Arabian Journal of Geosciences (2020) 13:949

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05947-x

ORIGINAL PAPER

Geophysical and geotechnical characterization of shallow

subsurface soil: a case study of University of Peshawar
and surrounding areas
Ihtisham Islam 1,2 & Waqas Ahmed 2 & Mehboob Ur Rashid 3 & Azmat Ullah Orakzai 1 & Allah Ditta 4,5

Received: 12 May 2020 / Accepted: 2 September 2020

# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2020

Abstract
The proper design and successful construction of engineered structures require determination of the engineering properties of the
soil. These properties, however, are conventionally determined in the laboratory using soil samples collected from the construc-
tion site. The collection of soil samples is generally an expensive and time-consuming activity, while the extraction of an
undisturbed soil sample is difficult. Furthermore, there are wide variations in the temporal and spatial properties of soil and their
accurate evaluation requires high-density sampling. Recently, electric resistivity surveying has attracted much attention. It is
commonly applied in the analysis of engineering sites, as it is rapid, cost-effective, and non-destructive. Based on this hypothesis,
electrical resistivity was measured at four boreholes in the areas surrounding the University of Peshawar using standard methods
of resistivity survey, i.e., Schlumberger electrode configuration. The resistivity data that was obtained by vertical electrical
sounding (VES) from the fieldwork was correlated with geotechnical data obtained through the analysis of soil samples in the
laboratory. Electrical resistivity had an inverse relationship with gravimetric moisture content and cohesion, with the highest
regression coefficients observed in the case of GYM-UAP and Girls’ Hostel-UAP (R2 = 0.97 and 0.96) boreholes, respectively.
Moreover, electrical resistivity had a significant linear correlation with the angle of internal friction and standard penetration test-
N (SPT-N) values, with the highest regression coefficient of GYM-UAP (R2 = 0.99) and Girls’ Hostel-UAP (R2 = 0.95),
respectively. In conclusion, the obtained relationships between electrical resistivity and different geotechnical properties could
be adopted for the assessment of geotechnical properties of soils, especially when many samples are difficult to obtain.

Keywords Cohesion . Angle of internal friction . Electrical resistivity . Correlation . SPT-N . Geotechnical properties

Responsible Editor: Zeynal Abiddin Erguler Introduction

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
(https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05947-x) contains supplementary Stability of engineered and natural structures like roads, build-
material, which is available to authorized users. ings, tunnels, bridges, dams, and slopes is one of the most
important aspects of geotechnical engineering (Roodposhti
* Allah Ditta et al. 2019). For the successful construction of any built struc-
ad_abs@yahoo.com; allah.ditta@sbbu.edu.pk
ture, knowledge about the engineering properties of the sub-
1 surface soil is unavoidable (Cosenza et al. 2006). These prop-
Department of Geology, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University
Sheringal, Upper Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 18000, Pakistan erties are conventionally obtained by geotechnical laboratory
2 analysis of soil samples collected from the construction site.
National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar,
Peshawar 25120, Pakistan Samples are collected using various techniques, including
3 open pits and boreholes (Siddiqui and Osman 2012). In the
Geoscience Advance Research Labs, Geological Survey of Pakistan,
Islamabad, Pakistan open-pit method, a small ditch is made by hand using
4 trenching tools, i.e., shovel and soil samples are taken from
Department of Environmental Sciences, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto
University Sheringal, Upper Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 18000, it. Alternatively, boreholes of various diameters are made
Pakistan using a drilling machine, and disturbed or undisturbed core
5
School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, samples are collected at various depths. In both approaches,
35 Stirling Highway, Perth, WA 6009, Australia high-density sampling is required for the accurate evaluation
 949 Page 2 of 10 Arab J Geosci (2020) 13:949

