1

Preliminary Concepts
and Recent Trends

Overview

The goal of education is learning, and the vehicle used to accomplish this goal is
teaching. In the teaching-learning process, the fundamental component which determines the
degree of learner outcomes’ achievement is assessment. Assessment has the express objective
of determining whether or not learners have learned what they are supposed to learn. Thus,
assessment is an integral part of education.
In this module, basic concepts and principles in educational assessment is discussed.
The common terminologies used in assessment are defined to establish common idea on the
terms used in assessment. Further, this module includes topic on high quality assessment
components and the recent trends and focus in assessment.

Learning Outcomes

After learning this module, you should be able to:

 explain the basic concepts and principles in educational assessment;
 compare and contrast assessment, evaluation, measurement, and testing;
 discuss on the role of assessment in making instructional decisions to improve
teaching and learning; and
 reflect on and discuss the applications and implications of assessment to teaching and
learning.

Lesson 1.1 What is Educational Assessment?

 According to Evangeline Harris Stefanakis (2002), "The word assess comes from the
Latin assidere, which means to sit beside. Literally then, to assess means to sit
beside the learner."
 Assessment is the systematic collection, review, and use of information about
educational programs undertaken for the purpose of improving student learning and
development.
 Assessment is a formative process that focuses on student learning. It involves setting
explicit student learning goals or outcomes for an academic program; evaluating the
extent to which students are reaching those goals; and using the information for
program development and improvement.
 Assessment is defined as a process for documenting, in measurable terms, the
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs of the learner (Delclos, Vye, Burns, Bransford,
& Hasselbring, 1992; Poehner, 2007).
 Assessment is the collection of relevant information that may be relied on for making
decisions (Fenton, 1996).
 Oosterhof (2001) defined assessment as “a related series of measures used to
determine complex attribute of an individual or group of individuals. It is the process of
observing and measuring learning.
 The most common form of assessment is giving a test.
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 Educational Assessment seeks to determine how well students are learning and is an
integrated part of the quest for improved education. It provides feedback to students,
educators, parents, policy makers, and the public about the effectiveness of
educational services (National Research Council).

Principles and Indicators of Assessment of Student Learning

Principle 1: The Primary Purpose of Assessment is to Improve Student Learning.

Assessment systems provide useful information about whether students have reached important
learning goals and about the progress of each student. They employ practices and methods that
are consistent with learning goals, curriculum, instruction, and current knowledge of how students
learn.
Principle 2: Assessment for Other Purposes Supports Student Learning.
Assessment systems report on and certify student learning and provide information for school
improvement and accountability by using practices that support important learning. Important
decisions, such as high school graduation, on the basis of information gathered over time, not on
a single assessment.
Principle 3: Assessment Systems Are Fair to All Students. Assessment systems,
including instruments, policies, practices and uses, are fair to all students. Assessment systems
ensure that all students receive fair treatment in order not to limit students' present and future
opportunities. They allow for multiple methods to assess student progress and for multiple but
equivalent ways for students to express knowledge and understanding. Assessments are
unbiased and reflect a student's actual knowledge.
Principle 4: Professional Collaboration and Development Support Assessment.
Knowledgeable and fair educators are essential for high quality assessment. Assessment
systems depend on educators who understand the full range of assessment purposes, use
appropriately a variety of suitable methods, work collaboratively, and engage in ongoing
professional development to improve their capability as assessors. Schools of education prepare
teachers and other educators well for assessing a diverse student population. Educators
determine and participate in professional development and work together to improve their craft.
Their competence is strengthened by groups of teachers scoring student work at the district or
state levels. Schools, districts, and states provide needed resources for professional
development.
Principle 5: The Broad Community Participates in Assessment Development.
Assessment systems draw on the community's knowledge and ensure support by including
parents, community members, and students, together with educators and professionals with
particular expertise, in the development of the system. Discussion of assessment purposes and
methods involves a wide range of people interested in education. Parents, students, and
members of the public join a variety of experts, teachers, and other educators in shaping the
assessment system.
Principle 6: Communication about Assessment is Regular and Clear. Educators,
schools, districts, and states clearly and regularly discuss assessment system practices and
student and program progress with students, families, and the community. Educators and
institutions communicate, in ordinary language, the purposes, methods, and results of
assessment. They focus reporting on what students know and are able to do, what they need to
learn to do, and what will be done to facilitate improvement. They report achievement data in
terms of agreed-upon learning goals.
Principle 7: Assessment Systems Are Regularly Reviewed and Improved.
Assessment systems are regularly reviewed and improved to ensure that the systems are
educationally beneficial to all students. Assessment systems must evolve and improve. Even
well-designed systems must adapt to changing conditions and increased knowledge. Reviews are
the basis for making decisions to alter all or part of the assessment system. Reviewers include
stakeholders in the education system and independent expert analysts.

