceed, which increases the chance of
successful completion of the design process more integral.

Oosterhout, spring 

Wim Zeiler
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

Contents

Introduction 

1 Why design? 

. The economic importance of design 

. What is design? 
. Social relevance of design 
. Gaining knowledge through research 
Summary 

2 History of methodical design 

. From doing to design 

. Methodical design 
. The advantage of methodical design 
Summary 

3 The methodical design process 

. Working from the design brief 

. Structure methodical design process 
. Simple four-stage model methodical design 
. Divergence and convergence 
. Flexibility: from coarse to fine 
. Methodology system level of methodical design: the fuller
elaboration of the method 
Summary 

4 Phase 1 Problem definition 

. Step . Analysis: preliminary research, program requirements 

. Step . Methods: functions 
. Step . Selection function block diagram 
. Step . Elaborating final function block diagram 
Summary 
 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

5 Phase 2 Method definition 

. Step . Set-up morphological chart 

. Step . Generating methods 
. Step . Selecting combinations of methods 
. Step . Shaping combinations of methods into structures 
. Examples of method-determining phase 
Summary 

6 Phase 3 Selection definition 

. Step . Analysis structures 

. Step . Generating evaluation criteria 
. Step . Evaluating structures with Kesselring S-diagram 
. Step . Elaborate improvement opportunities 
. Examples selection phase 
Summary 

7 Phase 4 Shaping 

. Step . Structure 

. Step . Overview of system elements and selection of material 
. Step . Evaluation and determining the shape 
. Step . From shape to manufacturing details 
Summary 

8 Examples 

. Automatic crash barrier construction 

. Design of a motorcycle lifting table 
. Design of a stair lift 
. Design of a verge mower 
. Design of a garlic reducer 
. Design of a barbecue 
. Design of an offshore hoisting appliance 
. Integrated design of facade wall and installation 
. Insert device for Slimmy’s 
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

Theme chapters: objective, solutions,

selection and shaping 

9 Theme Objective 

. Analyze need(s) 

. Technical analysis 
. Feasibility study 
. Formulating objective(s) 
. Quality Function Deployment 
. Various other methods of objective determination 
Summary 

10 Theme Solutions 

. Conventional ways of searching for solutions 

. Logical methods for finding solutions 
. Intuitive methods to find solutions 
. Combination of methods to find solutions 
. TRIZ 
Summary 

11 Theme Selecting 

. Methods for assessing concepts 

. Value Analysis / Value Engineering (VA/VE) 
Summary 

12 Theme Shaping: Design for X 

. Design for Manufacturability (DFM) 

. Design for Assembly (DFA) 
. Design for Maintenance, Service (DFS) 
. Design for Disassembly, Dismantlement (DFD) 
. Design for Reliability (DFR) 
. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) 
. Design for Six Sigma (DfSS) 
. Design for Use (DFU) 
. Design for All (DfA) 
. Design for Environment (DFE) 
. Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) 
. Cradle-to-cradle (CC) 
. Design for Eco-Innovation and Design for Bottom-of-Pyramid 
Summary 
 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

13 Theme integral design 395

13.1 From Concurrent Engineering (CE) to a Collaborative

Approach (CA) 396
13.2 Integral design 400
Summary 419

14 Epilogue: What next 421

14.1 From methods, techniques, methodology and methodical design to

integral designs 422
14.2 The future of design 422
14.3 Epilogue 430
Summary 431

Glossary of terms 432

References 438

Illustration credits 447

Appendix Table of physical phenomena 448

Index 458

About the Author 462

© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv 9

Introduction

The future will bring us many challenges concerning scarcity of raw

materials, food, water and a healthy environment. With this in mind, it is
important that new products are designed in a different and better way.
Hopefully the new generation of designers will be better equipped to find
the solutions needed in the tension between the economy on the one hand
and sustainability on the other. This means that the new generation of
designers has the key to the future.

‘Sometimes it falls upon a generation to be

great, you can be that great generation.’
— Nelson Mandela, 1918-2013

Make use of unknown possibilities, find new paths. Leave the beaten track,
because you will only slip. Accept the challenge to find the good out of the
infinite number of possibilities. Perhaps this book can help you.