of soil properties due to wide temporal and spatial variations resistivity with SPT-N values in a sandy-clay formation
(Pozdnyakov et al. 2006). Sampling using these historical (Braga et al. 1999) and with organic matter content in Pusan
techniques is generally expensive and time-consuming, and clay (Giao et al. 2003) which showed a specific correlation
extraction of an undisturbed soil sample is difficult. between electrical resistivity and SPT-N values (Sudha et al.
Geophysical techniques such as electrical resistivity, seis- 2009).
mic refraction, and ground-penetrating radar have had much Thus, it is clear that electrical resistivity has been an im-
attention recently and are commonly practiced in the analysis portant tool for determining geotechnical properties of soil,
of engineering sites because they are rapid, cost-effective, and but an inconsistent and hysteretic nature of the relationship
non-destructive (Samouёlian et al. 2005; Cosenza et al. 2006; has been observed for some geotechnical properties, which
Pozdnyakov et al. 2006; Olorunfemi et al. 2010; Siddiqui and require further research work. Such inconsistencies may be
Osman 2013). Similarly, various machine learning simulation due to the nature and geology of a certain area, or the physi-
models based on artificial intelligence have been developed in cochemical and biological properties of the soil, among other
the field of electrical surveying (Jiang et al. 2020; Qiang et al. things (Alsharari et al. 2020). Earlier, Akintorinwa and
2020). These studies have resulted in improved neural net- Oluwole (2018) showed that the electrical resistivity of a com-
works which work better for larger data sets in feature engi- pact subsoil is high due to reduced porosity and moisture
neering and are compatible with commonly used statistical contents. To have a better understanding of the inconsistent
analysis tools. Among these techniques, the electrical resistiv- and hysteretic nature of relationships between electrical resis-
ity survey is particularly attractive for evaluating subsurface tivity and various geotechnical properties of soil and to in-
properties due to its rapid, cost-effective, and non-destructive crease accuracy and certainty, it is imperative to investigate
nature (Samouёlian et al. 2005; Siddiqui and Osman 2013; these relationships under a variety of geological conditions
Naseem et al. 2020). In this approach, direct current (DC) is with soils of different physicochemical and biological
applied to the soil and the resulting potential difference due to properties.
resistance in the flow of electric current is measured (Kearey Up to our knowledge, no study has been conducted under
et al. 2002). The data obtained is in the form of 1-D tomo- such geological conditions and correlation among electrical
graphic profile images by adopting the Schlumberger config- resistivity and geotechnical properties such as gravimetric
uration that represents the best-fit model for resistivity mea- moisture content, the angle of internal friction, cohesion, and
sured in the field. SPT-N values, as investigated in the present study. Moreover,
Recently, electrical resistivity has been used to determine standard procedures as recommended by the American
geotechnical properties of soil, including soil strength, slope Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) were used for the
stability, and subsurface structural non-homogeneity determination of geotechnical properties of the soil under lab-
(Siddiqui and Osman 2013), clay contents (Shevnin et al. oratory conditions. The present study was conducted to deter-
2007), water content, salinity, thermal resistivity, hydraulic mine the possibility of using electrical resistivity, a non-
conductivity (Ozcep et al. 2009; Aleke et al. 2018; Hasan destructive method for the estimation of different geotechnical
et al. 2018; Rasul et al. 2018), groundwater contamination, properties. In this regard, the correlation between various geo-
depth and quality (Rao et al. 2014; Mehmood et al. 2020), technical properties of soil (gravimetric moisture content, the
standard penetration test-N (SPT-N), and plasticity index angle of internal friction, cohesion, and SPT-N values) deter-
(Cosenza et al. 2006; Syed and Siddiqui 2012). It has also mined under laboratory conditions with electrical resistivity
been used to determine the feasibility of agricultural activities determined during field surveys was investigated using least
through the estimation of soil water content, humus content, square regression method. The findings of this study in the
and salinity (Pozdnyakov et al. 2006). form of different relationships would be helpful in the quick
Various studies have found a non-linear correlation be- estimation of different geotechnical properties from the in situ
tween electrical resistivity and soil moisture content values of electrical resistivity.
(Cosenza et al. 2006; Pozdnyakov et al. 2006; Schwartz
et al. 2008; Ozcep et al. 2009, 2010; Rasul et al. 2018). On
the other hand, no clear relationship was observed between Regional geology
electrical resistivity and cone penetration resistance values
(Cosenza et al. 2006). Many reports from around the world The study area lies in the western portion of the Peshawar
have found a strong relationship between electrical resistivity basin surrounded by Paleozoic Khyber ranges (Fig. S1). The
and SPT-N values (Oh and Sun 2008; Olayinka et al. 2019), Peshawar basin is located in the northwestern part of Pakistan,
compressive strength (Liu et al. 2008), and moisture contents bounded by igneous and metamorphic rocks like granites,
(Syed and Siddiqui 2012), but a weak correlation with cohe- schists, and syenites in the north, and sedimentary rocks like
sion and angle of internal friction (Syed and Siddiqui 2012). limestones, shales, and sandstones in the south and southwest
On the other hand, there was a weak correlation of electrical (Stauffer 1968; Rafiq and Jan 1989). The fill deposits of the
Arab J Geosci (2020) 13:949 Page 3 of 10 949

