Core Competency Handbook The Role of Extension in Agriculture Development

Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

2. Agricultural Development and the Role of Extension

Preface
Concept
This handbook ofisDevelopment:
designed as a reference Whomanualand Why extension staff to use in their day‐
for front‐line
to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and
“Development”
evaluation. It is has been
meant to asupport
buzzwordandfor the past
educate seven decades.
agricultural extensionThe workers
end of World War II The
worldwide. left
the world in
intended a state of of
audiences flux. Europe
this was recovering
handbook include: from two world agriculture,
governmental wars. Duringfisheries,
this same natural
period,
many countries
resources in Africa, development
and community Asia and Latinministry
Americaofficials;
achieved freedom from
governmental andcolonialism.
non‐governmentalDuring
extension
these earlydistrict/regional
years, the notion managers; extension‐related
of development faculty to
arose in relation and thetheir students—preservice
residents of old colonies
extension
that had workers; and field‐levelnations
become independent agents, inwhether governmental,century.
the mid‐twentieth non‐governmental or for‐
For most people,
profit. We hope that
“development” thisahandbook
meant reductionwillin help advance
poverty, efforts to empower
unemployment and continue
and inequality. Some educating
viewed
extension
development personnel
as economic through
growth;in‐service
others sawtraining opportunities,
it as a process continuing
of social change. education
Our view is that
programming
development entails bringing positive changes in the social and economic conditions oftools
and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific the
of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.
people. Therefore, the efforts undertaken by various professional workers – such as community
Agricultural
health workers, extension
schooland advisory
teachers, services are
agricultural transitioning
extension fromand
workers a focus on technology
livestock field workerstransfer
‐‐ is
to a focus on facilitating
development work. a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first
and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.
In the mid‐1900s,
Today’s agriculturaleconomic
extensiongrowth or well‐being
and advisory serviceswas areunderstood
being challengedto be the sole goal
to serve as theof
development.
connecting actorTheinpath prescribed
complex was toinnovation
agricultural be that of systems.
the westernThecountries, which had
role of extension developed
in agricultural
following a linear
development path from evolving,
is continuously agricultural
andtoeffective
industrialized economy
front‐line and society.
staff members needTheskillstate was
sets that
entrusted
may differwithfromthe those
role of they
transforming
learned social structures.
in school. The market
Extension also had amust
professionals critical role an
have to
play in the economic
understanding transformation,
of the communities theywith
workpopulation
in and havemoving out offorthe
compassion theprimary sector
people they and
serve.
They
gettingshould
absorbedbe well‐versed
into secondaryin adult
and education principles.
tertiary sectors Besides
as national soundshifted
income technical knowledge,
simultaneously.
they mustbetween
The tussle possess who adequate
shouldknowledge and
be the driver skill in participatory tools and techniques for
is ongoing.
planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are
critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches
that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.
Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,
rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field
extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but
comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our
goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the
skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help
create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory
approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.
Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this
handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are
equally useful in particular © circumstances. Furthermore,
M. Suvedi. Vegetable production some complex and powerful tools are
in Cambodia.
easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some
of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of
For many
the tools. years,
However,development
in the end,was considered
educated and largely synonymous
well‐trained with
extension industrialization.
staff members will be Its
ultimate goal
expected was
to use fairly
their bestclear: to raise
judgment onincomes.
how bestFreedom
to proceed.came
Weto mean
hope thischoice for poor
handbook helpspeople
them
do so.
7
7i
Core Competency Handbook The Role of Extension in Agriculture Development
Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

to access the wide variety of goods and services then widespread in developed societies. It was,
in short, about getting richer or more prosperous. Having won the great battle against colonial
Preface
masters, it was imperative for the new nations to achieve the capacity to manufacture finished
This
goods handbook is designed
on a priority basis.asSoa reference
land and manual for front‐line
other natural extension
resources were staff
also to use in their
mandated byday‐
the
to‐day
secondary sector. This was required to alter the terms of trade between the developed and
work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and
evaluation.
developing worldIt is meant(Rapley,to 2007).
support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The
intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural
Almost sixand
resources decades
communitylater, scholars
development have ministry
argued that bothgovernmental
officials; state and market were united by a
and non‐governmental
common goal:
extension the attainment
district/regional of development,
managers; albeit with
extension‐related varying
faculty andmeans. The primary concern
their students—preservice
extension
of the phase workers; and field‐level
of development agents, whether
was establishing externalgovernmental, non‐governmental
control over citizens’ lives and hence or was
for‐
profit.
almostWe hopetop‐down.
