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Strain Measurement Using Strain Gage

Sensors
Stress and strain definition
Strain and stress are the results when it comes to external forces that are applied to a non-moving object.

[Video available in the online version]

Strain
A strain is defined as the amount of deformation that an object experiences compared to its original size and shape (the ratio
of increase in length regarding original length)

The term strain is in most cases used to describe the elongation of a section.

Strain can be caused by the effect of a force.

A strain is a dimensionless quantity and is usually expressed in percentage. Typical measures for strain are less than 2 mm/m
for steel and are often expressed in micro-strain units. One microstrain is the strain producing deformation of one part per
million.

Stress
1
Stress is defined as applied force per unit area

It usually occurs as a result of an applied force but is often due to the effects of force within a material or within a larger
system.

For example, let's imagine a wire that is anchored at the top and hanging down. We apply weights to the end of this wire to pull
it down, thus applying a downward force. We can see that in the picture below, where A is the original cross-sectional area of
the wire, and L is the original wire length. In this example, the material (wire) experiences stress which is called the axial stress.

The units are the same as the pressure because the pressure is the special variation of stress. Despite that, stress is still a
more complex quantity than pressure, because it fluctuates with direction and with the surface it acts on.

We can calculate the stress (σ) by multiplying strain (ε) and Young's modulus (E).

2
Force

Therefore

Given that the elastic modulus (Young's modulus) of steel is 210000 N/mm2 and the cross-section of the sensor is 139 mm2
we get:

3
Young's modulus
The connection between stress and strain - Young's modulus.

The Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus or elastic modulus is a measure of the stiffness of an elastic
material and is a quantity used to characterize materials.

It is defined as the ratio of the stress (force per unit area) along an axis over the strain (ratio of deformation over initial length)
along that axis in the range of stress in which Hooke's law holds.

A material, whose Young's modulus is very high, is rigid.

The Young's modulus [E], can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress by the extensional strain in the elastic (initial, linear)
portion of the stress-strain curve:

where

E is Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity)

F is the force exerted on an object under tension;
A0 is the original cross-sectional area through which the force is applied;
ΔL is the amount by which the length of the object changes;
L0 is the original length of the object.

By the International System of Units, (SI), the unit of Young's modulus is the Pascal (Pa or N/m2 or kg/ms2). The practical
units used are megapascals (MPa or N/mm2) or gigapascals (GPa or kN/mm2).

In the United States customary units, Young's modulus is expressed as pounds per square inch (psi).

Measuring modulus of elasticity

Modulus of elasticity and yield stress are two frequent material properties that can be calculated from performing tensile tests
with a mechanical testing system.

The procedure of Mechanical testing systems is that the selected material is clamped between two grips. The bottom grip is
tightened on the surface while the top grip moves up at a certain displacement rate.

The testing system records the force that is needed to stretch the material and the suitable displacement of the grips.
4
Engineers measure the original cross-sectional area of a specimen and the original length between the grips. After that, they
are able to calculate stress from the force data and strain from the displacement data. All the data is then used to create
stress-strain diagrams as shown in the image below.

Stress-Strain Curve
900
0.2% Offset Line
800

700
Ultimate
600 Tensile
Strenght
Stress (MPa)

(UTS)
500 Yield Strenght Point
Breaking Strenght

400

300
Linear - Elastic Region
200

100

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Strain (m/m)

Fracture
Uniform Uniform Necking
Elastic Plastic
Deformation Deformation

Tensile
Specimens

5
Types of stress

1. Normal stress
We know two normal stresses - Tensile and Compressive stress. Tensile stresses are positive, compressive stresses are
negative.

Normal stresses arise when tensile or compressive forces act against one another.

1.1 Tension
On the picture below we can see a tensile load applied to a rectangular solid. The response of a rectangular solid to tensile
loads is very dependent on the tensile stiffness and strength properties of the reinforcement fibers since these are far higher
than the resin system on its own.

1.2 Compression
The figure below shows a composite under a compressive load. Here, the adhesive and stiffness properties of the resin
system are crucial, as it is the role of the resin to maintain the fibers as straight columns and to prevent them from buckling.

6
2. Shear stress
The figure below shows a composite experiencing a shear load. This load is trying to slide adjacent layers of fibers over each
other. Under shear loads, the resin plays a major role, transferring the stresses across the composite. For the composite to
perform well under shear loads the resin element must not only exhibit good mechanical properties but must also have high
adhesion to the reinforcement fiber. The interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) of a composite is often used to indicate this
property in a multi-layer composite ('laminate').