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Types of Classroom Assessment

1. Assessment for Learning (Formative Assessment)

 The philosophy behind assessment for learning is that assessment and teaching should
be integrated into a whole. The power of such an assessment doesn't come from intricate
technology or from using a specific assessment instrument. It comes from recognizing
how much learning is taking place in the common tasks of the school day – and how
much insight into student learning teachers can mine from this material (McNamee and
Chen, 2005).
 Assessment for learning is ongoing assessment that allows teachers to monitor students
on a day-to-day basis and modify their teaching based on what the students need to be
successful. This assessment provides students with the timely, specific feedback that
they need to make adjustments to their learning.
 After teaching a lesson, we need to determine whether the lesson was accessible to all
students while still challenging to the more capable; what the students learned and still
need to know; how we can improve the lesson to make it more effective; and, if
necessary, what other lesson we might offer as a better alternative. This continual
evaluation of instructional choices is at the heart of improving our teaching practice
(Burns, 2005).

2. Assessment of Learning (Summative Assessment)

 Assessment of learning is the snapshot in time that lets the teacher, students and their
parents know how well each student has completed the learning tasks and activities. It
provides information about student achievement. While it provides useful reporting
information, it often has little effect on learning.
 It refers to strategies designed to confirm what students know, determine whether or not
they have met curriculum outcomes or the goals of their individualized programs, or to
certify proficiency and make decisions about students’ future programs or placements. It
is designed to provide evidence of achievement to parents, other educators, the students
themselves, and sometimes to outside groups like other educational institutions.

Comparing Assessment for Learning and Assessment of Learning

Assessment for Learning Assessment of Learning
(Formative Assessment) (Summative Assessment)
Checks learning to determine what to do next Checks what has been learned to date.
and then provides suggestions of what to do—
teaching and learning are indistinguishable
from assessment.
Is designed to assist educators and students in Is designed for the information of those not
improving learning. directly involved in daily learning and teaching
(school administration, parents, school board,
Alberta Education, post-secondary institutions)
in addition to educators and students.
Is used continually by providing descriptive Is presented in a periodic report.
feedback.
Usually uses detailed, specific and descriptive Usually compiles data into a single number,
feedback—in a formal or informal report. score or mark as part of a formal report.
Is not reported as part of an achievement Is reported as part of an achievement grade.
grade.

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Usually focuses on improvement, compared Usually compares the student's learning either
with the student's “previous best” (self- with other students' learning (norm-referenced,
referenced, making learning more personal). making learning highly competitive) or the
standard for a grade level (criterion-referenced,
making learning more collaborative and
individually focused).
Involves the student. Does not always involve the student.
Adapted from Ruth Sutton, unpublished document, 2001, in Alberta Assessment Consortium, Refocus: Looking at Assessment for
Learning (Edmonton, AB: Alberta Assessment Consortium, 2003), p. 4. Used with permission from Ruth Sutton Ltd.

