SOFTWARE ENGINEERING FUNDEMENTALS

Software Evolution

In software engineering, software evolution is referred to as the process of developing,

maintaining, and updating software for various reasons. Software changes are inevitable
because there are many factors that change during the life cycle of a piece of software.

Some of these factors include:

• Requirement changes
• Environment changes
• Errors or security breaches
• New equipment added or removed, and finally
• Improvements to the system

For many companies, one of their largest investments in their business is for software and
software development. Software is considered a very critical asset, and management wants to
ensure they employ a team of software engineers who are devoted to ensuring that the
software system stays up to date with ever evolving changes.

Software Maintenance:

With software ever changing, it's important for software engineers to ensure they perform
periodic maintenance on the software. There are four different types of software
maintenance: corrective, adaptive, perfective, and preventive.

Corrective maintenance is the most common type of maintenance that addresses bugs,
errors, faults in software that has already been released and is being used by the users.
Sometimes, some of the defects are reported by the users themselves.

Adaptive maintenance deals with an environment change for the software. These changes
could include hardware, software, operating system, and organizational policy changes. Any
changes in the software's environment will usually cause for changes to be made in the
software to ensure that the software will work in the new environment without any hiccups.

Perfective maintenance is concerned with making functional changes that are new or based
on user requirements. This includes adding new functionalities or enhancements to the
existing software that can help to increase the systems performance. And finally, preventive
maintenance is concerned with making changes that ensures the longevity of the software.
This may include code optimizing, code restructuring, and documentation.
Software Evolution Laws:
Lehman has given laws for software evolution. He divided the software into three different
categories:
• S-type (static-type) - This is a software, which works strictly according to
defined specifications and solutions. The solution and the method to achieve it, both are
immediately understood before coding. The s-type software is least subjected to changes
hence this is the simplest of all. For example, calculator program for mathematical
computation.

DXC Technology | 1
 • P-type (practical-type) - This is a software with a collection of procedures. This is
defined by exactly what procedures can do. In this software, the specifications can be
described but the solution is not obvious instantly. For example, gaming software.

• E-type (embedded-type) - This software works closely as the requirement of real-

world environment. This software has a high degree of evolution as there are various
changes in laws, taxes etc. in the real-world situations. For example, Online trading
software.

E-Type software evolution

Lehman has given eight laws for E-Type software evolution -

• Continuing change - An E-type software system must continue to adapt to the real-world
changes, else it becomes progressively less useful.
• Increasing complexity - As an E-type software system evolves, its complexity tends to
increase unless work is done to maintain or reduce it.
• Conservation of familiarity - The familiarity with the software or the knowledge about
how it was developed, why was it developed in that particular manner etc. must be
retained at any cost, to implement the changes in the system.
• Continuing growth- For an E-type system intended to resolve some business problem,
its size of implementing the changes grows according to the lifestyle changes of the
business.
• Reducing quality - An E-type software system declines in quality unless rigorously
maintained and adapted to a changing operational environment.
• Feedback systems- The E-type software systems constitute multi-loop, multi-level
feedback systems and must be treated as such to be successfully modified or improved.
• Self-regulation - E-type system evolution processes are self-regulating with the
distribution of product and process measures close to normal.
• Organizational stability - The average effective global activity rate in an evolving E-type
system is invariant over the lifetime of the product.

Software Paradigms

Software paradigms refer to the methods and steps, which are taken while designing the
software. There are many methods proposed and are in work today, but we need to see where
in the software engineering these paradigms stand. These can be combined into various
categories, though each of them is contained in one another:

DXC Technology | 2
Programming paradigm is a subset of Software design paradigm which is further a subset of
Software development paradigm.

Software Development Models

Software development life cycle (SDLC) models show the ways to navigate through the
complex and demanding process of software building. A project’s quality, timeframes,
budget, and ability to meet the stakeholders’ expectations largely depend on the chosen
model.

Today, there are more than 50 recognized SDLC models in use. The most used, popular and
important SDLC models are given below:
1. Waterfall model
2. V-model
3. Iterative model
4. Spiral model
5. Agile model

SDLC MODELS

1. Waterfall SDLC Model

The Waterfall model was the first approach to software development. As the name indicates,
the process involves moving down through the linear development stages in order: analysis,
design, development, testing, deployment, and maintenance. Every stage is well defined with
specific deliverables and milestones.