7
 a

I
Io Iu Iu
I

(a) TENSILE STRAIN (b) COMPRESSIVE STRAIN (c) SHEAR STRAIN

8
Strain gage and gage factor

Strain gage
A Strain gage is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force and is commonly used for load, weight, and force
detection. It is basically a foil resistor, whose line resistance is proportional to the length and inversely to the area of the cross-
section. It consists of a small diameter wire, that is attached to a backing material (usually made of plastic). The wire is looped
back and forth several times to create an effectively longer wire. The longer the wire, the larger the resistance, and the larger
the change in resistance. However, the change of the resistance is very small, so we need a good amplifier and measurement
principle to detect such small differences. It is one of the most important tools of the electrical measurement technique
applied to the measurement of mechanical quantities. Strain gages, that are glued to a larger structure under stress, are
named Bonded gages. Typical strain gages have a resistances range from 120 Ω to 350 kΩ (unstressed) and are smaller
than a postage stamp. This resistance may change only a fraction of a percent for the full force range of the gage, given the
limitations imposed by the elastic limits of the gage material and of the test specimen. Forces great enough to induce greater
resistance changes would permanently deform the test specimen and/or the gage conductors themselves, thus ruining the
gage as a measurement device. That's why, in order to use the strain gage as a practical instrument, we must measure
extremely small changes in resistance with high accuracy. The ideal strain gage would undergo the change in resistance only
because of the deformations of the surface to which the sensor is coupled. However, in real applications, there are many
factors that influence detected resistance such as temperature, material properties, the adhesive that bonds the gage to the
surface, and the stability of the metal.

direction
of strain

etched
metal foil

backing
solder material
terminal

connecting wires
(leads)

9
Gage factor (GF or k)
If a wire is held under tension, it gets slightly longer and its cross-sectional area is reduced. This changes its resistance (R) in
proportion to the strain sensitivity (S) of the wire's resistance. When a strain is introduced, the strain sensitivity, which is also
called the gage factor(GF), is given by:

General examples of strain gages:

MATERIAL gage FACTOR

Metal foil strain gage 2-5

Thin-film metal (e.g. Constantan) 2

Single crystal silicone -125 to + 200

Polysilicon ±30

Thick-film resistors 100

The gage factor does not rely on the temperature, however, it is important to know, that it only relates the resistance to the
strain if there are no temperature effects. The ideal strain gage would only change resistance due to the deformations of the
surface on to which it was attached.

10
 TENSION CAUSES
RESISTANCE INCREASE

GAUGE INSENSITIVE RESISTANCE IS

TO LATERAL FORCES MEASURED
BETWEEN THIS TWO
POINTS

COMPRESSION CAUSES
RESISTANCE DECREASE

11
How to select the right strain gage?

1. Selection based on gage length:

First, let's explain what is a gage length.

Gage length is the distance along with the specimen upon which extension calculations are made. The gage length is
sometimes taken as the distance between the grips.

It ranges from 0.2 mm to 100 mm, but a length of 3 mm to 6 mm is generally recommended for the common applications.

Select a shorter gage (< 3mm) if you are limited to mounting space if a localized strain gradient needs to be measured (on a
fillet, hole, or notch with a small diameter (< 25 mm), or if accuracy isn't critical.

Select a longer gage (> 6mm) if you need to install gage really fast. If the gage is longer it is easier to install it, if heat
dissipation is an issue (longer gage is less sensitive to heat), if the measured object has non-homogeneous material
properties, such as concrete, if you want to save money. Gages with a length of 5.0 - 12.5 mm are usually less expensive than
gages of other lengths.

2. Selection based on gage resistance:

The electrical resistance of a strain gage is directly related to its sensitivity. The higher is the resistance, the higher is then the
sensitivity.

Select a higher resistance gage (350Ω or 1000Ω) if you need to have higher sensitivity if you need certain compatibility with
existing instrumentation.

Select a lower resistance gage (120Ω) if fatigue loading is an issue. Here it is really important to know, that lower resistance
wire is larger in diameter, and more fatigue resistant. You can also choose this type if the cost is an issue because 120Ω
gages are usually less expensive than 350Ω gages.

3. Selection based on gage pattern:

Before we start explaining gage patterns, it is important to explain what are Strain rosettes.

Strain rosette
A single strain gage can only measure in one direction. To overcome this, we use a strain gage rosette. It is an arrangement of
two or more closely positioned gage grids, separately oriented to measure the normal strains along with different directions in
12
the underlying surface of the test part. Rosettes are designed to perform a very practical and important function in
experimental stress analysis. It can be shown that for the not-uncommon case of the general biaxial stress state, with the
principal directions unknown, three independent strain measurements (in different directions) are required to determine the
principal strains and stresses. And even when the principal directions are known in advance, two independent strain
measurements are needed to obtain the principal strains and stresses.

o o o
90 90 90
o
45 o
0
o 45
o
0
o
0

X L T V

o
90
o
90
o o
90 45
o o o
45 45 45 o o
90 0

o o
0 0
o
0

star Y -45 o
fan row

o o
120
o o
60 120
o
60
o
120 60

o o
0 0
o
0

star Y -60 delta

o

Gage pattern refers to the number of grid and the layout of the grid.

13
Select a uniaxial strain gage if you need to measure only one direction of strain or if you are limited with money because Two
or three single uniaxial strain gauges are usually less expensive than a bi-axial or tri-element strain gage.

Uniaxial Strain Gage

Select a bi-axial strain rosette (0°-90° Tee rosette) if you need to measure principal stress, which means that principal axes
are known.

o o
0 - 90 T Rosette

Select a three-element strain rosette (0°-45°-90° rectangular rosette or 0°-60°-120° delta rosette) if you want to
measure principal stresses and you don't know the principal axes.