3. Assessment as Learning
 Assessment as learning develops and supports students' metacognitive skills. This form
of assessment is crucial in helping students become lifelong learners. As students
engage in peer and self-assessment, they learn to make sense of information, relate it to
prior knowledge and use it for new learning. Students develop a sense of ownership and
efficacy when they use teacher, peer and self-assessment feedback to make
adjustments, improvements and changes to what they understand.
Purpose of Educational Assessment

Assessment is used to:

 Inform and guide teaching and learning. A good classroom assessment plan gathers
evidence of student learning that informs teachers' instructional decisions. It provides
teachers with information about what students know and can do. To plan effective
instruction, teachers also need to know what the student misunderstands and where the
misconceptions lie. In addition to helping teachers formulate the next teaching steps, a
good classroom assessment plan provides a road map for students. Students should, at
all times, have access to the assessment so they can use it to inform and guide their
learning.
 Help students set learning goals. Students need frequent opportunities to reflect on
where their learning is at and what needs to be done to achieve their learning goals.
When students are actively involved in assessing their own next learning steps and
creating goals to accomplish them, they make major advances in directing their learning
and what they understand about themselves as learners.
 Assign report card grades. Grades provide parents, employers, other schools,
governments, post-secondary institutions and others with summary information about
student learning.
 Motivate students. Research (Davies 2004; Stiggins et al. 2004) has shown that
students will be motivated and confident learners when they experience progress and
achievement, rather than the failure and defeat associated with being compared to more
successful peers.
The Assessment Process

An effective classroom assessment:

 addresses specific outcomes in the program of studies

 shares intended outcomes and assessment criteria with students prior to the assessment
activity
 assesses before, during and after instruction
 employs a variety of assessment strategies to provide evidence of student learning
 provides frequent and descriptive feedback to students
 ensures students can describe their progress and achievement and articulate what
comes next in their learning
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 informs teachers and provides insight that can be used to modify instruction.

The assessment process starts with planning based on the program of studies learning
outcomes and involves assessing, evaluating and communicating student learning, as shown in
the following diagram.

Assessment Task 1.1

1. Why is assessment important? Cite some instances/situations where assessment is

used.

2. Prepare a chart or diagram showing the basic concepts of assessment. Show the
features of each.

3. Interview at least three teachers on their methods of assessing student learning.

Lesson 1.2. Common Terminologies

Measurement

 Thorndike and Hagen (19860 define measurement as “the process of quantifying

observations and/or descriptions about quality or attribute of a thing or person.” The
process of measurement involves three steps: identifying and defining the quality or
attribute that is to be measured; determining a set of operations by which the attribute
may be made manifest and perceivable; and establishing a set of procedures or
definitions for translating observations into quantitative statement of degree or amount.
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 McMillan (1997) stated that measurement involves using observation, rating scales, or
any other non-test device that secures information in a quantitative form. The term
measurement can refer to both the score obtained and the process used.
 Gredler (1997) defined measurement as the process of making empirical observations of
some attribute, characteristic, or phenomenon and translating those observations into
quantifiable or categorical form according to clearly specified procedures or rules.
 Educational measurement refers to the process of determining a quantitative or
qualitative academic attribute of an individual or group of individuals.
 One common example of measurement is when a teacher gives scores to the test of the
students like getting 23 correct answers out of 25 items or getting 95% in the first quarter
exam.

Testing

 Test is a formal and systematic instrument, usually paper and pencil procedure designed
to assess the quality, ability, skill or knowledge of the students by giving a set of question
in uniform manner.
 A test is one of the many types of assessment procedure used to gather information
about the performance of students.
 A test refers to a tool, technique or a method that is intended to measure students’
knowledge or their ability to complete a particular task. In this sense, testing can be
considered as a form of assessment. Tests should meet some basic requirements, such
as validity and reliability.
 Testing is one of the different methods used to measure the level of performance or
achievement of the learners.
 Testing also refers to the administration, scoring, and interpretation of the procedures
designed to get information about the extent of the performance of the students.

Standardized Testing

 Standardization is the process of trying out the test on a group of people to see the
scores which are typically obtained. This process provides a mean (average) and
standard deviation (spread) relative to a certain group.
 A standardized test is a test administered and scored in a consistent manner. The tests
are designed in such a way that the “questions, conditions for administering, scoring
procedures, and interpretations are consistent and are administered and scored in a
predetermined, standard manner (Popham, 2003).
 Standardized tests also determine a student’s academic level. They become the basis
for early tracking then ongoing tracking, reflecting the belief that homogeneous
achievement groups facilitate more efficient and effective teaching and learning (Perrone,
1991).