Peshawar basin are comprised of fluvial sands, gravels, and measured potential difference, current, and geometric factor
fanglomerates aged 0.6 to 2.8 mega-annum (Ma) (Burbank K (Reynolds 1997; Herman 2001). The readings of ρa were
and Tahirkheli 1985; Ullah et al. 2009). obtained by moving the current electrodes C1 and C2 (AB/2)
after each reading by an interval of 0.5 m depth. Potential
electrodes P1 and P2 (MN/2) were held in a fixed posi-
Materials and methods tion of 0.3 m depth until the 11th reading at 6.0 m.
Thereafter, P1 and P2 (MN/2) were changed to 1.0 m
Study area until the end of the grid line. The equation used to
determine resistivity is given by Eq. 1, while geometric
The present study was conducted at the University of factor K for a systematic array of AMNB is given by
Peshawar (UOP) and its surrounding areas, located in Eq. 2. This was necessary to compensate for the fall in
the western part of the Peshawar basin. The basin itself potential reading below the accuracy of the voltmeter.
is situated in the Northwest (NW) of Pakistan and The total length of the survey grid line was about 25 m
covers an area of about 8000 km2. It is situated at and therefore, according to the AB/2 spacing, the total
34° 01′ 09.85″ N, 71° 28′ 33.48″ E and about 1177 ft depth of coverage was 12.5 m.
above mean sea level. The climate of Peshawar is mod-  
erate to severe subtropical under Köppen Climate ρ ¼ k ΔV I
= ð1Þ
Classification and less humid based on precipitation ef-
fectiveness (Faisal and Sadiq 2009), having annual pre-
where ΔV is the potential difference across the potential
cipitation of about 400 mm and mean annual maximum
electrodes, I is the current applied, and k is the geomet-
and minimum temperatures of 39.5 °C and 4 °C, re-
ric factor which is given by:
spectively (Shah et al. 2007). In the study area, con-
struction of residential flats and research laboratories ðAB=2Þ2 −ðMN=2Þ2
was proposed by the National Centre of Excellence in k¼π ð2Þ
MN
Geology (NCEG) and the University of Agriculture
Peshawar (UAP), Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. A where AB/2 is current electrode spacing which gives the
geoelectrical resistivity survey was conducted along four penetration depth of current.
boreholes (NCEG-UOP, Gymnasium UAP, Institute of
Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (IBGE) UAP, Data processing
and Girls’ Hostel-UAP) to obtain resistivity data of the
subsurface matrix up to 20 to 30 m depth (Fig. S2). The data obtained during the fieldwork were processed
Extensive electrical resistivity measurements were made (IPI2Win, version 3.1.2c) to analyze electrical resistivity
through the Schlumberger array along each borehole to ac- data from one or more vertical electrical sounding
quire subsurface geoelectric data. The Schlumberger electrode (VES) points (IPIWIN-1D 2000) (Zananiri et al. 2006;
configuration was adopted due to its maximum depth of pen- Sultan et al. 2009; Farid et al. 2013). Data processing
etration per unit current electrode spacing, high vertical reso- included (1) data input, (2) data error correction, (3)
lution thereby yielding maximum information on subsurface adding a data point, and (4) creation of master curves
geology (Atakpo and Ayolabi 2009). Borehole locations were for interpretation of resistivity data. The forward itera-
determined with the help of a Global Positioning System tion inversion technique using IPI2Win software was
(GPS) with a precision of 10 to 15 ft. The methodology was applied to obtain the true resistivity of each layer with
divided into geophysical and geotechnical methods. corresponding depth and thickness of each lithological
unit. The data point was used to obtain the depth of
Geophysical methods layer with increasing the current electrode (AB) dis-
tance. The output from analyzing the sounding data
Field data collection was resistivity layer, a graph of log resistivity, and a
table of resistivity-depth. In Fig. S3, AB/2 is the dis-
Field data were collected along each borehole in a single pro- tance between two electrodes that inject an electric cur-
file using a Schlumberger array (ABEM SAS 4000 rent to the ground in data input. MN is the voltage drop
Terrameter including steel electrodes, current supplying cable, across electrodes M and N, V for potential difference, I
potential measuring cable, dry batteries, and hammer) as for input electric current, and K geometric factor. Rho is
shown in Figs. S3 and S4. The condition of MN ≤ 1/5 AB an apparent resistivity data column. Electrical resistivity
was also satisfied by changing the MN spacing. The apparent was plotted against gravimetric moisture content (ω),
resistivity (ρa) that was measured is a function of the cohesion (c), and angle of internal friction (ɸ).
 949 Page 4 of 10 Arab J Geosci (2020) 13:949