14
 o o o
0 - 45 - 90 Retangular Rosette

o o o
0 - 60 - 120 Delta Rosette

We know two different layouts in multi-axial strain rosettes: planar and stacked.

15
Select a strain rosette with planar layout, if you have problems with heat dissipation or you have critical accuracy and stability.
The planar layout has each gage closer to the measuring surface and no interference in between.

Select a strain rosette with a stacked layout, if The strain gradient is large. Stacked layout measures strain at the same point or
if you are limited in mounting space.

o o o
0 - 60 - 120 Delta Rosette

16
 o o o
Stacked 0 - 50 - 120 Delta Rosette

17
Mounting of strain gage
The mounting of the strain gage is not a difficult task if we follow the suggested procedure. Strain gages are fragile and can be
damaged easily.

For mounting a strain gage we need Illuminated magnifier, electrical grade Solder, rosin soldering flux, epoxy adhesive,
cyanoacrylate adhesive, lacquer thinner, acetone or alcohol, masking tape, toothpicks, tweezers, awl, ruler, fine gauge tinned-
copper lead wires and ohmmeter.

Important: never touch a gage with your fingers!

Let's take a look at the Youtube video below, which will show us how to install a strain gage.

The video was created by Mechatronics department at the University of Jordan.

[Video available in the online version]

Strain gauge installation

A short story about the strain gage connections really fits in this context.

Most people are likely familiar with Murphy's Law. It originally states that "Whatever can go wrong, will go wrong". This is very
well known, but what is not known so well is that it originates from the strain gage measurements. The "inventor" of this law,
Capt. Ed Murphy made a strain gage measurement system for a g-force testing system at Edwards Air Force Base, where the
maximum g force, that the human body could take, was to be tested. As a side-note, a real human was used, and the
maximum force was 40 g.

The result of the first measurement was zero, simply because the strain gauges were connected in such a way that they
canceled out each other. Capt. Ed Murphy blamed his assistant for the error, who had connected the gages in the wrong way.
The other, even more interesting part of the story for the process of measurement was that Murphy simply declined a
verification of the system, which was offered to him before performing the test.

The point of this story is this: Connect - CALIBRATE - VERIFY - Measure. If Capt. Ed Murphy had followed this procedure
Murphy's Law would not have been invented (at least not for that occasion).

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Wheatstone bridge
Before we continue our discussion about strain gages we must acquaint ourselves with the Wheatstone bridge circuit. It is a
bridge circuit for measuring electrical resistance and it was made popular after Sir Charles Wheatstone proposed the method
in 1843. The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is nothing else than two simple series-parallel arrangements of resistors connected
between a voltage supply terminal and the ground producing zero voltage difference when the two parallel resistor legs are
balanced. It has two input terminals and two output terminals consisting of four resistors configured in a diamond. You can
see the typical drawing of the Wheatstone bridge in the picture below. It is suitable for measuring small changes in resistance,
making it good for strain gages.

R1 R2

+
C V B

Rx R3

The below example shows how the string gages utilize the Wheatstone bridge circuit. It also shows how strain gages can be
bonded to a test specimen.

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 (+)
STRAIN GAGE #1 R R#1

STRAIN GAGE #2 R R#2

(-)
BRIDGE BALANCED

If there is no force applied to the object, both strain gages have equal resistance and the bridge circuit is balanced. But when a
downward force is applied, the object will bend down and stretch the strain gage #1 and compress the strain gage #2 at the
same time. The bridge will be unbalanced and a voltage difference occurs. This is shown nicely in the second picture

(+)
FORCE
STRAIN GAGE #1 R R#1
+ -
V
R R#2
STRAIN GAGE #2
(-)
BRIDGE UNBALANCED

20
Strain gage wiring systems
There are several configurations for basic measurements. First, we need to know the special effects of the materials - that is
when the material is stretched, the material (usually) gets thinner in the other (two) directions. The ratio of transverse strain to
extension strain is called Poisson's ratio [ν]. When strain gages are positioned 90 deg. towards each other, it becomes very
important to know the ratio of transverse strain and to include this in the equation. The Poisson's ratio is 0.27 to 0.31 for steel
(usually 0.3 is used) and 0.33 for aluminum.

The following table shows several basic configurations for the gages. Basically, the configurations are divided into the quarter,
half, and full-bridge circuits.

21
A strain gage Wheatstone bridge is configured with a quarter, half or full bridge system according to the measuring purpose

Quarter bridge system

If we look at a quarter bridge system, we can see that strain gage is connected to one side of the bridge and fixed resistors are
connected to each of the other 3 sides. This system can easily be configured, and that's why it is widely used for general
stress/strain measurement. The quarter bridge 2-wire system is shown in the first figure above is largely affected by lead
wires. Therefore, if large temperature changes are anticipated or if the lead wire length is long, then the quarter bridge 3-wire
system shown in the second figure above must be used.