 Standardized tests are tools designed to allow measure of student performance relative
to all others taking the same test.

Types of Standardized Testing

1. Norm-referenced testing. It measures performance relative to all other students taking the
same test. This is the type of test you can use if you want to know how a student is compared
to the rest. This type of testing is the most common found among standardized testing. For
example, If a student is ranked in the 86 th percentile, that means he/she did better than 86
percent of others who took the test.
2. Criterion-referenced testing. It measured factual knowledge of a defined body of material.
Multiple-choice tests that people take to get their license or a test in fractions are both
examples of this type of testing.
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Comparison of Norm-referenced Test and Criterion-referenced Test

Dimension Criterion-Referenced Tests Norm-Referenced Tests

-To determine whether each -To rank each student with respect to the
student has achieved specific skills
achievement of others in broad areas of
or concepts.
Purpose knowledge.
-To find out how much students
-To discriminate between high and low
know before instruction begins and achievers.
after it has finished.
-Measures specific skills which
make up a designated curriculum.
-Measures broad skill areas sampled from
These skills are identified by
Content a variety of textbooks, syllabi, and the
teachers and curriculum experts.
judgments of curriculum experts.
-Each skill is expressed as an
instructional objective.
-Each skill is tested by at least
four items in order to obtain an -Each skill is usually tested by less than
Item adequate sample of student four items.
Characteristic performance and to minimize the -Items vary in difficulty.
s effect of guessing. -Items are selected that discriminate
-The items which test any given between high and low achievers.
skill are parallel in difficulty.
-Each individual is compared with -Each individual is compared with other
a preset standard for acceptable examinees and assigned a score--usually
achievement. The performance of expressed as a percentile, a grade
Score other examinees is irrelevant. equivalent score, or a stanine.
Interpretation -A student's score is usually -Student achievement is reported for
expressed as a percentage. broad skill areas, although some norm-
-Student achievement is reported for referenced tests do report student
individual skills. achievement for individual skills.

High Stakes Testing

 High-stakes tests are tests used to make important decisions about students. These
include whether students should be promoted, allowed to graduate, or admitted to
programs.
 High-stakes tests are designed to measure whether or not content and performance
standards established by the state have been achieved.
 High-stakes testing in schools is based on the premise that student learning will
increase if educators and students are held accountable for achievement.
 By definition, testing becomes high stakes when the outcomes are used to make
decisions about promotion, admissions, graduation, and salaries.
 High-stakes testing is often associated with public reporting of testing results as a way
to bring attention to the assessment results. For schools with high or improved
performance on assessments, there are typically rewards (often monetary), and for
schools that underperform, there are often penalties that can result in the replacement of
administrators or teachers or retention of students at grade level.

Major Theories Underlying Test-Based Accountability on High-stakes Tests

1. Motivational theory is the predominant theory underlying test-based accountability.

According to this concept, the extrinsic rewards and sanctions associated with the high-
stakes test serve to motivate teachers to improve their performance. This presumes that
educators require external pressure to improve their teaching.

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2. The theory of alignment holds that system-wide improvement is most likely to occur if
educators align the major components of the educational system (standards, curriculum, and
assessments) surrounding schools so that they reinforce each other. Alignment is usually
thought of in terms of synchronizing the surrounding system, but can also be thought of as
alignment between the external accountability of schools and schools' sense of internal
accountability (Abelmann and Elmore, 2004).
3. Information theory maintains that student performance data are useful for teachers and
administrators to make decisions about students and programs and that providing such data
to local educators and giving them incentives to improve their performance will guide
classroom and organizational decision-making.
4. Symbolism theory has also contributed to the growth and prevalence of high-stakes testing.
In this model, the accountability system is seen to signal important values to stakeholders
and, in particular, the public. This particular theory is manifested in the notion of "public
answerability" — that is, the idea that the public has a right to expect its resources to be used
responsibly and that public institutions are accountable for caretaking the public trust. High-
stakes assessments thus serve as evidence that public education is, in essence, responsible
and rigorous and further provide symbolic of the system.