entirely that this handbook will help advance
The new paradigm that wasefforts
born totocorrect
empower theand continue
problem of aneducating
absence
extension
of input andpersonnel
consideration through in‐servicepreferences
of beneficiaries’ training isopportunities, continuing
that of participatory education
development.
programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools
A interest
of critical feature
to audiences of the andnew discourse
inviting and The global
scholars/practitioners to data
teachshow
participants
that women about them.
people’s participation is bringing the poor, constitute 43 percent of the agricultural
Agricultural
women andextension youth and intoadvisory services are
the forefront of transitioning from a focus on technology transfer
to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in workforce in developing
complex contexts. countries
No longer (FAO, first
is extension
development efforts. There is also evidence ‐‐ 2011). This is certainly not uniform ‐‐
and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.
stronger for some countries, such as Brazil, women make up only 20 percent of the
Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the
Peru, India,actor
connecting Nepal and the agricultural
in complex Philippines innovation
‐‐ of a total systems. The roleworkforce
agricultural of extension in agricultural
in Latin
feminization of
development smallholder evolving,
is continuously production. andWith
effectiveAmerica, though a rise has been skill
front‐line staff members need sets that
registered
male migration
may differ from necessitated
those they by poor
learnedeconomic
in school. in the waged agricultural workforce in the an
Extension professionals must have
returns from agriculture,
understanding the numbers
of the communities they of rural
work in and have compassion
region's agro‐exportfor the people
sector (Deere,they serve.
2005).
women
They shouldwho are bearing
be well‐versed in adulttheeducation
prime principles. Besides sound technical
The figures are much higher in Asia and in knowledge,
they must possess
responsibility adequate
in agriculture knowledge
have seen a steep and skill in participatory tools and techniques for
Africa. The average figure in Asia is 40 to
planning,
rise. implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are
50 percent; Malaysia and the Philippines
critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches
The public awareness of the need, benefits and are showing a decline, and China has had
that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.
demand for safe food is increasing. The public an increase to about 48 percent (FAO,
Most of the process
now demand skills or tools
that agricultural in this handbook
development be 2011). are grounded in communication,
Africa, partly because of theeducation,
impact
rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field
economically viable, socially desirable and of HIV/AIDs and conflict, has seen a rise in
extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but
environmental friendly. Similarly, the share of women in agriculture (FAO,
comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our
environmental degradation due to industrial/ 2011).
goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the
agricultural
skills waste and
that extension pollution,
workers needthe felling
to help of improve agricultural productivity and to help
farmers
trees to create space for cultivation, extensive
create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system use of agrochemicals to improveand
through demand‐driven soilparticipatory
fertility and
increase crop and livestock production, and extraction
approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. of groundwater for surface irrigation have
become widely recognized and targeted for reduction and elimination. Furthermore, increasingly
Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this
it is recognized that promoting short‐term success may not yield long‐term benefits. The latest
handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are
wave in useful
equally development discourse
in particular is “sustainability”,
circumstances. a parameter
Furthermore, some by which all
complex andinnovations and new
powerful tools are
agricultural
easier practices
to describe thanshould beWe
others. measured.
present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some
of the ways agriculture
Sustainable for extensionhaspersonnel to evaluate
been defined the potential
as an integrated usefulness
system of plantand
andappropriateness of
animal production
the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will
practices having a site‐specific application that will, over the long term, “(a) satisfy human food be
expected
and fiber to use their
needs; best judgment
(b) enhance on how best
environmental to proceed.
quality and theWe hoperesource
natural this handbook helpswhich
base upon them
do so.
8
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Core Competency Handbook The Role of Extension in Agriculture Development
Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

the agriculture economy depends; (c) make the most efficient use of non‐renewable resources
and on‐farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls;
Preface
(d) sustain the economic viability of farm operations; and (e) enhance the quality of life for
This
farmershandbook is designed
and society as a reference
as a whole” (U.S. Food,manual for front‐line
Agriculture, extension and
Conservation, staffTrade
to useActin their day‐
[FACTA],
to‐day
1990). work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and
evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The
By this definition,
intended audiences agricultural
of this handbook production will governmental
include: be sustainableagriculture,
if it is socially acceptable,
fisheries, natural
economically
resources andbeneficial
community anddevelopment
environmentally sound.
ministry Sustainable
officials; agriculture
governmental andproduction requires
non‐governmental
dedicated district/regional
extension work of a cadre managers; of extension workers with a faculty
extension‐related set of core
and competencies and skills to
their students—preservice
extension workers; and typically
empower beneficiaries, field‐level agents,
rural people whether
‐‐ men,governmental,
women and youth non‐governmental
‐‐ to make informed or for‐
profit.
choicesWe withhope thaton
an eye thislong‐term
handbookcosts will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating
and benefits.
extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education
programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools
Agriculture
of interest to audiences and and Rural Development
inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.