Half-bridge system
The half-bridge system is used to eliminate strain components other than the target strain; according to the measuring
purpose. With the half-bridge system, strain gages are connected to the bridge on adjacent or opposite sides, with a fixed
resistor inserted on the other side. This gives us the option of configuring the gages in two different ways. The first one is the
active-dummy method, where one strain gage serves as a dummy gage for temperature compensation, and the active-active
method, where both gages serve as active gages.

22
Full bridge system
The full-bridge system has strain gages connected one each to all 4 sides of the bridge. This circuit ensures the large output
of strain gage transducers and improves temperature compensation as well as eliminates strain components other than the
target strain.

23
Full bridge 4 and 6 wire circuit

4 - wire circuit
The 4-wire circuit is used for strain gage measurement with short lead wires. Its limitation is that the supply voltage is exact
on the connector of the amplifier.

6 - wire circuit
The 6-wire circuit is recommended for the installation of long wires to the sensor. The sense wires are connected to the
excitation on the side of the sensor, so the amplifier can "sense" or measure the excitation voltage and adjust it to the higher
level that it is exact on the side of the sensor. This improves a lot of amplitude accuracy of the measurement.

24
Related hardware and configurations
[Video available in the online version]

[Video available in the online version]

25
Quarter bridge measurement of stress and strain in
Dewesoft
For this experiment, we will connect the tuning fork to a Sirius device. The tuning fork has attached a single gauge.

We will be measuring two different Physical quantities - strain and stress.

Quarter bridge setup

Let's take a look at a quarter bridge setup in Dewesoft using Sirius STG.

A single strain gauge is attached to the tuning fork and we are measuring the Strain.

The picture below shows us how the specification of a strain gauge looks. We can see that the resistance of the strain gauge
is 120 Ohms and the gage factor k is 2,07.

When selecting strain gages, we can typically choose from 120 or 350 Ohms. 120 Ohms gages will have less power
consumption and less heating while 350 Ohms will have large signals and therefore work better with longer cables.

26
1. Measurement of strain
For our measurement, we will use a 350 Ohm strain gauge.
This is how the channel setup looks like:

27
First, we must set the quarter bridge with 350 Ohms as the input type. This means that the single bridge will be the real gauge
while the other three gages will be internal precision resistors. Now, the input scaling is in mV/V.

Then we can freely select the Excitation voltage. A higher excitation voltage will increase the signals and therefore reduce the
noise. This will also cause more gage self-heating and will increase power consumption. All strain gauges have a certain limit
for the excitation voltage, so check this prior to connecting the sensor not to damage it.

Now we select as physical quantity <Strain>. The scaling changes from mV/V to um/m.

The next step is to enter the gauge factor (k) and Bridge factor from the specification. Since this is only a quarter bridge, we
can enter the bridge factor (bf) as 1.
The default equation for scaling to the relative deformation Æ​:

Consideration about strain scaling:

The used equation for strain scaling is under the assumption that the resistance variation dR1 is much smaller than the
resistance R1 itself, which is always true for metal strain gages.
For higher strains, the relation between the reading in mV/V and the strain ε is not linear. Assuming the bridge factor
(bf) =1, the equation for the quarter bridge can is defined with:

Let’s compare the result of both equations with on regularly used shunt calibration combination of RBridge of 350Ω and
RShunt of 175kΩ where the bridge amplifier will output 0.4995 mV/V:

The difference in this case of -0.1% can be generally expressed with:

As an option, Dewesoft can also use this equation for calculation the strain for ¼ Bridges based on this equation.

28
If selected, the used formula is as well shown in the Info field of the amplifier:

2. Measurement of stress
Now let's make another channel set up, this time we will be measuring stress and this is how the channel setup looks like:

29
When we are measuring Stress we set everything completely the same as we were measuring Strain, except Physical quantity
in General settings and Settings in the right bottom corner.

Depending on which bridge mode we choose in General amplifier settings, we can afterward choose graphically presented
bridge configuration, and also material for using the correct Young's modulus.

That's how another error source is eliminated.

30
NOTE: All these Gage type options and Material options depend on the Bridge mode!

31
Simple measurement with tuning fork
Let's take a look at the recorder. If a static force is applied on the tuning fork, we can see the changing offset of the signal. We
might also try hitting the tuning fork so it makes a sound to reflect the natural frequency of the tuning fork (the conventional
way it is used). We can see this as a high-frequency vibration with falling amplitude because of air friction and friction in the
fork.

When looking at the FFT screen (let's change it to the logarithmic scale that can be used to see all the amplitudes in a nice
way, we can see that there is an obvious peak at approximately 440 Hz. We can also place a cursor at this point by simply
clicking on the peak in the FFT. The frequency shown is 439.5 Hz. It is not exactly 440 because the tuning fork used here
surely isn't what it should be after many years of use, but also because the FFT has a certain line resolution.