Evaluation

 The verb evaluate means to form an idea of something or to give a judgment about
something. The term comes from the French word ‘évaluer’, meaning “to find the value
of”. The origin is from the Latin term ‘valere’ meaning “be strong, be well; be of value, or
be worth”.
 In the educational context, the verb ‘to evaluate’ often collocates with terms such as: the
effectiveness of an educational system, a program, a course, instruction, and a
curriculum.
 According to Weiss (1972), evaluation refers to the systematic gathering of information
for the purpose of making decisions. It is not concerned with the assessment of the
performance of an individual, but rather with forming an idea of the curriculum and
making a judgment about it. This judgment is made based on some kind of criteria and
evidence. The purpose is to make decisions about the worth of instruction, a course, or
even the whole curriculum. Evaluation is thus larger and may include an analysis of all
the aspects of the educational system.
 Evaluation is a process of summing up the results of measurements or tests, giving
them some meaning based on value judgments (Hopkins and Stanley, 1981).
 Educational evaluation is the process of characterizing and appraising some aspect or
aspects of an educational process. It is a systematic determination of merit, worth, and
significance of something or someone using criteria against a set of standards.
 Educational evaluation is a professional activity that individual educators need to
undertake if they intend to continuously review and enhance the learning they are
endeavoring to facilitate.

Types and Distinctions of Tests and Assessment Procedures

There are ways of describing classroom tests and other assessment procedures. This
table is a summary of the different types of assessment procedure that was adopted and modified
from Grolund, Linn, and Miller (2009).

Classification Type of Function of Assessment Example of Instruments

Assessment
Maximum It is used to determine what Aptitude tests,
Nature of Performance individuals can do when achievement tests
Assessment performing at their best.
Typical It is used to determine what Attitude, interest, and
Performance individuals will do under natural personality inventories;
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conditions. observational techniques;

peer appraisal
Fixed-choice An assessment use to measure Standard multiple-choice
Form of test knowledge and skills effectively test
Assessment and efficiently.
Complex- An assessment procedure used Hands-on laboratory
performance to measure the performance of experiment, projects,
assessment the learner in contexts and on essays, oral presentation
problems valued in their own
right.
Placement An assessment procedure used Readiness tests, aptitude
Use in to determine the learner’s tests, pretests on course
Classroom prerequisite skills, degree of objectives, self-report
Instruction mastery of the course goals, inventories, observational
and/or best modes of learning. techniques
Formative An assessment procedure used Teacher-made tests,
to determine the learner’s custom-made tests from
learning progress, provides textbook publishers,
feedback to reinforce learning, observational techniques
and corrects learning errors.
Diagnostic An assessment procedure used Published diagnostic
to determine the causes of tests, teacher-made
learner’s persistent learning diagnostic tests,
difficulties such as intellectual, observational techniques
physical, emotional, and
environmental difficulties.
Summative An assessment procedure used Teacher-made survey
to determine the end-of-course test, performance rating
achievement for assigning scales, product scales
grades or certifying mastery of
objectives.
Criterion- It is used to describe student Teacher-made tests,
Methods of referenced performance according to a custom-made tests from
Interpreting specified domain of clearly textbook publishers,
Results defined learning tasks. observational techniques
Norm- It is used to describe students’ Standardized aptitude
referenced performance according to achievement tests,
relative position in some known teacher-made survey
group. tests, interest inventories,
adjustment inventories

Other types of Test

A. Non-standardized Test versus Standardized Test

1. Non-standardized test is a type of test developed by the classroom teachers.
2. Standardized test is a type of test developed by test specialists. It is administered,
scored and interpreted using a certain standard condition.
B. Objective Test versus Subjective Test
1. Objective test is a type of test in which two or more evaluators give an examinee the
same score.
2. Subjective test is a type of test in which the scores are influenced by the judgment
of the evaluators, meaning there is no one correct answer.
C. Supply Test versus Fixed-response Test
1. Supply test is a type of test that requires the examinees to supply an answer, such
as an essay test item or completion or short answer test item.