Structure of the book

Design Handbook contains fourteen chapters. The book starts with a
chapter on why, what, when and how regarding design. Then, in chapter ,
a part of the history of design is described as an introduction to the
description of the methodical design process in chapter . ‘Methodical
Design’ consists of four phases: these four phases are discussed in Chapters
 to , followed by a chapter with examples (Chapter ).
At the beginning of each phase chapter, the main structure is always
outlined first, after which the different steps of the relevant phase are
discussed in paragraphs. Actions and tools that can be used for this purpose
are mentioned in a scheme for each step. Examples are shown in Figures .
(main structure) and . (scheme of one step).
10 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

FIGURE 0.1 Example of the main structure per chapter

Chapter 4 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

Problem definition Method Selecting Shaping
definition

Goal
Step 1 Analysis: Function
Preliminary block diagrams
research

Methods
Step 2 Generate: Function
Formulate block diagrams
functions

Selection Evaluate: Function

Step 3 block diagrams
Compile
function
block diagram Decision

Elaboration Elaborate: Function

Step 4 structure
Elaboration
final function
block diagram Result phase

FIGURE 0.2 Scheme in step 1.1 Preliminary Study

Step 1.1: Actions:

Preliminary - Problem definition
research - Assignment definition
Phase 1: Problem definition

- Goal
- Analysis preliminary research of need
- Determine goal
- Determine situation
- Determine legal context
- Determine available resources
- Determine knowledge and skills
- Make program of requirements

Tools:
- Market survey
- Users survey
- Benchmarking
- Commissioning company – client –
designer triangle
- Value framework
- MOTIQ
- Checklist demands Result:
Program of
requirements
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv INTRODUCTION 11

Following the four phase chapters and the examples in Chapter , there
are five theme chapters. These chapters provide you with additional
methods that you can use within the framework of the four-phase model of
‘Methodical Design’ and help you to go through the process of objectives,
solutions, selection and elaboration to achieve an ‘Integral Design’. Finally,
Chapter  provides you with a method that approaches designing in a
completely different way and could, perhaps, be a new direction for the
future of designing.

Each chapter begins with a list of paragraph titles, a list of questions that are
answered in the chapter and a brief introduction of the content.

Using the book

You can use this book in several ways:
a chronological
b get started immediately
c start with methodical design
d as a reference

a Chronological
You will first read about design and its importance in history. From this
context, you will learn about ‘Methodical Design’ and you can make this
method your own by studying the four chapters explaining each different
phase and the examples in Chapter .
After you have made ‘Methodical Design’ your own, you will discover other
methods in the theme chapters. These can further assist you in any phase.

b Get started
You will start designing and try to set up the design process using the
examples of Chapter . If you get stuck, you can refer to the relevant phase
chapter for more information and background.

c Starting with ‘Methodical Design’

After reading Chapter , you will start on the four phase chapters and the
chapter with the examples (Chapter ).

d Use as reference
Once you have made the method of methodical design your own, especially
the theme chapters offer you a good overview of other supporting methods
with specific themes, such as formulating an objective, generating solutions,
selecting techniques, the elaboration and the ‘Integral Design’.
12 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

‘The world is getting only more

complex. Entire industries
are undergoing seismic
transformations wrought by
technology, global economics
forces, and a host of cultural
factors. Designers are becoming
central to addressing the
large, ambiguous problems of
our time. Whether the arena
is health care, economic
development, learning, or
public policy, design methods
are helping solve seemingly
impossible problems.’
— Patrick Whitney
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv 13

1 1
0

Why design?

. The economic importance of design

. What is design?
. Social relevance of design
. Gaining knowledge through research

Anything used by humans that does not naturally occur in their

environment has to be designed. Designing is very important in the
development process of humanity: it stimulates the creation and actual
development of complex objects. Design and the actual creation of an
object were initially interconnected and later they became more separated,
turning design into a specialized craft. Section . shows why designing is
becoming increasingly important.
While everyone understands what design is, a consensus definition is
however difficult to obtain. Therefore, there are many definitions and
descriptions of design, which are often focused on specific aspects of
design. Section . provides some definitions of design and explains the
development of the definition of ‘design’.
In section ., some of the major societal challenges and needs associated
with design are discussed; it is important to consider your role and
responsibility as a designer in the development towards a more sustainable
society. Section . describes briefly how you can gain more knowledge to
improve your designs through research.
 14 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

§ 1.1 The economic importance of design

It is important to continuously strive for improvement: cost-effective,
sustainable and better products and services. The design process is
the core of the entire development process; this is where functionality,
1
manufacturability and economic feasibility are united. Some design
methods are developed to support design processes or possibly improve
them. Important are:
r improving product design; in terms of usability, functionalityand life
cycle sustainability
r improving implementation process; in terms of manufacturability of the
product
r improved design process; resources and time to make the design