This line resolution depends on the sampling rate and the number of lines chosen for the FFT. If we want to have a faster
response on the FFT, we would choose fewer lines, but we would have a lower frequency resolution. If the user wants to see
the exact frequency, it is necessary to set a higher line resolution. This is well described in the reference guide, but a simple
rule of thumb is: if it takes 1 second to acquire the data from which the FFT is calculated, the resulting FFT will have 1 Hz line
resolution. If we acquire data for 2 seconds, the line resolution will be 0.5 Hz.

32
This is also a perfect example to take a look at how to use the filters in Dewesoft. Clearly, there is one part of the signal in the
form of the offset (static load) and one part in a form of dynamic ringing with a 440 Hz frequency.

If we want to extract those two components from the original waveform, we need to set two filters - one low pass and the
other high pass. So we add two filters in the Math section.

1. First, we set the input channel (Tuning fork) in this case. Then we set it on Low pass, 6th order filter and we set the cutoff
frequency Fc2 to 200 Hz. This is so that all the signals below 200 Hz frequency will pass and all the frequencies above this will
cut.

33
2. The second filter is set to High pass 6th order with the same cutoff frequency.

34
If we show those two filters on the recorder, we can see that the signal is nicely decomposed to the static load and dynamic
ringing. The user can use this technology to cut off unwanted parts of the signal or to extract wanted frequency components of
a certain signal.

At this point, it might be worth noting that IIR filters are used where we want higher calculation speeds and cutoff rates are
needed. We can also use FIR filters if we don't want to have any phase shifts. More details can be found in the Filter
comparison section of the FIR filter in the user's manual.

35
Full bridge measurement of strain and force in Dewesoft
For this experiment, we will connect the off-the-shelf load cell with a full bridge connection to a Sirius device.

Dog bone specimen for measuring force

To help engineers select the right material for their device, many materials have been tested a lot of times. All the material
properties were then published in material handbooks. But not just that. Engineers have put a set of standards into practice to
ensure that testing is directed the same way no matter which material is being used. On this point, it is important to explain
why is the specimen in the shape of the dog bone with different ends. The geometry of the specimen is really important! The
rectangular shape of the specimen would cause higher stress states at the grips. To solve this error, engineers developed
special shape - Dogbone. This doge's bone is larger at the top and bottom where we attach the grips to the specimen. The
cross-sectional area is smaller between those two grips. And why? The explanation is simple. The smaller cross-sectional area
allows the stress to be concentrated in the center of the specimen, and that's why to eliminate the effects of the grip. By using
this shape of a specimen, engineers can be 100% sure that the stress measured by the testing system is the same as the
stress state that was actually experienced by the material.

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Example 1

Stress-Strain-Diagram with Characteristic Values for Steel with Young's modulus [E] = 210 MPa.

The image below is a great example of a dog bone-shaped specimen and a typical stress-strain diagram for a ductile, elastic
material such as steel. Engineers gather much useful information from this diagram to learn about the behavior of a material,
including its modulus of elasticity and yield stress.

The elastic range is defined by the linear portion of the stress-strain curve.
The plastic range is the portion of the diagram to the right of the elastic region; this is the region of permanent
deformation. If the material is stretched into this region, then it starts to permanently deform.
Yield stress is the minimum stress that causes permanent deformation.
Ultimate tensile stress is the maximum stress that a material can withstand; it is the maximum point on the diagram. At
this point, necking begins, and the material starts down a slippery slope to ultimate failure.
Necking is a localized decrease in the cross-sectional area.
Fracture stress is stress in which the material fails. This is the last stress state that a specimen experiences before it
fractures.

Let's look more closely at this graph and explain the most important features that engineers use and record.

37
 350
Rm = 314 N/mm
2

ReH = 281 N/mm

2

280
stress (N/mm
2
) RpO.2 = 238 N/mm
2

ReL = 238 N/mm

2

210

E = 193.000 Mpa
140

70

Ag 24,4 % A = 44,7 %
0
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.0 40.0 50.0
Long Strain (%)

stress

ultimate
tensile
strength
fracture
neck yield stress
stress
steel tensile
specimen

strain
tensile load elastic plastic
direction range range
F

38
Full bridge setup
For the full-bridge sensor, we will use a "homemade" force sensor. The sensor is built from two XY strain gages, where one
gage is oriented in the principal direction and another one in a transverse direction. This sensor is, therefore, temperature
compensated and has bending cancellation.

Let's do a step by step calibration of such a configuration. First of all, we change the Input type to the Full bridge and the
Balance sensor is performed. If the bridge zero is not successful, we should choose the highest possible Range, perform zero,
then switch to the wanted range and perform zero again. Then we set the Lowpass filter. Since this example will measure
more or less static measurements in a low region of the probe, the results can be enhanced by using a very low lowpass filter.
In this case, it is set to 100 Hz.

39
Next, we set the Strain scaling to used and set the k factor of the gages to 2 and the Bridge factor to 2.6. The value of 2 is read
from the strain gages datasheet. The value of 2.6 is a bridge factor from the table of bridge configurations. Now the input
values are strain in um/m.