The Waterfall model is sequentially linear, meaning the next step cannot begin until the
current stage is complete. A stage is complete when the goals are met and someone signs off
for the project to advance.

DXC Technology | 3
Advantages: Simple and understandable, the Waterfall Model is a manageable method ideal
for lifecycle management of smaller projects where the requirements are established and
finalized upfront.

Disadvantages: Because of its rigid structure, the Waterfall Model does not work well for
complex projects where there is a chance of a change in requirements and/or significant
impromptu testing throughout the software development stage.

2. V-model (Validation and Verification model)

The V-model is another linear model with each stage having a corresponding testing activity.
Such workflow organization implies exceptional quality control, but at the same time, it
makes the V-model one of the most expensive and time-consuming models. Moreover, even
though mistakes in requirements specifications, code and architecture errors can be detected
early, changes during development are still expensive and difficult to implement. As in the
Waterfall case, all requirements are gathered at the start and cannot be changed.

Advantages: The V-Model is a simple process that’s great for smaller projects. Using the V-
Model can yield a higher chance of success due to the test plans of the development stage and
regularly schedule updates throughout its lifecycle.

Disadvantages: Similar to the Waterfall Model, the V-Model is very rigid in nature so it isn’t
ideal for applications or systems software that may require unforeseen changes/updates
throughout the software lifecycle.

3. Iterative model

The Iterative SDLC model does not need the full list of requirements before the project starts.
The development process may start with the requirements to the functional part, which can be
expanded later. The process is repetitive, allowing to make new versions of the product for
every cycle. Every iteration (which last from two to six weeks) includes the development of a
separate component of the system, and after that, this component is added to the functional
developed earlier. Speaking with math terminology, the iterative model is a realization of the
sequential approximation method; that means a gradual closeness to the planned final product
shape.
DXC Technology | 4
 Advantages: The Iterative Model is a great solution for projects that need accommodation
for some change requests between increments. This model also yields the benefit of being
able to detect problems earlier in the software development for better lifecycle management
planning.
Disadvantages: A potential disadvantage to the Iterative Model is the need for strategic
planning and documentation. This method also tends to require more resources, staff and
monetary, behind the project. This model isn’t ideal for ongoing development as the next
sequence cannot begin until the previous stage has fully completed.

4. Spiral model
The Spiral model puts focus on thorough risk assessment. Thus, to reap the benefits of the
model to the fullest, you’ll need to engage people with a strong background in risk
evaluation. A typical Spiral iteration lasts around 6 months and starts with 4 important
activities - thorough planning, risk analysis, prototypes creation, and evaluation of the
previously delivered part. Repeated spiral cycles seriously extend project timeframes.
This is the model where intensive customer involvement appears. They can be involved in the
exploration and review stages of each cycle. At the development stage, the customer’s
amendments are not acceptable.

DXC Technology | 5
Advantages: The Spiral Model can be advantageous as it manages risks and divides
development into phases. It also helps with more accurate estimates for budget and schedule
as roadblocks are discovered earlier.

Disadvantages: Since this model is highly customized, repurposing the process can be
confusing. It also requires team members that are well-versed in risk evaluation.

5. Agile model

In the agile methodology after every development iteration, the customer is able to see the
result and understand if he is satisfied with it or he is not. This is one of the advantages of the
agile software development life cycle model. One of its disadvantages is that with the
absence of defined requirements it is difficult to estimate the resources and development cost.
Extreme programming is one of the practical use of the agile model. The basis of such model
consists of short weekly meetings – Sprints which are the part of the Scrum approach.

Advantages: The Agile Model decreases the amount of time to yield individual system
features. It also calls for a lot of communication and continuous feedback from the
customer/user that can provide clear direction for the project.

Disadvantages: The Agile method can potentially veer-off track as it relies on end-user
interaction that may or may not be clearly expressed. Documentation is also minimal for an
Agile software development strategy and requires a well-versed, cross-functional team.