Innovation
There is also a trend towards developing entirely new things: Innovation
is a vital necessity for businesses and organizations. Dutch companies
cannot compete just on the basis of price. Wages are much lower in other
countries and our high productivity is almost achieved by others. Knowledge
competition is becoming increasingly difficult because knowledge is easily
accessible through the Internet. Economic growth must therefore arise from
other added value.
Organizations can differentiate themselves from their competitors by
introducing the use of creativity with new products, services or processes
that are preferably not easy to copy. Dutch companies can only permanently
distinguish themselves by constant innovation. Therefore, creativity is seen
as a fifth factor of production, alongside knowledge, land, labor and capital.
Actually a new creative age is beginning, a period of increasing and fast
innovation. Design is the key, because there is no innovation without design!

Innovation It is good to take a closer look at what innovation is because there are
different definitions. Innovation can be defined as:

’Successfully coming with something new.’

— P . Jes, 1978

It sometimes seems that innovation has only recently become a trend, but
according to this definition it is a subject that people have been aware of
for a long time. The difference is that the importance of innovation has only
become apparent in the last couple of years.

For companies and organizations, it is important to constantly come up with

Life cycle new products or processes. Each product or process has a certain life cycle.
There are initial costs for researching, designing and producing a new product.
And income will only be gradually generated after the new product has
been introduced to the market (see figure .). After a while, if the product is
successful, it achieves a turnover level and finally generates some profit. When
the market becomes saturated after some time, the revenue decreases and the
profit level goes down. It is important to then again introduce a new profitable
product to the market. It is therefore essential to be constantly engaged in the
design of new products so that the profit gained from one product can be partly
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv WHY DESIGN? 15

used for investing in new products. This is a prerequisite for the company to
remain profitable and to ensure the economic survival. All this highlights the
need to continuously invest in the development of new products.

1
FIGURE 1.1 The various phases of the life cycle of a product

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Phase 6 Phase 7

VDI
Revenue
€

Profit

+
O
− New
product

Costs
Introducing
for product

Maturation

saturation
Searching

to market

Declining
Realising

turnover
product

Market
growth

time
Fast

Source: Buys J.A., During W., Jes P., Kroonenberg H.H. van den, Marinissen A.H., 1982

The first phase of the life cycle of a product is further elaborated by Kramer
(), see figure .. It is remarkable that the introduction of a next new product
has been omitted, while this is a necessity for the existence of a company.

FIGURE 1.2 The financial results of a product during the life cycle related to the revenue

Turnover Saturation Possible

Growth and Decline recovery
profit
maturity
Market
Preparation introduction
for market Turnover
Product
development
Product
planning Time

Costs Loss Profit

Source: Kramer F. in Pahl G. et al., 2006

 16 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

Shortening of the life cycle

One of the current challenges for businesses is that the life cycle of a product
from initiative to end of profitability is getting shorter. This is due to the
massive reduction in the development time of new products, see figure ..
1
FIGURE 1.3 Shortening of the life cycle of a product

* Shorter market life * Shorter time for innovation

for industrial products
Integrated circuits
Lifetime
in years Transistors
Jet motor
Television
Radar
Radio
Telephone
Photography
Paper production

1910 1940 1970 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000

Year Year
Source: Andreasen M.M., Hein L., 2000, Integrated Product Development, Institute for Product Development, Technical University of
Denmark, Copenhagen

Reduced As a result of the reduced development time, customers are quickly seduced
development by new products from competitors. It is therefore necessary for companies
time
to continuously, rapidly and efficiently introduce new products to the
market to stay one step ahead of the competition or at least keep up with
them. It is therefore no surprise that the pace of innovation is accelerating,
see figure ..

FIGURE 1.4 The acceleration of innovations

PACE OF INNOVATION ACCELERATING

Newer technologies taking hold at double or triple previous rates
Percent Television
penetration 100
of potential Radio Electricity Telephone
world market 80 VCR
Automobile
60
PC
40
Cellular Internet
20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Years
Source: Joseph Jacobsen, Organizational and Individual Innovation Diffusion, Global Innovation Outlook, 2004, IBM, p.6
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv WHY DESIGN? 17

The design process

Knowledge and information are important components in the design
process. Ullmann () shows this in two dimensions: the knowledge of
the design task and the design freedom of the solution space, see figure ..
1
FIGURE 1.5 Cost level during the course of a project

Costs

Allocated

Spent

Time
Project

Source: Andreasen M.M. and Hein L., 2000

There a little information available at the beginning of the design process,

while this is the moment that the important decisions are made. Although
costs are low in the beginning, it is during this time that the decisions made
establish most of the costs as shown in figure ..