“Agriculture” encompasses many
Agricultural extension and advisory services things ‐‐ cultivation
are transitioningof food crops
from suchonastechnology
a focus rice, wheat, corn,
transfer
millets, pulses, fruits and vegetables; beekeeping; raising silkworms
to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and producing silk;
cultivation of fiber crops such as cotton; and raising of livestock
and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. ‐‐ beef and dairy cattle, swine,
Today’s
poultry, agricultural
sheep, goatsextension and other andanimals
advisoryused services
for meatare being
and/orchallenged
milk or fiber to serve as the
production.
connecting
Agriculture actor in complex
also entails technologyagricultural innovation
and practices forsystems.
growing,The role of extension
harvesting, processing, in agricultural
storing and
development
marketing these is continuously
commodities.evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that
may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an
Agricultural development
understanding is closelythey
of the communities associated
work inwith and rural developmentforbecause
have compassion the peoplethe majority
they serve.of
the rural population is engaged in some form of farming, and most
They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, agricultural production occurs
in themust
they rural possess
areas. Rural areas are
adequate less densely
knowledge and populated than urban areas,
skill in participatory and techniques
tools and the majorityfor of
the population
planning, of developing
implementation andcountries
evaluation livesof in rural areas.
extension Of course,
programs. Good thecommunication
proportion of ruralskillsand
are
urban populations
critical in all aspectsvaries
of theirfrom nation
work. Thisto nation. attempts to provide some tools and approaches
handbook
that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.
It should
Most be process
of the noted that many
skills foodinand
or tools thisagricultural
handbook activities
are groundedapartinfrom cultivation ofeducation,
communication, crops and
rearing of livestock ‐‐ such as food processing, packaging and distribution
rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field ‐‐ are performed in
urban communities. However, more than 75 percent of
extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but the male workforce in urban areas is
engaged in non‐agricultural activities.
comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our
goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the
Rural that
skills development
extension isworkers
generally needdefined
to help asfarmers
those efforts
improve promoting the productivity
agricultural overall improvement
and to help of
living conditions of people living in rural areas. “Living conditions”
create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory is a complex term that relates
approaches
to interrelated thatfactors
have gained
that includeprominence in the past environmental
social, economic, two decades. and political aspects.
Please note that
In any event, rural neither the length
development of each
supports tool’s description
the improved well‐beingnor its numeric
of rural order in this
people. Governments
handbook is meant
and international to convey the
development tool’s importance,
organizations dictatedcomplexity or usefulness.
the first wave Not
of organized all tools are
development.
equally useful
In the past in particular
three decades,circumstances.
realization hasFurthermore, some complex
grown that greater and powerful
participation tools are
of development
easier to describe
beneficiaries than others.
in decision We leads
making presenttoa better
brief overview
results. at theexperience
This end of this handbook
has givenofrise
someto
of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of
approaches that incorporate participatory planning in development efforts including decisive
the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be
roles for the target groups of beneficiaries. Today, preferred development approaches involve
expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them
the target/recipient communities in setting the development goals and priorities. To advance
do so.
9
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Core Competency Handbook The Role of Extension in Agriculture Development
Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

such efforts and make them sustainable, development efforts include efforts to develop local
people’s capacities; investment in basic infrastructure, facilities and social services; and efforts
Preface
to ensure local food security and social justice for rural populations, especially women and other
This handbookgroups.
marginalized is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐
to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and
Rural development
evaluation. It is meant is a to
strategy
supporttoandenable a specific
educate group of
agricultural people ‐‐workers
extension poor rural women and
worldwide. The
men ‐‐ to gain for themselves and their children more of
intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries,what they want and need (Chambers,
natural
1983). It involves
resources helping the
and community poorest among
development ministrythose who are
officials; seeking livelihoods.
governmental The intent is to
and non‐governmental
channel avenues
extension to improved
district/regional well‐being
managers; and livelihoods
extension‐related toward
faculty andsmall‐scale farmers, tenant
their students—preservice
extension
farmers and workers;
the landlessand asfield‐level agents, whether
well as empower governmental,
these marginalized groupsnon‐governmental
to produce (more) orfood
for‐
profit. We hopeways.
in sustainable that this handbook
Therefore, poor will help advance
people efforts
in the target to empower
areas should have and continue
a hand ineducating
directing
extension
the agenciespersonneland actorsthrough in‐service
pursuing rural trainingand
development opportunities,
other engagement continuing
aimed at education
positive
programming
change in theirand “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools
settings.
of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.