Software Development Paradigm

This Paradigm is known as software engineering paradigms where all the engineering
concepts pertaining to the development of software are applied. It includes various research
and requirement gathering which helps the software product to build. It consists of -

1. Requirement gathering
2. Software design
3. Programming

DXC Technology | 6
Software Design Paradigm

This paradigm is a part of Software Development and includes -

• Design
• Maintenance
• Programming

Programming Paradigm

This paradigm is related closely to programming aspect of software development. This

includes -

• Coding
• Testing
• Integration

SDLC - Software Development Life Cycle Overview

SDLC or the Software Development Life Cycle refers to a methodology with clearly defined
process that produces software with the highest quality and lowest cost in the shortest time
possible. SDLC provides a well-structured flow of phases that help an organization to quickly
produce high-quality software which is well-tested and ready for production use.

In detail, the SDLC methodology focuses on the following phases of software development:

No matter what type of the models has been chosen, each of them has basic stages which are
used by every software development company. Let’s explore those stages as this is important
for the understanding of the each of SDLC models and the differences between them.

1. Planning and requirement analysis

Each software development life cycle model starts with the analysis, in which the
stakeholders of the process discuss the requirements for the final product. The goal of this
stage is the detailed definition of the system requirements. Besides, it is needed to make sure
that all the process participants have clearly understood the tasks and how every requirement
is going to be implemented. Often, the discussion involves the QA specialists who can
interfere the process with additions even during the development stage if it is necessary.

2. Designing project architecture

At the second phase of the software development life cycle, the developers are actually
designing the architecture. All the different technical questions that may appear on this stage
are discussed by all the stakeholders, including the customer. Also, here are defined the
technologies used in the project, team load, limitations, time frames, and budget. The most
appropriate project decisions are made according to the defined requirements.

DXC Technology | 7
3. Development and programming

After the requirements approved, the process goes to the next stage – actual development.
Programmers start here with the source code writing while keeping in mind previously
defined requirements. The system administrators adjust the software environment, front-end
programmers develop the user interface of the program and the logics for its interaction with
the server.
The programming by itself assumes four stages

✓ Algorithm development
✓ Source code writing
✓ Compilation
✓ Testing and debugging

4. Testing

The testing phase includes the debugging process. All the code flaws missed during the
development are detected here, documented, and passed back to the developers to fix. The
testing process repeats until all the critical issues are removed and software workflow is
stable.

5. Deployment

When the program is finalized and has no critical issues – it is time to launch it for the end
users. After the new program version release, the tech support team joins. This department
provides user feedback; consult and support users during the time of exploitation. Moreover,
the update of selected components is included in this phase, to make sure, that the software is
up-to-date and is invulnerable to a security breach.

How the SDLC Works

SDLC works by lowering the cost of software development while simultaneously improving
quality and shortening production time. SDLC achieves these apparently divergent goals by
following a plan that removes the typical pitfalls of software development projects. That plan
starts by evaluating existing systems for deficiencies.

Next, it defines the requirements of the new system. It then creates the software through the
stages of analysis, planning, design, development, testing, and deployment. By anticipating
costly mistakes like failing to ask the end-user or client for feedback, SLDC can eliminate
redundant rework and after-the-fact fixes.
It’s also important to know that there is a strong focus on the testing phase. As the SDLC is a
repetitive methodology, you must ensure code quality at every cycle. Many organizations
tend to spend few efforts on testing while a stronger focus on testing can save them a lot of
rework, time, and money. Be smart and write the right types of tests.

Agile Concept

Agile is a term used to describe software development methodologies based on iterative

development, where requirements and solutions evolve through collaboration between self-
organizing cross-functional teams. Agile methods or Agile processes generally promote a

DXC Technology | 8
disciplined project management process that encourages frequent inspection and adaptation, a
leadership philosophy that encourages teamwork, self-organization and accountability, a set
of engineering best practices intended to allow for rapid delivery of high-quality software,
and a business approach that aligns development with customer needs and company goals.

The four values of Agile

In 2001, 17 software development professionals gathered to discuss concepts around the idea
of lightweight software development and ended up creating the Agile Manifesto. The
Manifesto outlines the four core values of Agile, and although there has been debate about
whether the Manifesto has outlived its usefulness, it continues at the core of the Agile
movement.

The four core values outlined in the Agile Manifesto are:

Individual interactions are more important than processes and tools. People drive the
development process and respond to business needs. They are the most important part of
development and should be valued above processes and tools. If the processes or tools drive
development, then the team will be less likely to respond and adapt to change and, therefore,
less likely to meet customer needs.