FIGURE 1.6Evolution of fixed costs and expenses incurred during the lifetime
of a product

Costs Costs
(%) (%)
100 100

75 75
Determined Costs
costs incurred
50 50

25 25

0 0
Design

Work prep.

Purchase

Manufactory

Various

Design

Work prep.

Purchase

Manufactory

Various

Source: Methodic Design, V.d. Kroonenberg 1978

 18 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

Traditionally, the attention of the management of a company is focused

less on design and much more on production and marketing (see figure
.): marketing formulates the preconditions for the new product and/or
market approach and production adjusts many issues immediately in the
operational organization.
1
FIGURE 1.7 Importance of decisions per life cycle stage of a product

Significance of the decisions

60% Activity profiles

of the management

35%

4% 1%

y t n
ud en tio Project
g
n

tin
sig

St m
du
c phases
lop
rke
De

ve o
Pr
Ma

De
Source: Andreasen M.M. and Hein L., 2000

Little attention Management has given design relatively little attention because of a lack
to design of an understanding of how important this phase is for the final cost of a
product. Managers are usually more focused on current, immediate costs
instead of future costs, which is why they pay too little attention to it. After
all, the direct cost of marketing and production are higher than those of
the design, as shown in figure .. Research by Arthur D. Little (Buijs and
Valkenburg, )

FIGURE 1.8The direct costs of the different activities: marketing,

design and production

* What do the different activities cost?

Costs Marketing Design

Production Sum

Project phases
Source: Andreasen M.M. and Hein L., 2000
 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv WHY DESIGN? 19

shows that management hardly takes an interest in the design process

until the moment of the prototype or zero series (Eger et al., ). This is,
however, changing because design is now increasingly seen as the key to
success.
1
At the beginning of the design process there is very little information and a
lot of freedom to make decisions. The freedom to make decisions is getting
smaller with every decision that is made. The effect of a decision early in
the process is often great even though there is little information available to
Influence/
base the decision on.. This is called the influence/information contrast, as information
shown in figure .. contrast

FIGURE 1.9 Influence/information contrast in the early stages of the design process

Influence/ % 100
information
80 Knowledge about
the design
problem
60

40
Design
freedom
20

0
Task Clarification Concept Design Embodiment Design Detail Design
Time into design process
Source: Ullman, 1992

The contrast between little information to support decisions on the one

hand and the importance of these decisions on the other causes great
risks in the design process. A wrong decision at the beginning of a design Risks
process can have major financial consequences later in the process. It is
therefore important to design in a structural, transparent and systematic
manner and communicate about it in a clear and concise way. This enables
you to receive better feedback about your design, which leads to a better
substantiation for decisions in the design process. As a result, the risks are
reduced and the chance of a successful product is increased.

§ 1.2 What is design?

‘Design’ sounds like an easy word, but it is challenging to find a clear-
cut definition. Often it is useful to look for a definition in the dictionary.
Webster gives the following definition:
 20 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

‘Design
To plan and make decisions about (something that is
1
being built or created).

To create the plans, drawings, etc., that show how

(something) will be made.

To plan and make (something) for a specific use or

purpose.

To think of (something, such as a plan): to plan

(something) in your mind.’
— www.merriam-webster.com

This descriptions only indicates what the designer does and how, the why
is missing. Now some definitions are provided by two important thinkers of
the last century on design: Herbert Simon and Donald Schön.

’Design is planning a series of actions aimed at

changing existing situations into preferred situations.’
— Simon HA, 1966

This definition implies that you have to start from an existing situation, but
it need not always be the case if you are designing something entirely new.
Furthermore, design is more than simply planning a number of actions. An
important aspect emphasized here is that design often consists of a series of
actions and not just one single action.