Geotechnical methods American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM,

D2216-11 2019, ASTM D854-14 2014, ASTM D7263-
Field observations 09(2018)e2 2018, ASTM D6913/D6913M-17 2017). For the
estimation of soil shearing strength properties like the angle of
Undisturbed soil samples were collected from the study area internal friction (ɸ) and cohesion (c), a direct shear box test
during the standard penetration test (SPT) using Shelby tubes was performed (ASTM D3080/D3080M-11 2011). During
from depths ranging from 1 to 15 m over an area of approx- this test, an undisturbed soil sample was placed in a container
imately 1500 m2 (ASTM D1586/D1586M-18 2018). The SPT of known volume and was covered by porous plates at its top
was carried out by the Soil Mechanics and Highway and bottom while constant normal stress was applied in a
Laboratory team, University of Engineering and Technology vertical direction. The soil sample was sheared along a
(UET), Peshawar, and M/S Geo-Con Lahore Pvt Ltd. predefined plane by applying stress in the horizontal direction
(Das 2007). The test was repeated at least 3 times, increasing
Geotechnical data of boreholes in the study area the normal stress each time.
The gravimetric moisture content of the soil was calculated
Geotechnical data were collected from four boreholes located using the following formula:
at the four sites: National Centre of Excellence in Geology,
University of Peshawar (NCEG-UOP, BH-01); Gymnasium- Gravimetric moisture contents ð%Þ
University of Agriculture, Peshawar (GYM-UAP, BH-02); Wet mass of soil sample−Dry mass of soil sample
Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic engineering (IBGE- ¼
Dry mass of soil sample
UAP, BH-03); and Girls’ Hostel-UAP (BH-04) (Fig. S2).
Soil analysis was carried out at 10, 15, 7, and 7 m deep in  100
BH-01, BH-02, BH-03, and BH-04. A test pit was excavated
The particle size distribution was determined for soil clas-
at each site at 1.5 m (BH-01), 2.5 m (BH-02), 1 m (BH-03),
sification by sieve analysis according to ASTM D2487-17
and 1 m (BH-04) depth. The location of the boreholes was 34°
2017 and ASTM D6913/D6913M-17 2017, where the per-
01′ 05.82″ N, 71° 28′ 32.64″ E (BH-01); 34° 01′ 06.99″ N, 71°
centage of soil particles passing through different sieves were
28′ 28.75″ E (BH-02); 34° 01′ 15.35″ N, 71° 28′ 27.17″ E
plotted against the particle sizes to obtain the grain size distri-
(BH-03); and 34° 01′ 26.55″ N, 71° 28′ 29.50″ E (BH-04).
bution (Siddiqui and Osman 2012).
For SPT, a borehole was drilled to the desired sampling
depth and then a standard hammer (63.5 kg) was used, lifted
to 0.76 m for each blow. During wet drilling, all cuttings were Data analysis
flushed out. A split spoon sampler was attached to the A-rod,
lowered into the hole until it was sitting on the undisturbed Data were tested for statistical significance using the statistical
material and the drive weight assembly assembled. The num- software PAST and Sigma plot to determine normality.
ber of blows was recorded for each 0.15 m of penetration. The Microsoft Excel was used to calculate the correlation between
first 0.15-m increment was the seating drive. The sum of the geotechnical and geophysical data (Hatta and Osman 2015)
blows for the second and third increments of 0.15 m penetra- using the least squares regression method. Correlation is a
tion was termed penetration resistance, designated as the N- bivariate analysis that measures the strength of association
value. The test was terminated if the blow count exceeded between two variables and the direction of the relationship
100. In these cases, the number of blows for the last 0.30 m and the highest correlation coefficient for each relationship
of penetration was recorded as the N-value. Shelby tubes were was identified by testing linear, logarithmic, polynomial, ex-
used to collect undisturbed soil samples, along with disturbed ponential, and power curve fitting calculations.
samples obtained by split spoon sampler, from each borehole
for soil classification and the determination of gravimetric
moisture content. Each sample was removed from the sampler Results and discussion
and sealed in a plastic bag to retain moisture.
Geophysical and geotechnical fieldwork was performed with
Geotechnical laboratory analyses the specific goal of identifying correlations among these dif-
ferent types of parameters and developing a model that can
Geotechnical laboratory analyses regarding gravimetric mois- translate the subsurface guide of shallow soil amid develop-
ture content (ω), specific gravity (Gs) and unit weight (γ), ment exercises. A VES approach was used to delineate sub-
grain size distribution, and the soil strength parameters, the surface soil parameters and then correlate them with soil geo-
angle of internal friction (ɸ), and cohesion (c) were conducted technical properties obtained through borehole sampling at
following standard procedures recommended by the four different sites in the study area. The root mean square
Arab J Geosci (2020) 13:949 Page 5 of 10 949