A focus on working software rather than thorough documentation. Before Agile, a large
amount of time was spent on documenting the product throughout development for delivery.
The list of documented requirements was lengthy and would cause long delays in the
development process. While Agile does not eliminate the use of documentation, it streamlines
it in a way that provides the developer with only the information that is needed to do the work
-- such as user stories. The Agile Manifesto continues to place value on the process of
documentation, but it places higher value on working software.

Collaboration instead of contract negotiations. Agile focuses on collaboration between the

customer and project manager, rather than negotiations between the two, to work out the
details of delivery. Collaborating with the customer means that they are included throughout
the entire development process, not just at the beginning and end, thus making it easier for
teams to meet the needs of their customers. For example, in Agile software development, the
customer may be included at different intervals for demos of the product. However, the
customer could also be present and interacting with the teams on a daily basis, attending all
meetings and ensuring the product meets their desires.

A focus on responding to change. Traditional software development used to avoid change

because it was considered an undesired expense. Agile eliminates this idea. The
short iterations in the Agile cycle allow changes to easily be made, helping the team modify
the process to best fit their needs rather than the other way around. Overall, Agile software
development believes change is always a way to improve the project and provide additional
value.
The 12 principles of Agile

The Agile Manifesto also outlined 12 core principles for the development process. They are:

1. Satisfy customers through early and continuous delivery of valuable work.

2. Break big work down into smaller tasks that can be completed quickly.

DXC Technology | 9
3. Recognize that the best work emerges from self-organized teams.
4. Provide motivated individuals with the environment and support they need and trust them
to get the job done.
5. Create processes that promote sustainable efforts.
6. Maintain a constant pace for completed work.
7. Welcome changing requirements, even late in a project.
8. Assemble the project team and business owners on a daily basis throughout the project.
9. Have the team reflect at regular intervals on how to become more effective, then tune and
adjust behaviour accordingly.
10. Measure progress by the amount of completed work.
11. Continually seek excellence.
12. Harness change for a competitive advantage.

Types of Agile methodologies

The goal of every Agile methodology is to embrace and adapt to change while delivering
working software as efficiently as possible. However, each method varies in the way it
defines the steps of software development. The most widely used Agile methods include:
• Scrum
• Lean software development
• Extreme programming
• Crystal
• Kanban
• Dynamic systems development method
• Feature-driven development

Scrum is a lightweight Agile framework that can be used by project managers to control all
types of iterative and incremental projects. In Scrum, the product owner creates a product
backlog that allows them to work with their team to identify and prioritize system
functionality. The product backlog is a list of everything that needs to be accomplished to
deliver a successful, working software system -- this includes bug fixes, features and non-
functional requirements. Once the product backlog is defined, no additional functionality can
be added except by the corresponding team.

Once the team and the product owner have established the priorities, cross-functional teams
step in and agree to deliver working increments of software during each sprint -- often within
30 days. After each sprint, the product backlog is revaluated, analysed and reprioritized in
order to select a new set of deliverable functions for the next sprint. Scrum has gained
popularity over the years since it is simple, has proven to be productive and can incorporate
the various overarching practices promoted by the other Agile methods.

Lean software development is another iterative method that places a focus on using
effective value stream mapping to ensure the team delivers value to the customer. It is
flexible and evolving; it does not have rigid guidelines or rules. The Lean method uses the
following primary principles:

DXC Technology | 10
• Increasing learning
• Empowering the team
• Fostering integrity
• Removing waste
• Understanding the whole
• Making decisions as late as possible
• Delivering the product as fast as possible

The Lean method relies on fast and reliable feedback between the customers and
programmers in order to provide fast and efficient development workflows. To accomplish
this, it provides individuals and small teams with decision-making authority instead of
relying on a hierarchical flow of control. To eliminate waste, the Lean method asks users to
only select truly valuable features for their system, prioritize these chosen features and then
deliver them in small batches. Lean software development also encourages automated unit
tests to be written simultaneously with the code and concentrates on ensuring every member
of the team is as productive as possible.

The Extreme programming (XP) method is a disciplined approach that focuses on speed
and continuous delivery. It promotes increased customer involvement, fast feedback loops,
continuous planning and testing and close teamwork. Software is delivered at frequent
intervals -- usually every one to three weeks. The goal is to improve software quality and
responsiveness when faced with changing customer requirements.