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2. Fixed-response test is a type of test that requires the examinees to select an

answer from a given option such as multiple-choice test, matching type of test,
true/false test.
D. Individual Test versus Group Test
1. Individual test is a type of test administered to student on a one-on-one basis using
oral questioning.
2. Group test is a type of test administered to a group of individuals or group of
students.
E. Mastery Test versus Survey Test
1. Mastery test is a type of achievement test that measures the degree of mastery of a
limited set of learning outcomes using criterion-reference to interpret the result.
2. Survey test is a type of test that measures students’ general achievement over a
broad range of learning outcomes using norm-reference to interpret the result.
F. Speed Test versus Power Test
1. Speed test is designed to measure number of items an individual can complete over
a certain period of time.
2. Power test is designed to measure the level of performance rather that speed of
response. It contains test items that are arranged according to increasing degree of
difficulty.

Assessment Task 1.2

1. Compare and contrast the terms: assessment, test, measurement and evaluation
using a table.

2. Think of an example of evaluation you have witnessed. Briefly describe the evaluation
strategy/activity and link the evaluation with one of the purposes of evaluation you
have learned.

3. Enumerate 5 uses of measurement, testing, and evaluation.

Lesson 1.3. High Quality Assessment Components

 High-quality assessments provide results that demonstrate and improve targeted student
learning.
 High-quality classroom assessment involves substituting technical types of validity and
reliability with concerns about how the assessments influence learning and provide fair
and credible reporting of student achievement.
 High-quality assessments inform instructional decision making.
 For teachers, the primary determinant of quality is how the information influences
students.
 High-quality assessments are balanced to provide instructors with ongoing feedback
about student progress.
 High-quality assessments are designed to be relevant, they eliminate anxiety about being
unprepared and help maintain strong student-teacher relationships.
 High quality assessment empowers educators to be more effective by optimizing
assessment use to boost student achievement, and:
o Allow for students to use assessment data to make choices about their areas of
concentration and focus.
o Produce valid and reliable results.
o Offer connections to standards-based instructional resources.

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o Provide structured assessments as well as flexible classroom assessment

capabilities.
o Generates meaningful and actionable insights.
 High quality assessment takes the massive quantities of performance data and translates
that into meaningful, actionable reports that pinpoint current student progress, predict
future achievement, and inform instruction.

Assessment Components

1. Clear purpose. Students should know the purpose of the assessment and how it is to be
done.
2. Clear and appropriate targets. Students learn more effectively when goals and learning
expectations are clear. As a teacher, you must have a clear picture of what achievement your
assessment intends to measure and communicate that to your students. A teacher cannot
accurately assess if the targets are not precisely defined.
3. Appropriate methods. Does the assessment method match the objectives? The
assessment method should give students an accurate chance to show they have mastered
the objectives.
4. Adequate sampling. Sampling facilitates the assessment process when it is not feasible to
assess all students—for example when programs/courses have large numbers of students.
5. Objectivity. Assessment should be free from bias, judgment, or prejudice.

Criteria for High Quality Assessment

1. Assessment of Higher-Order Cognitive Skills: Most of the tasks students encounter

should tap the kinds of cognitive skills that have been characterized as “higher-level”—skills
that support transferable learning, rather than emphasizing only skills that tap rote learning
and the use of basic procedures. While there is a necessary place for basic skills and
procedural knowledge, it must be balanced with attention to critical thinking and applications
of knowledge to new contexts.
2. High-Fidelity Assessment of Critical Abilities: In addition to key subject matter concepts,
assessments should include the critical abilities articulated in the standards, such as
communication (speaking, reading, writing, and listening in multi-media forms), collaboration,
modeling, complex problem solving, planning, reflection, and research. Tasks should
measure these abilities directly as they will be used in the real world, rather than through a
remote proxy.
3. Standards that Are Internationally Benchmarked: The assessments should be as rigorous
as those of the leading education countries, in terms of the kind of content and tasks they
present, as well as the level of performance they expect.
4. Use of Items that Are Instructionally Sensitive and Educationally Valuable: The tasks
should be designed so that the underlying concepts can be taught and learned, rather than
reflecting students’ differential access to outside-of-school experiences (frequently associated
with their socioeconomic status or cultural context) or depending on tricky interpretations that
mostly reflect test-taking skills. Preparing for and participating in the assessments should
engage students in instructionally valuable activities, and results from the tests should
provide instructionally useful information.
5. Assessments that Are Valid, Reliable, and Fair: In order to be truly valid for a wide range
of learners, assessments should measure well what they purport to measure, accurately
evaluate students’ abilities, and do so reliably across testing contexts and scorers. They
should also be unbiased and accessible and used in ways that support positive outcomes for
students and instructional quality.