Without doubt, agricultural extension services have been critical components of rural
Agricultural
development extension and advisory
efforts. They services are
have contributed totransitioning
the reductionfrom a focusand
of hunger on technology transfer
poverty, increased
to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first
adoption of improved technologies, and increased productivity and capacity of their beneficiaries
and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.
(Swanson and Davis, 2014).
Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the
connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural
What is Agricultural
development Extension?
is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that
may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an
Agricultural extension
understanding provides research‐based
of the communities they work ineducational and informational
and have compassion programs
for the people typically
they serve.
for rural populations. Historically, agricultural extension assisted
They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, farm people through
educational
they must possessprocedures aimedknowledge
adequate at improving farming
and skill methods and
in participatory techniques,
tools and techniquesincreasing
for
production
planning, efficiency andand
implementation income, and of
evaluation bettering
extension standards
programs. of Good
living.communication
However, increasingly
skills are
extension
critical in allserves
aspects serve bothwork.
of their the This
ruralhandbook
and urban populations
attempts with some
to provide a wide range
tools andofapproaches
programs
that
aimed can athelp
helping front‐line extension
to improve staff do their
beneficiaries’ qualityimportant work. to Maunder (1972), “the role
of life. According
of extension
Most is to help
of the process people
skills to help
or tools in thisthemselves
handbookthrough educational
are grounded means to improve
in communication, their
education,
level of living” (p. 5).
rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field
extension
The definition workers. This handbook
of agricultural extension washascreated to help as
been changing meet the need and
its objectives for the
a simple
modelsbut or
comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process
approaches followed have changed. For the purpose of this handbook, we like the definition skills and competencies. Our
goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the
advanced by Christoplos (2010, p.3):
skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help
Agricultural
create extensionand
a sustainable is ainclusive
system that facilitates
agriculture access
system of farmers
through or their organizations
demand‐driven to new
and participatory
approaches
knowledge, that have gained
information and prominence
technologiesinand thepromotes
past two decades.
interaction with research, education,
agri‐business, and other relevant institutions
Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description to assist them in developing their own
nor its numeric ordertechnical,
in this
organizational and management skills and practices.
handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are
equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are
Typestoofdescribe
easier agricultural extension
than others. services
We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some
Many
of the types, forms
ways for and structures
extension personneloftoagricultural
evaluate theextension services
potential are found
usefulness across the world.
and appropriateness of
Suvedi
the (2011)
tools. analyzed
However, in various extension
the end, educated models and identifiedextension
and well‐trained six prevailing
staffmodels.
members will be
expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them
do so.
10
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Core Competency Handbook The Role of Extension in Agriculture Development
Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Technology transfer model: Most extension systems rely on technology and information that
are either available or able to be derived so that farmers can use it. This form of extension
Preface
relies heavily on a linear concept of technology transfer: new technology and knowledge
Thisgenerated
handbook by is designed as a reference manualare
scientists/researchers/others fortransmitted
front‐line extension staff to
by extension use intotheir
agents day‐
farmers
to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication,
to increase production and income. This is the most common agricultural extension approach program planning and
evaluation. It is meant to
followed by developing countries.support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The
intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural
Training
resources and and visit extension
community model: Beginning
development in the late
ministry officials; 1970s, the World
governmental Bank introduced
and non‐governmental
the “training
extension and visit” approach
district/regional managers;inextension‐related
about 70 countries to speed
faculty and the
theirdissemination of Green
students—preservice
extension
Revolution workers; and field‐level
technologies agents,
to farmers. Thiswhether
approach governmental,
assumed thatnon‐governmental
extension workersorwere for‐
profit. We hope
poorly trained that this
and nothandbook
up‐to‐date willonhelp
theadvance efforts to
subject matter, empower
were poorlyand continueand
supervised educating
tended
extension
not to visit personnel through Toin‐service
farmers regularly. address these training
problems,opportunities,
this approach continuing
introducededucation
a system
programming and “train‐the‐trainer”
of regular training of extension staffprograms.
members Suchby efforts
subjectmay include
matter targeting
specialists, specific
regular tools
visits by
of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to
extension workers to innovative farmers, and periodic interaction between farmers,teach participants about them.
extension
Agricultural workers and
extension and advisory
researchservices
scientists aretotransitioning
facilitate thefrom two‐way
a focusflow
onof communication.
technology transfer
to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first
Farmer training model: Agricultural extension programs in many countries initiated farmer
and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.
training centers where select “model farmers” from surrounding villages or districts could get
Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the
training
connecting actor in improved farming
in complex methodsinnovation
agricultural and techniques.systems. It was
Theassumed that, afterinthe
role of extension training,
agricultural
the modelisfarmers
development wouldevolving,
continuously go back and to their villages,
effective adopt staff
front‐line the new farm practices
members need skill they had
sets that
maylearned
differ during
from thosethe training, and meetin with
they learned others
school. in the village
Extension to share must
professionals what they
have had an
learned. These
understanding training
of the programs
communities would
they work address
in and twohaveissues: the inadequate
compassion for the peoplenumber theyof serve.