(RMS) level for inversion was 1–3% and it showed an exact The geotechnical analysis was conducted by taking undis-
match with the borehole units with an agreed level of 95%, turbed soil samples from each borehole. The details of the
inferring that quality of data was very good and reliable com- methods used are given in the “Materials and methods” sec-
pared with geotechnical data. tion. The results of the analysis are presented in Table 1. The
Electrode spacing (AB/2) and apparent resistivity were data presented showed that GYM-UAP had the maximum
plotted at the x-axis and y-axis, respectively (Fig. 1). mean depth, followed by NCEG-UOP, IBGE-UAP, and
Dotted symbols show the resistivity values while the gen- Girls’ Hostel-UAP boreholes. In the case of all the four bore-
eral trend obtained from the software by adding the values holes, the values of moisture contents, cohesion, angle of in-
of resistivity was denoted by a black line. The data has ternal friction, and SPT-N increased with increasing depth and
been analyzed using IPI2Win resistivity software to por- vice versa.
tray the true resistivity of each layer with corresponding
thickness and depth. The software works on the principle Subsurface layers information
of forwarding iteration techniques by adopting curve
matching techniques of apparent and true resistivity of The geoelectrical and geotechnical parameters from all the
each layer. The root means square (RMS) value of the data boreholes up to 10 m depth show at least three distinct soil
is within the range of 0.5–0.7% representing the best fitting layers (Figs. 1 and 2). The uppermost layer is 1 m thick grave-
and matching. The raw resistivity data is fed into the soft- ly clay overlying a 6-m-thick middle layer of clay and a lower
ware, after analyzing it shows resistivity values on Y-axis 3-m-thick layer of gravel and clayey gravel (Fig. 2). The pres-
and depth (AB) on X-axis. For example, there was a one- ence of these alternate clay and gravel layers is likely the result
layer present up to a depth of 1.03 m with an apparent of sedimentation from the old Bara River flowing near the
resistivity value of 107 Ωm. The depth and altitude of the study area (Shah et al. 2007).
specific layer were denoted by “D” and while “T” was The average apparent resistivities of the soil types ranged
thickness. In the same manner, all the data of borehole from 40 to 105 Ωm for gravely clay, 60 to 150 Ωm for clay,
grids were processed and different subsurface layers en- and 150 to 250 Ωm for gravel (Table S1). They are all within
countered at a specific depth and altitude from the ground the standard ranges of resistivity values of common geologic
surface were shown in subsequent tables on the right side. materials, depicting a picture of shallow subsurface lithologies