’Design is a reflective interaction with the realities of a

design situation.’
— Schön D., 1983
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv WHY DESIGN? 21

This definition emphasizes that design is an interactive process in

which reflection on the course of the design process is very important.
Nevertheless, ‘realities of a design situation’ is vaguely formulated. For this
reason the definition by Harry van den Kroonenberg is provided, one of the
most influential Dutch scientists in the field of design:
1

‘Design is to indicate the best solution to serve a need,

using available resources and in compliance with
standards of physical and social nature.’
— Kroonenberg H.H. van den and Siers F.J., 1992

The definition of design was taken from the University of California at Los
Angeles (UCLA) by Van den Kroonenberg. The definition talks about ‘the
best solution’. From this you can deduce that there are different solutions
for a given design problem and therefore a selection should be made. The
standards of physical nature in the definition refer to the possibilities and
limitations of nature and physics. These are of both a physical and technical
nature. The aforementioned standards of a social nature relate to the
limits set by society. Those are of economic, social, legal or ethical nature.
Nonetheless, the search for a good all-encompassing definition continued.
The designer’s faculty of ADMS in Eindhoven used the following definition:

‘Design can be seen as a purposeful and creative

activity of both idea- and decision-making. It is both
an investigative and problem solving activity that takes
place under conditions of uncertainty and risks. This
includes the use of both practical experience and
engineering principles and, to an extent, scientific
knowledge and understanding. But the core of the
design activity continues to be an imaginative leap
of an unambiguous (experienced as poor) situation
to a potential (a more desirable, more ideal) future
situation.’
— Daru R., 2002
 22 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

This definition emphasizes, among other, the uncertainty about the

possible, desired, ideal future situation. This uncertainty will always be
there in the design process. After all, the success of a product can only be
determined afterwards. The definition of design can also be viewed from a
much broader perspective, as evidenced by the following definition:
1

‘Design is a synthetic activity aimed at establishing new

or modified artefacts, processes or systems, with the
intention of creating value in accordance with predefined
requirements and desires (e.g. mobility, health).’
— Meijers A.W.M., Overveld C.W.A.M. and Perrenet JC, 2005

This definition shows that designs are not only focused on products, but
also on processes or systems, which must comply with certain requirements
and wishes in order to meet the need. However, the term ‘synthetic activity’
is too complex on the one hand (‘synthesis’ means putting together
individual elements into a new whole) and too limited on the other because
design goes beyond synthesis; it also involves analysis, evaluation and
development. It is also important to emphasize the decision-making process
during the design process. This is expressed in the following definition by
Von Slamm:

‘Design is the conscious decision process during which

information (an idea) is transformed into a solution
or something tangible (product) or something not
tangible (service).’
— Slamm B. Von, 2008

This definition indicates that besides designing a ‘product’ or a device, you

can also think of a film, travel insurance, software, process etcetera. Design
does not only relate to inventing something completely new but can also
include changes or improvement to existing solutions:

‘Design is to combine, mold and transform existing

ideas into new ideas. The greater the knowledge
 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv WHY DESIGN? 23

of existing ideas, the greater the chance of a new,

innovative idea.’
1
— Breedveld P., 2011

This definition reflects on the fact that during the design process you
can make good use of what exists in order to come up with new ideas.
Nevertheless, the definition is too narrow.

Generally you could say that the concept and significance of design is
growing, as shown in figure ..

FIGURE 1.10 The growth of the importance of design

Level of
integration & Designing is
development integration:
total process
Multifunctional team
central for success
Designing shares of enterprise
common ground
between enterprise
and market
Add:
Marketing
Human factors
Communicating
Designing concerns
better products
Industrial design
Engineering
Market research
Design is seen
as 'shaping'
Esthetic 'twist' to
forms, colors, printed
matter

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Time
Source: Fairhead, 1988

§ 1.3 Social relevance of design

There is an increasing awareness of the importance of design for the success
of companies, which has led to an increasing demand for designers to
develop new products and services. The British Design Council (Slamm,
) research showed that in , % of small (up to  employees) and
medium-sized companies (– employees) had design as an important
integral part of their production process.
 24 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

Economic Design is also of great economic significance in the Netherlands. The Dutch
significance design sector had, according to the Central Statistical Office (Lanjouw, )
and TNO, an estimated added value of . billion euros (Rutten et al., ).
This value was equal to that of the Dutch air transport and even larger than
the annual added value of the petroleum industry (. billion per year).
1
The design sector is important for increasing the innovative power of Dutch
business. The aim therefore is to double the value of the design sector to
 billion euros and more in the coming years. Emphasizing once again the
importance of design and the possibilities that a designer will have in the future.