front‐
Theyline extension
should workers toinserve
be well‐versed adulta education
large number of farmers,
principles. andsound
Besides the education
technicalofknowledge,
youth and
theyinexperience
must possess adequateworkers
of extension knowledge in theand skillFarmer
field. in participatory
field schoolstools
are an and techniques
adaptation for
of this
planning,
approach.implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are
critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches
thatParticipatory
can help front‐lineextension models:
extension Evidence
staff do theirindicates
important that when rural people organize for their
work.
own benefit, much can be achieved. Generally, participatory extension approaches assume
Most thatof local
the process
farmersskills
haveor tools inorthis
wisdom handbook
indigenous are grounded
knowledge in communication,
regarding education,
food and fiber production
rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field
on their land, but their productivity and livelihood could be improved by learning more of
extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but
what is known outside their locality or from applying scientific investigation techniques
comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our
through on‐farm trials. Farming systems research makes the same assumption regarding the
goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the
skillsvalue
that of local knowledge
extension workers needand strives
to helpto createimprove
farmers co‐learning opportunities
agricultural amongand
productivity extension
to help
workers, researchers and farmers. Most participatory extension
create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory models are supported by
international NGOs, and field activities
approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. are managed by local NGOs. Examples of this
approach are Community Forestry and the Small Farmer Development Program in Nepal.
Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this
Farmer‐based
handbook is meantextension
to conveyorganizations: In more developed
the tool’s importance, complexity economies, farmers’
or usefulness. Not associations
all tools are
equally useful in particular
or cooperatives circumstances.
have established Furthermore,
and managed some extension
agricultural complex and powerful
programs tools the
to serve are
easier
needsto describe
of their than others.
members. We present structures
Management a brief overview at the end
and sources of this handbook
of financial support vary of some
from
of the ways for
country extension
to country. Inpersonnel to evaluate
general, members of the
the potential
group or usefulness
cooperative, and notappropriateness
the government, of
the control
tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension
the functioning of the extension system. A few examples are the farmers associations staff members will be
expected
of Japan,to useandtheir best judgment
members of farmeronassociations
how best toorproceed.
commodity We hope
groupsthis‐‐ handbook helpssugar,
such as coffee, them
do so.
11
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Core Competency Handbook The Role of Extension in Agriculture Development
Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

cotton or rubber growers ‐‐ who pay annual dues or a small portion of their product sales to
receive extension services. In other situations, participants pay part of the cost of extension
Preface
programs and government sources provide matching support.
This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐
University‐based
to‐day work. It offersextension
a set of model:
tools forMany agricultural
effective colleges program
communication, and universities
planning offer
and
outreach or extension services that help local communities and also create
evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The an opportunity to
improve the quality and relevance of their teaching and research functions.
intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Agricultural
universities
resources have an assumed
and community mandate
development to create
ministry and governmental
officials; test technical knowledge so that it is
and non‐governmental
relevant
extension and useful to farm
district/regional people.
managers; Also, both teachers
extension‐related andand
faculty students benefit greatly from
their students—preservice
extension workers;
interaction and field‐level
with farmers. The U.S.agents,
land‐grantwhether governmental,
universities non‐governmental
were developed or for‐
to serve the people
profit. We hope
in each statethat
withthis handbook
three will help
interrelated andadvance efforts to functions:
complementary empower and continue
teaching, educating
research and
extension personnel
extension. through
This concept in‐service by
is recognized training
many opportunities, continuing
agricultural colleges education
and universities
programming
developedand “train‐the‐trainer”
through programs.
USAID assistance, andSuch
theseefforts may include
universities havetargeting specific
organized tools
extension
of interest to audiences and inviting
services in nearby communities. scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.
Agricultural
An in‐depth extension
analysis ofand advisory services
alternative extensionareapproaches
transitioning from
can a focusinonGuide
be found technology transfer
on Alternative
to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first
Extension Approaches (Axinn, 1988).
and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.
Agricultural
Today’s extensionextension
agricultural and advisory
andservices
advisoryacross the world
services continue
are being to change.
challenged For example,
to serve as the
connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of
the World Bank no longer supports the training and visit approach to extension. Today,extension in agricultural
many
development is continuously
donor organizations evolving, andand
support participatory effective front‐line staff
demand‐driven members
extension needItskill
services. sets
is fair tothat
say
may differ isfrom
that there thosedominant
no single they learned in school.
agricultural Extension
extension system professionals must havethat
today. New approaches an
understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the
integrate elements of many extension models are evolving constantly. In most countries, the people they serve.