The XP method is based on the values of communication, feedback, simplicity and courage.
Customers work closely with their development team to define and prioritize their requested
user stories. However, it is up to the team to deliver the highest priority user stories in the
form of working software that has been tested at each iteration. To maximize productivity,
the XP method provides users with a supportive, lightweight framework that guides them and
helps ensure the release of high-quality enterprise software.

Crystal is the most lightweight and adaptable methodology. It focuses on people and the
interactions that occur while working on an Agile project as well as business-criticality and
priority of the system under development. The Crystal method works off of the realization
that every project possesses unique characteristics that require a slightly tailored set of
policies, practices and processes. As a result, it is made up of a collection of Agile process
models, such as Crystal Orange, Crystal Clear and Crystal Yellow. Each model has its own
unique characteristics that are driven by different factors, including project priorities, team
size and system criticality.

Similar to other Agile methodologies, Crystal emphasizes frequent delivery of working

software with high customer involvement, adaptability and the elimination of bureaucracy
and distractions. Its key principles include communication, teamwork and simplicity.

Kanban uses a highly visual workflow management method that allows teams to actively
manage product creation -- emphasizing continuous delivery -- without creating more stress
in the software development lifecycle (SDLC). It has become popular among teams also
practicing Lean software development.

Kanban uses three basic principles: visualize the workflow; limit the amount of work in
progress; and improve the flow of work. Similar to the Scrum, the Kanban method is

DXC Technology | 11
designed to help teams work more efficiently with each other. It encourages continuous
collaboration and attempts to define the best possible workflow in order to promote an
environment with active and ongoing learning and improvement.

The Dynamic systems development method (DSDM) is a response to the need for a
common industry framework for rapid software delivery. The DSDM is based on eight key
principles; failing to abide by any one of the principles introduces risk to successful
completion of the project. The eight principles are:

1. Collaboration
2. On-time delivery
3. Demonstrated control
4. Continuous, clear communication
5. A constant focus on the business need
6. Iterative development
7. Creation in increments from firm foundations
8. Refusal to compromise quality
In the DSDM, rework is built into the process and all changes must be reversible. System
requirements are prioritized using MoSCoW Rules, which ranks priority as:

• M -- must have
• S -- should have
• C -- could have, but not critical
• W -- won't have now, but could have later

It is important to the DSDM that not every requirement is considered critical. Each iteration
should include less critical items which can be removed so higher priority requirements are
not impacted.

Finally, feature-driven development (FDD) blends software engineering best practices --

such as developing by feature, code ownership and domain object modelling -- to create a
cohesive, model-driven, short-iteration process. FFD begins by defining an overall model
shape, which in turn creates a feature list. The method then proceeds with iterations that last
two weeks and focus on planning by feature, designing by feature and building by feature. If
a feature takes more than two weeks to build, then it should be broken down into smaller
features. The primary advantage of FDD is that it is scalable -- even to large teams -- since it
uses the concept of "just enough design initially," or JEDI.

Traditional vs Agile

Traditional Software Development:

Traditional software development is the software development process used to design and
develop the simple software. It is basically used when the security and many other factors of
the software are not much important. It is used by freshers in order to develop the software. It
consists of five phases:

1. Requirement’s analysis
2. Design
3. Implementation

DXC Technology | 12
4. Coding and Testing
5. Maintenance

Agile Software Development:

Agile software development is the software development process used to design complicated
software. It is basically used when the software is quite sensitive and complicated. It is used
when security is much important. It is used by professionals in order to develop the software.
It consists of three phases:

1. Project initiation
2. Sprint planning
3. Demos

Traditional Software Development Agile Software Development

It is used to develop the simple software. It is used to develop the complicated

software.
In this methodology, testing is done once the In this methodology, testing and
development phase is totally completed. development processes are performed
concurrently.
It provides less security. It provides high security.

It provides less functionality in the software. It provides all the functionality needed by
the users.

It is basically used by freshers. It is used by professionals.

Development cost is less using this Development cost is high using this
methodology. methodology.

It majorly consists of five phases. It consists only three phases

It is less used by software development It is normally used by software development

firms. firms.

DXC Technology | 13