Fig. 1 Resistivity curve and layer parameters of (a) NCEG-UOP, (b) GYM-UAP, (c) IBGE-UAP, and (d) Girls’ Hostel-UAP
 949 Page 6 of 10 Arab J Geosci (2020) 13:949

Table 1 Geotechnical data of GYM-UAP, IBGE-UAP, Girls’ Hostel-UAP, and NCEG-UOP

Sampling depth (m) Moisture content (%) Cohesion (kPa) Angle of internal friction (φ) SPT-N

GYM-UAP
Mean 8.1 15.74 ± 0.78* 144 ± 18.22 28.82° ± 2.68 33.4 ± 10.41
Range 2.5–15.0 14.50–16.50 120–170 26.5°–32.7° 25–51
IBGE-UAP
Mean 4 9.96 ± 0.35 5.83 ± 5.45 23.57 ± 14.51 19.57 ± 17.03
Range 1.0–7.0 9.45–10.40 0–13.70 0°–38.0° 7–48
Girls’ Hostel-UAP
Mean 4 4.41 ± 0.78 4.92 ± 3.49 24 ± 12.90 32.33 ± 15.60
Range 1.0–7.0 3.57–5.80 0–11.34 0°–34.0° 16–48
NCEG-UOP
Mean 5.42 8.53 ± 2.81 47.92 ± 45.55 29.13° ± 3.64 44 ± 9.12
Range 1.5–10.0 6.40–12.30 19.50–139.20 23.5°–33.5° 30–54

GYM-UAP, gymnasium-University of Agriculture, Peshawar (UAP); IBGE-UAP, Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic engineering, Girls’ Hostel-
UAP; NCEG-UOP, National Centre of Excellence in Geology-University of Peshawar
*Shows the standard error of means (SEMs) where n = 3

Fig. 2 Borehole logs of (a)

NCEG-UOP, (b) GYM-UAP, (c)
IBGE-UAP, and (d) Girls’
Hostel-UAP
Arab J Geosci (2020) 13:949 Page 7 of 10 949

(Reynolds and Paren 1980, 1984). However, these values are in soil pore spaces facilitating the conduction of electrical
susceptible to variation based on in situ moisture content, current (Schwartz et al. 2008; Hen-Jones et al. 2017;
saturation ratio, and bulk density. Alsharari et al. 2020). Our results are in line with other studies
that similarly reported that electrical resistivity decreased with
Correlation between electrical resistivity and increasing moisture contents (Giao et al. 2003; Cosenza et al.
geotechnical properties 2006; Ozcep et al. 2010; Syed and Siddiqui 2012; Siddiqui
and Osman 2013; Hatta and Osman 2015).
The data collected regarding electrical resistivity and different
geotechnical properties were subjected to correlation analysis Correlation between electrical resistivity and angle of internal
to find out the relationship between electrical resistivity and friction
geotechnical properties. The least square regression method
was used to evaluate the correlations found. Different curve Electrical resistivity showed a positive correlation with the
fitting approximations (linear, logarithmic, polynomial, expo- angle of internal friction, which is best explained by a qua-
nential, and power) were evaluated and the best approxima- dratic function at all four boreholes (Fig. S5a–d). The relation-
tion equation with the highest coefficient of determination ship between electrical resistivity and angle of internal friction
(R2) was selected. is still ambiguous in literature. In general, electrical resistivity
increases with an increasing angle of internal friction
Correlation between electrical resistivity and gravimetric (Siddiqui and Osman 2012, 2013; Osman et al. 2014). Soil
moisture contents strength is dependent on the nature of particle structure and
arrangement. Also, the internal friction angle depends on the
Electrical resistivity and gravimetric moisture contents of soil soil lithology, e.g., its clay content. These factors are also
were inversely correlated through quadratic function. The re- responsible for the porosity of soil and ultimately the move-
gression coefficient was similarly strong for all four boreholes ment of fluid and dissolved ions into the soil, i.e., electrical
(Fig. 3a–d). The general pattern of bends demonstrated that resistivity. In this study, the electrical resistivity values were
electrical resistivity decreased with the increasing gravimetric lower (≤ 203.6 Ωm) than those reported by Siddiqui and
moisture content of the soil. This trend may be due to the ionic Osman (2012, 2013) and Osman et al. (2014) (≥ 6500 Ωm).
portability of particles in pore spaces within the immersed soil, The soil particles act as an insulator when the soil is dry or
which stimulates conductivity and conversely diminishes contains little moisture, while electrical conductivity occurs
electrical resistivity (Cosenza et al. 2006; Ozcep et al. 2009). when fluid is present in the micro and macro voids (Robain
This conclusion is consistent with the movement of water ions et al. 2003; Ozcep et al. 2009, 2010). The porosity of the soil is