They
centralshould be well‐versed
government providesinanadult education
overall principles.for
policy framework Besides soundbut
extension, technical
a varietyknowledge,
of actors ‐
they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for
‐ e.g., public organizations, civil societies and private firms ‐‐ provide a range of services to
planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are
farmers and agribusiness operators. This has resulted in the rise of pluralistic extension systems
critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches
in increasing
that can helpnumbers
front‐lineofextension
countries.staff do their important work.
Suvediof(2011,
Most pp. 2‐3)
the process summarized
skills or tools in the
this key elements
handbook are embraced
grounded inbycommunication,
contemporary agricultural
education,
extension services:
rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field
extension workers.
Privatization: ThisUnited
In the handbook was public
Kingdom, created to helpservice
extension meet has
the evolved
need for a simple
over time intobuta
comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies.
private consulting business. In the Netherlands, farmers provide the majority of the cost of Our
goalextension
was to create a concise
service. Otheryetforms
complete, easy to read,include
of privatization user‐friendly explanation
cost recovery, of some of and
outsourcing the
skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help
contracting out extension services. In Costa Rica, for example, the government “provides
create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory
farmers with extension vouchers, which can be used for getting advice from private
approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.
specialists”(Qamar, 2006).
Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this
Pluralism:
handbook Contemporary
is meant to convey theextension services recognize
tool’s importance, the or
complexity heterogeneity
usefulness. Notof the farming
all tools are
community and the need for a diversity of extension service delivery
equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are systems. Pluralistic
extension
easier encompasses
to describe than others. a Werange of service
present a brief providers,
overview atapproaches, funding
the end of this streams
handbook and
of some
sources
of the of information
ways for availabletotoevaluate
extension personnel farmersthe andpotential
clients (INGENEAS,
usefulness and 2016). Thus, multiple
appropriateness of
the organizations,
tools. However, in the
both end,and
public educated and well‐trained
non‐public, extension
deliver extension staff Examples
services. members include
will be
expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them
do so.
12
12 i
Core Competency Handbook The Role of Extension in Agriculture Development
Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

extension services delivered by local NGOs and private seed companies in Bangladesh,
Malawi, Mali and Nepal.
Preface
Decentralization: The key element of this approach is to transfer the decision‐making
This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐
functions
to‐day work. toIt the locala levels.
offers set ofLocaltoolsunits
for ofeffective
government take charge of
communication, managerial
program functions
planning and
including planning, implementation, and financing and accountability
evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The functions. Extension
services
intended are planned
audiences and handbook
of this implemented by district‐
include: or subdistrict‐level
governmental agriculture, governments in the
fisheries, natural
Philippines,
resources Tanzania and
and community Indonesia. ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental
development
extension
Client participation: In the “old extension‐related
district/regional managers; school” models faculty and their
of extension students—preservice
services, diffusion was
extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐
accomplished through transfer of technology; in “new school” models, diffusion is achieved
profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating
through active participation of farmers in the learning process. Extension programs and
extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education
services are managed by membership of user groups such as coffee growers’ associations and
programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools
vegetable
of interest cooperatives.
to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.
Women and youth focus:
Agricultural extension and advisory The number
servicesofare women farmersfrom
transitioning is rising except
a focus in westerntransfer
on technology nations
as rural farm youths move to white‐collar jobs in urban areas. This
to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension has resulted in the loss of
first
farm population and a need for reengaging rural youths in
and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. food and fiber production,
processing
Today’s and marketing.
agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the
connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural
“Demand‐driven agricultural extension” is the buzzword used today. It means that extension
development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that
systems respond to what farmers or clients ask for to satisfy their educational and informational
may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an
needs. The farmofhousehold
understanding the communitiesis the central
they work focusinofandthehave
extension service.
compassion forThe
thehope
people is that
they clients
serve.
will value the educational input so much that they will be willing to
They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, invest their own resources
through
they mustsome form of
possess cost share
adequate to receiveand
knowledge the service.
skill in participatory tools and techniques for
planning, implementation and evaluation
Today, the traditional agricultural extension approach of extension programs.