Now we need to do the final Scaling by function since the force should be measured in kN. Now it's time to do some
calculations using the following equations:

Therefore

Given that the elastic modulus (Young's modulus) of steel is 210000 N/mm2 and the cross-section of the sensor is 139 mm2
we get:

40
Factor 1E6 is there because the strain is measured in um/m and we need to have a scaling factor for this unit.

Now we have the real data scaled in N. The last thing, to do, is to select the measurement Range based on the input. In this
case, the lowest range will be more than enough for the measurement.

The Short and Shunt button is for checking the strain gage. The Short is used to short the pins on the input and measure the
bridge offset. The Shunt (which is also used in the shunt calibration routine) can be used to see if the bridge is reacting - so to
check if the connections are working.

In the picture below you can see the setup for measurement of force. Instead of typing in the k factor, we can type in the
sensitivity of used strain gage. In our case, the sensitivity is 0,23 mV/V/kN.

41
Full bridge measurement of force
Just for this Pro training course, we've made a short in-house competition in breaking the load cell apart. The measurement
range of this load cell is 30kN or approximately 3 tons, so it is quite reasonable, that none of the competitors was successful.

Just to make the entire measurement bigger fun, was the load pulled by our students and a girl! We have also plugged in USB
camera, to capture video while pulling the load.

Let's take a look at the results.

Boys did a great job and pulled 466 and 397 N, which is 46,6 kilograms and 39,7 kilograms.

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On the picture below you can see that girl can beat everyone if she is a great athlete or if she simply knows how to use math in
Dewesoft. :)

43
44
Signal conditioning for strain gages
In electronics, signal conditioning means manipulating an analog signal in such a way that it meets the requirements of the
next stage for further processing. Signal conditioning is needed before a data acquisition device can effectively and accurately
measure the signal.

Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering, converting, range matching, isolation, and any other processes required
to make sensor output suitable for processing after conditioning.

Filtering is the most common signal conditioning function, as usual, not all the signal frequency spectrum contains valid data.
The common example is 60 Hz AC power lines, present in most environments, which will produce noise if it is amplified.

Signal amplification performs two important functions: increases the resolution of the imputed signal and increases its signal-
to-noise ratio. For example, the output of an electronic temperature sensor, which is probably in the millivolts range is
probably too low for an analog to digital converter (ADC) to process directly. In this case, it is necessary to bring the voltage
level up to that required by the ADC.

Signal isolation must be used in order to pass the signal from the source to the measurement device without a physical
connection: it is often used to isolate possible sources of signal perturbations. Also notable is that it is important to isolate the
potentially expensive equipment used to process the signal after conditioning from the sensor.

Bridge balancing
Bridge balancing is the function of the bridge amplifiers to eliminate the bridge sensor offset. Mathematically it means to
simply remove the initial offset of the sensor on the side of the amplifier. For the demo, we connect a quarter bridge strain
sensor.

Usually, in the scope screen, we can see the unscaled value that is not exactly 0 mV/V. That is because the strain gauge does
not have exactly 350 ohms, which is normal, due to tolerances.

Click on the "Balance sensor" to zero the bridge.

The unbalance will be measured and shown. The amplifier will choose the right setting to achieve a full-scale range.

The input signal is now 0 mV/V.

We normally do the balancing just before we perform the measurement. If we want to do the balancing on a number of
different channels, we can do that by using the GROUP OPERATIONS (described at the end of the topic).

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Short on
When sensor balance is used, we can always check what is the value of the unbalance by using the short function. When using
the SHORT ON operation, the pins 2 and 7 (the input pins of the amplifier) are internally shorted.

We simply click "Short on".

The resulting value will show the sensor unbalance.

Disable the short again by clicking "Short off"

Please note that we can remove the sensor balance by clicking the Reset button. After that, the sensor offset will be removed
and the amplifier will be set into the initial state.

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On the screen, we can see the unbalance of the sensor again, which is 0,9 mV/V.

"Balance" and "Reset" are, therefore, opposite operations.

Zero
There is also a function called "Zero" which is similar to the "Balance sensor". Let's look at the difference below.

Imagine, we have a force transducer with a strain full bridge output. It will measure the weight in our experiment. In the first
picture, we measure the unbalance of the bridge sensor, e.g. 35 N. Let's do a "Balance sensor". The output is now 0 N. A
vehicle is put on the testbed. We measure its weight, which is 12 000 N. For our measurement only the changing of the weight
is of interest, so we cancel out the fix offset with the Zero function.

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Click the "Zero" button in Channel Setup (can be reset by right-mouse-click). The output is now zero again. Note that this is a
pure software subtraction. If the range was set to "Automatic", the range is automatically adapted to -52000...+28000.

The range can be set to "Automatic" in the channel setup window of the appropriate channel (right mouse-click).

Now all offsets are canceled and we start the measurement. This function can also be accessed in the Measure mode (but
NOT while storing!).

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Shunt calibration
We use shunt calibration for multiple purposes:

check if the amplifier is working properly (excitation and value readout);

check if strain gauge is connected and working properly;
we can compensate for the length of the lead wires.

[Video available in the online version]

The SHUNT ON operation is meant for checking if the connected strain gauge is OK. From the wiring schematic in
Dewesoft you see that the amplifier already comes with the integrated shunt resistor.