Lesson 1.4. Recent Trends and Focus

Assessment Task 1.3

1. How can high quality assessment empower educators to be more effective?

2 Cite some examples on how high quality assessment can be achieved

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Accountability and Fairness

 Accountability is a more encompassing term than assessment. It can include more than
the collection of data from tests, record reviews, and other performance assessments.
 A system is accountable for all students when it makes sure that all students count (or
participate) in the evaluation program of the education system. Counting all students
does not mean that all students take the same test. Rather, it means that all students'
learning and progress are accounted for and included when reporting on the education
system.
 The reporting of test results represents the simplest form of accountability.
 Stronger incentives for educational change are provided by accountability mechanisms
that use information from assessments to make consequential decisions about students,
teachers, or schools.
 Assessment and accountability policies can provide clear direction for teachers and
principals in terms of student outcomes and can become a positive impetus for
instructional and curricular changes (Goertz, 2000; Kelley, Odden, Milanowski, and
Heneman, 2000; O’Day and Smith, 1993; Popham, 2000).
 When assessments are aligned with learning goals, accountability systems can motivate
classroom instruction to focus on those outcomes (Stecher, Barron, Kaganoff, and
Goodwin, 1998).
 Policy makers and educators in many states view assessment linked with accountability
as a powerful strategy for ensuring that all students are held to the same set of high
standards (Grissmer and Flanagan, 1998; Massell et al., 1997; Olson, 2001).
 Fairness is closely related to, but distinct from, the societal concepts of equality, equity,
and justice and the measurement concepts of bias, reliability, and validity.
 Differences in performance on a test may be due to differing access to learning, or
because the test is biased in favor of one group.
 Wood (1987) described these different aspects of fairness as the opportunity to acquire
talent (access issues) and the opportunity to show talent to good effect (fairness in the
assessment).
 Fairness in assessment cannot be considered in isolation from access issues in the
curriculum and the educational opportunities offered to the students: fairness in access
opportunities both to schooling and to the curriculum provide the ‘level playing field’ that
must precede a genuinely fair assessment situation.
 Fairer assessment can be achieved in different ways, with some conditions or strategies
being more important in some situations than others, depending on the purpose of the
assessment and the individuals assessed.

Conditions for Fairer Educational Assessment

1. Opportunity to learn. It is a seemingly self-defining term that can vary considerably in

breadth. It can simply mean exposure to test content or refer more broadly to the alignment
between curriculum and assessment. It can also refer to a gamut of socioeconomic and
educational factors that enable learning, including the availability and quality of resources
(i.e., teachers, learning materials, technology, etc.) and students’ ability to use them within an
environment or system. While ensuring opportunity to learn for every student in the fullest
sense is a social justice issue beyond the scope of any one assessment, it should be
considered in planning and interpreting results in both classroom and external assessment.
2. Constructive environment. It is one that respectfully encourages students to fully participate
and disclose their knowledge and learning through assessment. This requires an extent of
buy-in, meaning that an assessment must be perceived as worthwhile, or at least necessary.
Interactions between students, teachers, principals, and parents can affect the environment
for external assessments and hence the quality of results. For classroom assessment to

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genuinely and openly serve learning, high levels of trust and respect must be nurtured, not
only between teachers and students but also between classroom peers.
3. Evaluative thinking. This involves asking questions, identifying assumptions, seeking
evidence and considering different explanations, or in brief, critically evaluating assessment
practices. In external assessment, evaluative thinking should be part of a formal process (i.e.,
validation) that draws on qualitative and quantitative evidence for fairness (e.g., panel
reviews, DIF). In classroom assessment, teachers’ self-evaluation about assessment tools,
tasks, and interactions should be part of reflective practice. Reflection is particularly important
for recognizing assumptions or beliefs that might lead to bias, and for receptivity to the
knowledge and learning of diverse students, even when it diverges from the expected. Most
importantly, all educational assessments benefit from the acceptance of responsibility for
fairness and thoughtful planning, administration, and interpretation.