‐‐ top‐down,Good supply‐
communication skills are
and technology‐
critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide
driven ‐‐ no longer appears to be an appropriate model. Although some countries continue to some tools and approaches
that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.
follow a paternalistic and top‐down approach to service delivery, many have adopted a
Most of the process
participatory approachskills or toolsfarmers
allowing in this and
handbook are grounded
agribusinesses to playinacommunication,
significant role in education,
planning
rural sociology and applied
and implementing extension development
services. More science. These tools
recently, manyare valuable
nations arefor the trainers
promoting of field
pluralistic
extension workers. This handbook was created
service delivery and a market‐driven or fee‐for‐service system. to help meet the need for a simple but
comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our
Hence
goal wastwotoparadigms seem to
create a concise yetprevail ‐‐ in some
complete, easy tocountries, extension service
read, user‐friendly explanationproviders
of somepersuade
of the
skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity andservices
farmers to implement specific, predetermined practices. In other countries, extension to help
seek toaeducate
create farmers
sustainable and about
inclusivetechnical options
agriculture and management
system strategies and
through demand‐driven andthen let them
participatory
decide which option would work best for them.
approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. In some settings, both of these approaches co‐
exist. note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this
Please
handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are
equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are
easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some
of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of
the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be
expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them
do so.
13
13i
Core Competency Handbook The Role of Extension in Agriculture Development
Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Preface
This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐
to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and
evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The
intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural
resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental
extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice
extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐
profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating
extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education
programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools
of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.
Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer
to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first
and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.
Today’s agricultural
Figure extension of
3. Four paradigms and advisory extension
agricultural services are beingfrom
(adapted challenged
McNamara, to serve
2015).as the
connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural
Based on theis dichotomy
development continuouslyofevolving,
these two approaches,
and effective McNamara
front‐line (2015) characterized
staff members need skill sets four
that
paradigms
may differoffrom
today’s agricultural
those extensioninservices
they learned school.(Figure 3). professionals must have an
Extension
understanding
Technologyoftransfer
the communities they work inand
paradigm (persuasive andpaternalistic):
have compassion It is afor the people
top‐down they serve.
approach that
Theydelivers
shouldspecific
be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound
recommendations to farmers about the practices they should adopt. This technical knowledge,
they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for
was prevalent in colonial times and also was at the heart of the training and visit system.
planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are
Farmers are provided with prescriptive “technology packages” for specific, predefined
critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches
agricultural productsextension
that can help front‐line ‐‐ e.g., maize, rice,their
staff do goats, shrimp production.
important work.
Advisory services paradigm (persuasive and participatory):
Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in Through a persuasive
communication, but
education,
demand‐driven service, the public extension staff members or the
rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field private consultants
extension advice inThis
provideworkers. response
handbookto requests from the
was created tofarmer but with
help meet the predetermined
need for a simple packaged
but
solutions. More
comprehensive often,
guide development
for extension projects
workers managed
that focuses onby donor skills
process agenciesand and NGOs use such
competencies. Our
goaladvisory
was to create
servicea to
concise
promoteyet complete,
technologyeasy to read,The
adoption. user‐friendly
provision of explanation of someis of
technical advice the
often
skillslinked
that extension workersfertilizer,
to inputs—seed, need to demonstration
help farmers improve technology productivity
of new agricultural and to help
or training support. The
create
costa ofsustainable
providing andsuchinclusive
advice isagriculture system
either covered bythrough demand‐driven
donor funding or embedded and participatory
in the price
approaches
charged that have
for the gainedInprominence
inputs. other cases,infarmers
the pastmaytwopay
decades.
directly to consultants for specific
Pleaseservices,
note such
that as animalthe
neither health
lengthandoffarm
eachmanagement services.nor its numeric order in this
tool’s description
handbook
Humanisresource
meant todevelopment
convey the tool’s importance,
paradigm complexity
(educational andorpaternalistic):
usefulness. Not Theallextension
tools are
equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are
services in Europe and North America are examples of this paradigm, by which agricultural
easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some
colleges or universities and vocational and technical training centers provide education and
of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of
the training to the rural
tools. However, in people
the end, based on perceived
educated or assessedextension
and well‐trained needs. Though staff teaching
membersmethods
will be
are mostly top‐down, the learners are expected to make their
expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook own decisions about
helpshow
themto
use the knowledge they acquire.
do so.
14
14 i
Core Competency Handbook The Role of Extension in Agriculture Development
Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Facilitation extension paradigm (educational and participatory): This is a participatory

approach of “teaching people how to catch fish.” The intended beneficiaries participate in
Preface
the identification and prioritization of learning needs. There is some form of cost share to
Thisreceive
handbookthe isextension
designedservice.
as a reference manual for front‐line
Many development projectsextension staff to use
employ extension in their
staff membersday‐
to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program
or NGO workers to ascertain production gaps or identify local educational or informational planning and
evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers
needs. Often, innovative or progressive farmers are utilized to demonstrate the application worldwide. The
intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural
of new technology to small/average farmers for higher profitably under similar conditions.
resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental
To sum up,district/regional
extension nations engage in agricultural
managers; extension work to
extension‐related inform
faculty andfarmers and their households
their students—preservice
extension workers;and
about innovations andimproved
field‐level agents, whether
practices. governmental,
The overarching non‐governmental
goal of agricultural extension or isfor‐
to
profit.
improve Werural
hope that this handbook
livelihoods will helpfood
and ensure advance effortsThese
security. to empower andremain
services continue educating
largely the
extension
responsibilitypersonnel
of the public through
sector.in‐service
However, theretraining
is noopportunities, continuing education
uniformity in organizational structure
programming
and educational and “train‐the‐trainer”
service programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools
delivery mechanisms.
of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.
Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer
References
to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first
and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.
Axinn, G.A. (1988). Guide on alternative extension approaches. Rome, Italy: FAO‐UN.
Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the
Chambers, R.
connecting (1983).
actor Rural development:
in complex Putting thesystems.
agricultural innovation last first.The
New York,
role USA: Longman.
of extension in agricultural
development
Christoplos, I. (2010). Mobilizing the potential of rural and agricultural extension.skill
is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need setsItaly:
Rome, that
may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an
Food and Agricultural Organization.
understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.
Deere,should
They C.D. (2005). The feminization
be well‐versed in adultofeducation
agriculture? EconomicBesides
principles. restructuring
sound in rural Latin
technical America.
knowledge,
they must possess
Geneva, adequateUnited
Switzerland: knowledge
Nationsand skill inInstitute
Research participatory tools
for Social and techniques for
Development.
planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are
Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 (FACTA, 1990). Public Law 101‐624, Title
critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches
that canXVI, Subtitle
help A, Section
front‐line extension1603. Washington,
staff D.C., USA:
do their important Government Printing Office.
work.
FAO. of
Most (2011). The state
the process skillsoforfood
toolsand agriculture
in this handbook 2010‐11: Women
are grounded in agriculture—closing
in communication, the
education,
gender gap for development. Rome, Italy: FAO.
rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field
extension
McNamara,workers. ThisImplementing
P. E. (2015). handbook was createdLessons
programs: to helplearned
meet from the need for a extension
agricultural simple but
comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and
best practices. PowerPoint presented in ECHO Conference, Oct. 8, Chiang Mai, Thailand. competencies. Our
goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the
Accessed at:
skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help
http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/members.echocommunity.org/resource/collection/AFCAA26E
create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory
‐20A5‐4977‐946A‐
approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.
EE80F013FFDA/Lessons_Learned_for_Small_and_Medium_Scale_Extension_NGOs_and
Please _Programs_Dr._Paul_McNamara.pdf
note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this
handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are
Maunder,
equally A. H.in(1972).
useful Agricultural
particular extension:
circumstances. A reference some
Furthermore, manual. ED 075and
complex 628.powerful
Rome, Italy:
toolsFood
are
easier to and Agriculture
describe Organization
than others. of the aUnited
We present Nations. at the end of this handbook of some
brief overview
of the ways
Qamar, M.K.for extension
(2006). personnel
Agricultural to evaluate
extension theand
in Asia potential usefulness
the Pacific: Time to and appropriateness
revisit and reform. of In
the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be
V. P. Sharma (ed.), Enhancement of extension system in agriculture. Tokyo, Japan: Asian
expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them
Productivity Organization.
do so.
15
15i
Core Competency Handbook The Role of Extension in Agriculture Development
Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Rapley, J. (2007). Understanding development: Theory and practice in the third world (third ed.).
Boulder, Colorado, USA: Lynne Rienner.
Preface
Suvedi, M. (2011). Evaluation of agricultural extension and advisory services: A MEAS training
This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐
to‐day module.
work. ItMSU/UI/USAID‐MEAS.
offers a set of toolsAccessed at: www.meas‐extension.org/meas‐
for effective communication, program planning and
offers/training/evaluatingextensionprograms
evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The
intended
Swanson, B.audiences
E., and K.of this (2014).
Davis. handbook include:
Status governmental
of agricultural agriculture,
extension fisheries,services
and rural advisory natural
resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and
worldwide summary report. Lindau, Switzerland: Global Forum for Rural Advisorynon‐governmental
extension district/regional
Services (GFRAS). managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice
extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐
profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating
extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education
programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools
of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.
Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer
to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first
and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.
Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the
connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural
development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that
may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an
understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.
They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,
they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for
planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are
critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches
that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.
Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,
rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field
extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but
comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our
goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the
skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help
create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory
approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.
Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this
handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are
equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are
easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some
of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of
the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be
expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them
do so.
16
16 i