Figure . shows the development of employment in the design industries

and industries with a recognizable number of designers, in the period –
. This figure displays the overall economy and the creative industry. As
you can see, the design industries grow faster compared to the average growth.
Economic growth is the strongest in industries with an innovative purpose.

FIGURE 1.11 Development number of jobs in the design industries in the Netherlands
(1996–2009)

Development of number of designers in the design industries, creative industry,

and industries with a recognizable number of designers compared to the total
number of jobs in the Netherlands (1996=100).

Percentage to 200
the total Design sectors Creative industry
190
amount of
jobs Sectors with recognisable Total economy
180 amount of designers
(1996 = 100)
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Source: TNO

Solving social Besides creating direct economic, social value, designers are also
problems increasingly involved in solving major social problems:
a health
b safety
c environmental problems
d resource scarcity
e energy issues

After all, the newly designed products serve to contribute to a sustainable

environment and society. As a designer you can make a significant
contribution to this.
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv WHY DESIGN? 25

a Health
In the field of the development of biomedical products in particular, design Biomedical
contributes towards positive improvement in the health of human beings. products
New medical equipment and new facilities for drugs enhance the ability to
fight diseases.
1
Yet technology can also have a negative impact on the health of human
beings. This particularly relates to the environment as well as working
conditions in certain professions. As a designer, you will need to ensure
that workplaces are created without undesirable adverse health effects
occurring. You also need to ensure that the products you design do not
damage the health of the user. User-friendly designs by applying ergonomic User-friendly
principles is therefore an important task for designers. designs

b Safety
Increased use of advanced technology entails risks to humans and the
environment. The safety aspects should not be neglected when new
technology is introduced. You need to design optimal, safe constructions.
It is obviously not possible as a designer to make your processes/products
completely risk-free, but it is possible through careful design to reduce the
consequences of any accidents. If something goes wrong, the outcome
should be predictable and it should be made clear how to intervene to
prevent undesirable effects.
Especially the latest technology contributes strongly to reducing safety
risks such as terrorist attacks, for example through the detection gates
at the airport. In addition, cameras contribute to security by supervising
entertainment venues in cities.

c Environmental issues
Closely linked to the challenge of energy and raw material consumption are
environmental issues. The use of energy and raw materials results in very
different waste products. All kinds of side effects during the manufacture,
use and disposal of products also cause problems. Especially the
acidification of the environment through dry and wet deposition (acid rain)
of sulfur and nitrogen oxides, global warming due to CO emissions and the
hole in the ozone layer caused by the release of CFCs are examples of this.
As a designer, it is expected that you are aware of all the possible side
effects that could be caused by your products. You also need to consider the
possibility of removal of technical products when they are decommissioned.
Supply chain management, the integral attention for the entire life cycle of a Supply chain
product, is an important aspect in the design of products. management

d Resource scarcity
The increasing scarcity of raw materials requires you as a designer to design
with a minimum of material consumption. You have to aim at an optimal
life cycle of the technical equipment, and when the inevitable end comes, a
large portion of the materials should be recovered through recycling. In this Recycling
way, you contribute to a sustainable use of resources. This inevitably has an
impact on the requirements of modern technical equipment.

e Energy issues
Modern man uses more energy, which results in the problem of
depletion of energy resources and the need to find new sources of energy.
Above all, this energy must be safe and should not be harmful to the
environment. Energy consumption will increase, especially in developing
 26 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

countries, where a strong growth in population is expected, which will be

accompanied by a growth in energy consumption per capita.
Sustainable The aim is to achieve a sustainable energy supply. In , the built
energy supply environment should be energy neutral, while nowadays % of all our
energy goes to the built environment. Major changes are necessary and
1
therefore also many new products. As a designer, you have to strive for
solutions that conserve energy, both during manufacture and in use, and
also after use. The energy issue imposes a special responsibility on the
designer.

As a technical designer, you do not have to provide an overall solution for

the problems discussed above. It is expected that you take this into account
and that you provide solutions for increasingly complex problems in order
to satisfy the identified needs.

§ 1.4 Gaining knowledge through research

When designing you apply your knowledge and possibly new knowledge
to the products that will be designed. This new knowledge can be acquired
largely by studying (physical/natural) processes. Often it turns out that
additional research is needed. This raises the question of how research relates
to design.