Fig. 3 Correlation between

electrical resistivity and
gravimetric moisture content of
soil samples from (a) NCEG-
UOP, (b) GYM-UAP, (c) IBGE-
UAP, and (d) Girls’ Hostel-UAP
boreholes
 949 Page 8 of 10 Arab J Geosci (2020) 13:949

dependent on pore size and the volume of air voids. The latter of electric current. Therefore, as the cohesion increases with
increases or decreases with the degree of saturation. The angle increasing saturation or gravimetric moisture content, the ion-
of internal friction has an inverse relationship with the degree ic conduction will ultimately increase and electrical resistivity
of saturation. This premise is supported by low moisture con- will decrease (Siddiqui and Osman 2012). Moreover, in-
tents with a higher angle of internal friction as observed in the creased moisture contents decrease shear strength parameters
case of soil samples collected from NCEG-UOP, GYM-UAP, of soil, thereby decreasing electrical resistivity (Spoor and
IBGE-UAP, and Girls’ Hostel-UAP boreholes in the present Godwin 1979). A similar inverse relationship between cohe-
study. Under saturated conditions, there is a strong connection sion and electrical resistivity has also been reported in the
between soil particles, which ultimately decreases the angle of literature (Siddiqui and Osman 2012; Siddiqui and Osman
internal friction, while the angle increases with a lower degree 2013).
of saturation (Sadek 1993; Yan et al. 2017). Therefore, lower
and higher electrical resistivities related to the angle of internal Correlation between electrical resistivity and SPT-N
friction occur because of increasing or decreasing electrical
conductivity in the pores and along the solid surface, There was a positive and strong quadratic correlation between
respectively. electrical resistivity and SPT-N for all four boreholes (Fig. 4a–
d). The maximum strong relation (R2 = 0.95) between electri-
Correlation between electrical resistivity and cohesion cal resistivity and SPT-N values was in the case of Girls’
Hostel-UAP borehole (Fig. 4d). Various researchers have re-
An inverse quadratic relationship was observed between elec- ported a similar relationship as observed here (Liu et al. 2008;
trical resistivity and cohesion for all four boreholes (Fig. S6a– Oh and Sun 2008; Sudha et al. 2009; Syed and Siddiqui 2012;
d). However, this relationship got very low R2 value for Hatta and Osman 2015; Olayinka et al. 2019). In the case of
NCEG-UOP (R2 = 0.42) and IBGE-UAP (R2 = 0.50) and high Sudha et al. (2009), they found a strong positive correlation
for GYM-UAP (R2 = 0.85) and Girls’ Hostel-UAP (R2 = (R2 = 0.974 and R2 = 0.975) between electrical resistivity
0.96). Cohesion decreased with increasing electrical resistivity and N-values observed for Aligarh and Jhansi, respective-
to a certain point for soils from the NCEG-UOP and IBGE- ly. In our case, the values of R2 ranged from 0.64 to 0.95.
UAP boreholes, but then it increased beyond that (Fig. S6a, c). The authors suggested that the values of SPT-N were de-
For the GYM-UAP and Girls’ Hostel-UAP boreholes, there pendent upon clay contents. This premise is supported by
was a positive correlation between electrical resistivity and the lesser values of R2 = 0.64 due to lower clay contents
cohesion near the surface, which became a negative deeper of NCEG-UOP borehole and higher values of R2 = 0.95
in the borehole (Fig. S6b, d). The fluid content present in the for Girls’ Hostel-UAP borehole with higher clay contents
soil pore spaces is generally responsible for ionic conduction (Fig. 2).