The idea behind is to "shunt" or connect a resistor of known parallel value to one resistor of the bridge to achieve a known,
calculable unbalance.

With the "Shunt calibration," we can automatically check the measured value against a predefined one (from sensor database
or TEDS). For the measurement, this internal shunt resistor is disconnected again of course.

Let’s go to the theory of strain calculation:

The parallel connection of 175 kΩ would result in the resistor change:

The result of applying the shunt will give a reading at the strain gage amplifier of:

For scaling from mV/V to strain εwe first take a look at the basic formula for Wheatstone bridges:

Since we only apply the Shunt to R1, we don’t need to consider R2 .. R4, and we substitute

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With the assumption the bridge factor (bf) = 1 we get the equation below.

So we calculate the strain out of the amplifier reading with a gauge factor of 2 with

And now let’s prove the theory with real measurements with checking in the first step the mV/V reading. We first zero the
sensor with “Balance Senorâ€​ (1) to read exactly the reading with performing “Shunt onâ€​ (2).

The output value comes very close to the expected value (0,4995 mV/V).

Now let’s check the exact deviation of the strain result:

We change the physical quantity to “Strainâ€​ and define the target value.
After all the preparations are done, we perform the <Shunt Cal Check>

The result of our shunt cal check looks very promising in this case (0,2 %). That means that the strain gauge is OK.

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Notes about SHUNT CAL CHECK

We automatically compensate the sensor unbalance temporarily in the background to get the real signal deviation for the
applied shunt.
The active strain gage must not get any load change (different strain) during the shunt calibration measurement. This
additional sensor signal will falsify the result!

Shunt cal auto target:

If the shunt calibration target is not known or defined in the sensor database, we can automatically calculate the theoretic
result based on the known strain gauge and shunt resistor value. Let’s make e an example for a 350Ω strain gauge resistor
and 59.88 kΩ shunt resistor.

We see that the values in Dewesoft are corresponding to the formula above.

The value of RShunt is automatically taken from the selected shunt resistor of the amplifier
For the Quarter bridge, R is taken from the amplifier settings. For Full- and Half-bridge, the value must be entered
manually. This entered value has no effect on the measured signal and is only used to calculate the target.
The shunt cal target is calculated as the scaled sensor value (eg: µm/m, N or…)

Depending on the amplifier type, we offer different connection of the shunt. The selection below shows a connection to the
shunt again Sns- which results in a negative signal and as well in a negative shunt cal target result.
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Use custom shunt resistor:
Many different values of shunt resistors are used from different suppliers.

59.88kΩ and 175kΩ for getting 1000µm/m at 120Ω or 350Ω (like on SIRIUS-STG type),
100kΩ like on most of all Dewesoft strain gage amplifiers,
320kΩ, 160kΩ, 80kΩ, 55kΩ and many others can be found as well on the market.

Sure, none strain gauge amplifiers on the market can include all these different shunt values.
But how can we check the shunt cal target, the build-in shunt resistor of the amplifier does not match with the sensor data?

Let’s assume at 350Ω strain gage, where the shunt cal target TSN S of 0.5 mV/V is defined with shunt resistor RSN S of
175kΩ. We want to check this result with our SIRIUSi-HD-STGS module, where is the build-in shunt resistor
RAM P of 100kΩ.

We just need to enable the custom shunt to define the given value TSN S of is defined for 175kΩ.

With the <Shunt Cal Check> we have all information to calculate the deviation of the given result of the sensor with the
formulas below.
The nominal target result for the amplifier TAmp Norm would be:

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But let’s say we are measuring TAM P with 0.8726 mV/V.
The nominal target result of the sensor TSN SNorm would be:

The final indicated result will be:

So independent of which shunt value defined in the sensor, we recalculate the result according to the selected shunt value of
the amplifier.

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Lead wire effect
In some cases, strain gages are mounted away from the measuring equipment. This distance increases the possibility of
errors because of changes in temperature and lead desensitization. Therefore, lead-wire resistance changes. If we have a two-
wire installation, that is shown in the picture below, two leads are in series with the strain gauge and any change in the lead-
wire resistance can't be distinguished from changes in the resistance of strain gauge.

[Video available in the online version]

As introduced above, the resistance of a lead wire is reducing the sensitivity of the strain gauge signals due to the voltage drop.
This reduces the voltage level on the active strain gauge and therefore the sensitivity. The example below shows the reduction
of 0.1Volt. The resulted sensitivity loss can be roughly

This reduced sensitivity is also seen when performing shunt calibration. So we use shunt calibration to calculate RLeadwire out
of VS , RBridge and RShunt

Out of the bridge resistance RBridge and the lead wire resistance RLeadwire the compensation factor
CorrLeadwire is calculated:

With this factor, the raw data DataRaw of strain gauge amplifier is corrected to DataCorr. This corrected data is used for
further processing inside the Dewesoft X software package: eg Sensor scaling, data storing, visualization...
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With pressing <Compensate> in the channel setup screen all steps above are done in the back:

Shunt calibration is initialized for getting Vs,

RLeadwire and CorrLeadwire are calculated and used for data further data processing,
These values are stored together with the complete DewesoftX setup file.