The difference between research and design

Research focuses mainly on the analysis of an existing structure of which
the function and purpose should be determined in order to obtain new
knowledge. It is to discover the relationship between things that are already
there. This conclusion-oriented research can lead to a discovery. The
researcher will then have stripped the yet unknown natural phenomenon of
its ‘covering’, so that it can be added to scientific knowledge.
Design is mainly focused on synthesis; assuming a purpose and function, a
structure is to be determined. Design puts the emphasis on acquiring new
applications for existing knowledge or, generating something new from the
existing; synthesis.
Design is therefore different from research, but often needs research results.
The methodology of research may also help to structure design as a process.
Design and research are therefore interconnected in different ways.

When a natural phenomenon is not the subject of research, but a product

made by man, the research process is similar. The first aspect in the analysis
of such a product is its physical structure. This mainly concerns the relative
positions of the constituent elements. In the end, the analysis results in a
Structure representation of the structure, a sketchy, global indicator, which shows
how the product works.
To gain insight into the operation of a design, it is worthwhile exploring the
function of each element, and also according to what (logical) principle
Function the device functions. The function of a product indicates which features
the product should have in order to achieve the desired objective. The
Purpose purpose of a product is not always clearly determined during an analysis.
A consideration of the larger whole of which the product is a part frequently
provides insight to its purpose. Through analysis, the researcher determines
the structure, function and purpose of the researched product.
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv WHY DESIGN? 27

Recent developments
Products were designed by a designer on the drawing board or behind
the screen. This way of working enabled him to generate a number of
alternative possibilities. From these options, he was able to choose the
variant that would be manufactured.
1
This option was formerly hardly used to develop multiple variants and from
there on make informed choices. Often the first draft was progressively
improved through trial and error and adapted until it met the requirements. Trial and error
Today there is a need for multiple alternatives and a more conscious and
transparent decision about the different solution concepts. Because of rapid
developments in the technical sciences and society, businesses cannot
afford to get to the right product design through trial and error. The risk of
failure or a longer development process can be reduced in a good way by
choosing the best solution from multiple alternatives.
The related changes in society have led to increased complexity of the
problems, with greatly increased costs and corresponding financial risks.
Characteristic of this new phase is the awareness and the need to:
r ensure the safety of people and goods during every technical operation
r improve working conditions
r use raw materials and energy in an economical way
r have the least amount of impact on the environment

Characteristic of current industry practice is that the designers have less Less and less
and less time to design products. New products should also be realized time to design
products
immediately and should be readily applied. This often involves completely
new designs, of which no examples are available. In this case you can, as a
designer, not fall back on experience with similar designs: after determining
a problem, you often rely on familiar situations. This results in a quick
decision process towards a solution because of the time pressure. If you
cannot distance yourself from this, chances are that the resulting products
lack the desired improved characteristics compared to existing products.
If you do not have a sufficient overview of the multiplicity and diversity
of the factors involved, the chance of making wrong decisions increases.
This is how end products are realized that possibly do not meet the client’s
expectations. Sometimes, mistakes can still be restored by bringing
significant additional expenditure (see example .).

EXAMPLE 1.1

Designing a schnitzel crusher

A trading firm found that its customers – butchers and industrial kitchens
– needed a schnitzel crusher. A design and construction agency was
commissioned to design and manufacture such a schnitzel crusher. The
designer first studied what such a device would have to do: crush different
kinds of meat to a uniform thickness. Through surface enhancement and
uniform appearance, the pieces of meat are visually more appealing.
Uniform thickness also provides an equal and shorter cooking time, causing
less weight loss, and the tenderness and juiciness of the meat products are
enhanced. The device should be suitable for both fresh and frozen meats.

The manufacturer designed and built a device that consisted of a large,

stainless steel case in which three impactors in one row crushed passing
 28 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

pieces of meat on a conveyor belt. The endless conveyor belt, powered

by two metal rollers, was supported by a plate to be able to provide the
necessary reaction force.
When tested, the product appeared not be working properly because the
1
meat already got stuck to the first impactor. The manufacturer had not
noticed that in a traditional operation, the butcher would wipe the knife on
the meet after each blow. The use of a separate shielding cellophane solved
this problem. The manufacturer then started thinking a little further. The
butcher uses only one knife, so why use three impactors? He built a second
device: again a stainless steel case, but this time with only one impactor and
a conveyor belt with a cellophane-covered track. This device was not working
properly either: the sticking problem was solved, but the belt had to be
stopped at every blow and then started again. That was not really convenient.
The manufacturer thought about it some more. The cut pieces of meat were
transported between two moving conveyor belts in a small and handy device.
The angle between the conveyor belts could be adjusted so that the desired
thickness of the schnitzel was naturally realized through the transport.