Fig. 4 Correlation between

electrical resistivity and SPT-N of
soil from (a) NCEG-UOP, (b)
GYM-UAP, (c) IBGE-UAP, and
(d) Girls’ Hostel-UAP boreholes
Arab J Geosci (2020) 13:949 Page 9 of 10 949

Conclusions ASTM D7263-09(2018)e2 (2018) Standard test methods for laboratory

determination of density (unit weight) of soil specimens. ASTM
International, West Conshohocken
In the present study, the relationship between electrical resis- ASTM D854-14 (2014) Standard test methods for specific gravity of soil
tivity and the geotechnical properties of soils from four bore- solids by water pycnometer. ASTM International, West
holes was investigated in an attempt to determine the possi- Conshohocken
Atakpo EA, Ayolabi EA (2009) Evaluation of aquifer vulnerability and
bility of measuring in situ electrical resistivities for quick es-
the protective capacity in some oil producing communities of west-
timation of geotechnical properties, which are costly, time- ern Niger Delta. Environmentalist 29(3):310–317
consuming, and destructive. The results showed a greater pos- Braga A, Malagutti W, Dourado J, Chang H (1999) Correlation of elec-
sibility of using in situ electrical resistivities for the prediction trical resistivity and induced polarization data with geotechnical
survey standard penetration test measurements. J Environ Eng
of geotechnical properties as clear from strong and significant
Geophys 4:123–130
correlations between electrical resistivity and the geotechnical Burbank DW, Tahirkheli RAK (1985) The magnetostratigraphy fission-
properties examined (gravimetric moisture content, the angle track dating and stratigraphic evolution of the Peshawar basin,
of internal friction, cohesion, and SPT-N values). In conclu- northern Pakistan. Geol Soc Am Bull 96:539–552
Cosenza P, Marmet E, Rejiba F, Cui YJ, Tabbagh A, Charlery Y (2006)
sion, the use of an in situ electrical resistivity survey could be
Correlation between geotechnical and electrical data, A case study in
used for the estimation of different geotechnical properties of Garchy in France. J Appl Geophys 60:165–178
the soil. However, more extensive field tests under different Das BM (2007) Principles of geotechnical engineering. Thomson
geologic environmental conditions are required to authenti- Learning: India. pp 323
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itation effectiveness index. Pak J Meteorol 6(16):51–60
Farid A, Jadoon K, Akhter G, Iqbal MA (2013) Hydrostratigraphy and
Funding Financial support and research facilities were provided by the hydrogeology of the western part of Maira area, Khyber
National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan: a case study by using electrical resistivity.
25120, Peshawar, Pakistan. Environ Monit Assess 185(3):2407–2422
Giao PH, Chung SG, Kim DY, Tanaka H (2003) Electric imaging and
Compliance with ethical standards laboratory resistivity testing for geotechnical investigation of Pusan
Clay deposits. J Appl Geophys 52:157–175
Hasan M, Shang Y, Akhter G, Jin W (2018) Evaluation of groundwater
Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing
potential in Kabirwala area, Pakistan: a case study by using geo-
interests.
physical, geochemical and pump data. Geophys Prospect 66:1737–
1750
Hatta KA, Osman SBAS (2015) Correlation of electrical resistivity and
SPT-N value from standard penetration test (SPT) of Sandy Soil.
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