Important note: the active strain gage must not get any load change (different strain) during the shunt calibration
measurement. This additional sensor signal will falsify the result!

Below you can see the result for a 120Ω strain gauge connection with a 100m cable of 0.25mm 2 to our amplifier. Without
correction, the gain error would as high as 5.6% (!) and therefore significantly influence your measurement result.

After lead wire compensation, no additional Sensor balance is needed. The indicated Sensor unbalance (1mV/V) is shown
correctly by rescaling with the above equation ( DataCorr ).

Before compensation, this Sensor unbalance was shown as 0.944 mV/V to eliminate the sensor offset.

The lead wire compensation can be performed as well in Half-Bridge 3-wire or Full-Bridge 4-wire connection, where Exc and
Sens are connected directly at the amplifier together.

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At a different bridge and shunt configuration, the above formulas for getting RLeadwire and Corr Leadwire are different, but it
follows the same principle.
For Full-Bridge 6wire, Half-Bridge 5-wire, or Quarter-Bridge 4-wire the lead wire compensation is automatically done by the
amplifier. That’s why we don’t need any additional compensation settings.

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Group operations setup
We have several group operations (Channel actions). We can find them in the Channel setup.

By pressing the three-dot button, we can add even more Channel actions. The amount of visible buttons depends on the
functionality of the installed amplifier type. Dedicated functions for strain gauge amplifier are only visible if installed.

Lead wire compensation

For activating the <Lead wire compensation> function for all channels, activate this button.

Now we can perform lead wire compensation for all installed channels in our system at once.

To see the result in the channel grid, right-click on the head line and select “Edit columnsâ€​ and enable “Leadwire
compensation. With this section, the result of each channel is shown in the channel table.

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 Shunt cal check
For getting a complete overview of the shunt call check result in the channel gird we have to enable Sensor check target",
"Sensor check result", "Sensor check error" and "Group".

After performing the Shunt-Cal check, the complete result is shown in the channel table.

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Multi group actions
We can also make group operations with different groups. We do that by simply assigning one channel to "Group 1", and the
other to "Group 2".

59
Now you can apply the channel operations group-wise.

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Example:
We will show the group operations in one short measurement.

For this experiment, we will use the Sirius instrument. We will start our measurement by connecting two tuning forks (quarter
bridge, 3 wires, 350 ohms). Tuning forks can be connected to Sirius via STG adapters.

Unfortunately, the Sirius, that we are using, doesn't have two STG channels, so we will connect one tuning fork via STG and the
second one via STG to MULTI converter. We already know how to set everything for 3 wire, 350-ohm quarter bridge connected
via STG.

This is the setup:

The settings are a bit different when it comes to the connection via STG to MULTI converter.

Let's take a look.

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We are able to choose Bridge measurement and bridge mode. But when we try to choose internal 175 kΩ bridge shunt value,
this option isn't available. On this point, we need to explain one great feature of Dewesoft. Dewesoft recalculates all the values,
no matter which bridge shunt you choose. That means, that the software automatically takes care if there are different
resistor values. In the General Information tab, we have the 59.88 kΩ resistor present, but if we mark the Use custom shunt
resistor, we can type in the correct value of the used resistor.

When entering the resistor value, the field gets yellow. We confirm the value by pressing <Enter>.

The software will then automatically recalculate the values, according to the given (Bridge shunt) and chosen resistance
values. The asterisk (*) symbol after the result indicates that the check has been performed with a different resistor value than
was physically available.

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Group operations in measurement mode
We can also perform group operations in Measure mode, so let's go there first. There we will see two new buttons: Zero and
Amplifier. If the "Zero" button is not there, then sensors from the sensor database / TEDS sensors are most likely used, and
changing the offset is not allowed. Check sensor settings in Channel setup or Sensor editor. If the ''Amplifier" button is not
there, no amplifiers are set to "Used" in the channel setup.

Balance sensor
Balance sensor can be activated in the measurement mode only if storing is not active. Depending on the group settings in the
setup screen, all channels can be balanced at once or only selected groups.

Shunt/Short at the beginning and end of the measurement

At the end of a measurement, you may want to check if the strain gauge and the amplifier are still OK. You also want to see, if
the bridge has drifted over time due to temperature or other effects.

Start the measurement and click the Store button. The "Zero" button will disappear, because zeroing also changes the channel
min/max limits, and that is not allowed during measurement. Also, balancing the bridge is not possible at this state anymore.
Do a "Short on for 1s", wait a little bit, then press "Shunt on for 1s".

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At the end of the measurement, when you are still storing do again a "Short on for 1s" followed by a "Shunt on for 1s". Stop the
measurement and go to Analyse mode. Activate the cursors in the properties of the recorder instrument (on the left side).

Move the white cursor I to the Short position at the start, and cursor II to the Short position at the end (grey arrows). You can
also lock the cursors to not lose them when zooming in and out of a longer measurement.

The Delta will be shown on the right side. In our case, it is 0,0 measurement OK.

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65