In cooperation with a sales agent who supervised the sale and distribution
of the schnitzel crusher, these machines have become a success, but the
design and construction agency realized that the trial and error approach
had cost more time and additional resources. As a consequence, the
conclusion was that they no longer wanted to continue to work this way.
Over the years many designs have been added, with different capacity, length
and height. Each machine is built from the standard to customer specific
options; where necessary, the machine is built completely customized.
The latter applies for example to a tandem design that was intended to
be used overseas. This crusher is built entirely to customer needs and is
manufactured in such a way that the capacity of the machine is increased
twice. Meanwhile, these machines are used worldwide in eighteen countries,
and in many meat processing production lines (see figure 1.12).

FIGURE 1.12 Schnitzel crusher

Source: RVS Montfoort, 2012

© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv WHY DESIGN? 29

The food processing industry needs many machines that often must be
designed in a specific context and for a specific use. If you look on the
Internet, you will see that several Dutch companies make similar machines
for the food processing industry.
1

Example . shows that it can be very important to adopt a systematic

and thoughtful approach to developing a design task. It is also important
to find the right balance between applying a systematic method and
handling it practically. The systematic approach gains should not cause
much unnecessary work; you should always remain critical and wonder in
your situation if all the steps of a particular method are really necessary.
Unfortunately, you will only learn to estimate this in the course of the years.
It is therefore recommended, especially in the beginning, to entirely follow Balance between
the systematic approach you have chosen. Later, you can estimate, based on simplicity and
completeness
your experience, what you should and should not do. The main thing is that
there is a healthy balance between simplicity and completeness. Sometimes
this goes wrong; a designer can go to extremes. In his inaugural address on
designing biomedical products, Professor Verkerke wonderfully described
how designers sometimes lose sight of purpose and simplicity. See example
. (Verkerke, ).

EXAMPLE 1.2

A pen to write with in zero gravity

When the Americans and the Russians went into space together for the
first time, the atmosphere was remarkably open. As colleagues they had
a lot of experiences to share. For example, the Americans explained one
of the problems that they had had: writing in the space. After all, a normal
ballpoint pen works only if there is gravity. Fortunately, the American said
with pride that the NASA engineers had achieved a great alternative after
only one year, the Fisher Space Pen. A built-in micro-pump mechanism
pushes the ink to the pen point, under all circumstances (figure 1.13).
The Russians agreed that they also had this problem. Their engineering
firm already had the solution after one day: a pencil. As you can see,
product design is not a single event. Sometimes you develop a wonderful
solution, but it might not be the best or simplest. This happens both in
space and on earth

But further research reveals something different: the story is not true. The
Americans first used pencils, like the Russians, but abandoned the idea
because broken pencil points and the resulting graphite material when
writing in a weightless environment may pose a serious threat to equipment
and astronauts. And, the solution was not devised by the designers of
NASA: a private company was used that had independently developed a
ballpoint pen, without financial support from NASA. It was purchased for a
small fee by NASA. Later, the Russians also abandoned pencils and bought
the same pens as the Americans.
 30 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

FIGURE 1.13 Space pen

Source: Fisher Space Pen

In short, the story is different, but the approach remains the same: do
proper research first for the need to see if there isn’t already an appropriate
solution on the market that you might use or improve. Only if this is not
the case, you can start your designing process. Designers tend to keep
the research brief and want to design right away. They prefer to think in
solutions, but it is important to first consider if the new need for a new
design is not a false need, and whether the requirements imposed by client
fit the identified need.
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv 31

Summary
0
1

▶ Design is originally an individual process aimed at indicating solutions

to serve a need, using available resources and in compliance with
standards of physical and social nature.

▶ Design develops into an overall process where the multi-functional

team is central to the success of an organization or enterprise.

▶ Design is essential for innovation and creating economic value.

▶ The increasing social problems such as resource scarcity, energy issues,

environmental issues, security and health care lead to a complexity of
design tasks.

▶ Designers are expected to contribute to solutions in the area of tension

between growing demand and desire on the one hand and the end of
the growth and the depletion of natural resources on the other.

▶ With the ever shorter life span of products the time to design is
increasingly shortened, an unsuccessful design is increasingly risky for
the survival of an organization or enterprise.

▶ In order to increase the probability of success, a designer may use all

the help he can get. Therefore, design methods are developed that can
actually be used.