Standards-Based Education

 An educational or learning standard is a written description of what students are

expected to know or be able to do by a certain time in their educational career. Standards
do not indicate the curriculum or materials to be used to meet student goals.

 Standards-based refers to systems of instruction, assessment, grading, and academic

reporting that are based on students demonstrating understanding or mastery of the
knowledge and skills they are expected to learn as they progress through their
education.
 Standards-based education, therefore, involves using pre-determined standards to plan
the scope and sequence of instruction, as well as what activities and materials will be
used to achieve the goals of each standard. Assessments are used in standards-based
education to determine the ongoing progress of students, which will drive instruction
choices and to document that students have reached mastery of the standards for each
grade.

 In schools that use standards-based approaches to educating students, learning

standards—i.e., concise, written descriptions of what students are expected to know and
be able to do at a specific stage of their education—determine the goals of a lesson or
course, and teachers then determine how and what to teach students so they achieve the
learning expectations described in the standards.
 Most standards-based approaches to educating students use state learning standards to
determine academic expectations and define “ proficiency” in a given course, subject
area, or grade level.
 The general goal of standards-based learning is to ensure that students are acquiring the
knowledge and skills that are deemed to be essential to success in school, higher
education, careers, and adult life. If students fail to meet expected learning standards,
they typically receive additional instruction, practice time, and academic support to help
them achieve proficiency or meet the learning expectations described in the standards.
 In most cases, standards-based learning, standards-based
instruction, or standards-based education, among other similar terms, are synonyms
for proficiency-based learning or competency-based learning.

Importance of Standard-Based Education

1. Students are completely aware of what they are expected to know or be able to
do. The standards are clear and precise, often written in kid-friendly language. Many teachers
post the standards for each content area so students see how each lesson fits into a bigger
plan.
2. By adopting and following standards, and informing students of their goals,
administrators can hold teachers and students accountable for classroom progress.
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3. Standards-based instruction guides planning and instruction and helps teachers

keep their focus on the learning target. Teachers are aware of what materials were taught in
previous years and what will be taught in years to come. They are free to concentrate on the
limited number of skills and concepts included in their grade-level standards.
4. Well-written standards include not only what students will be able to do and what
they will know but also the expected time in their education they should have mastered the
skill or concept. Students can set their own goals and track their own progress.

The Benefits of Standard-Based Education

1. Improved Feedback
2. Student Ownership of Learning
3. More Relevant Instruction
4. Emotional Safety and Lessen Fear of Testing
5. Accurate Measurement of Learning
6. Learning Provides Intrinsic Motivation

Outcome-Based Education

 Outcomes are clear learning results that we want students to demonstrate at the end of
significant learning experiences. They are not values, beliefs, attitudes, or psychological
states of mind. Instead, outcomes are what learners can actually do with what they know
and have learned they are the tangible application of what has been learned. This means
that outcomes are actions and performances that embody and reflect learner
competence in using content, information, ideas, and tools successfully. Having learners
do important things with what they know is a major step beyond knowing itself.
 Outcome-Based Education means clearly focusing and organizing everything in an
educational system around what is essential for all students to be able to do successfully
at the end of their learning experiences. This means starting with a clear picture of what
is important for students to be able to do, then organizing curriculum, instruction, and
assessment to make sure this learning ultimately happens.
 The keys to having an outcome-based system are: 1) Developing a cleat set of learning
outcomes around which all of the system's components can he focused; and 2)
Establishing the conditions and opportunities within the system that enable and
encourage all students to achieve those essential outcomes.
 For example, the possible outcome "explain the major causes of inflation in capitalist
economies" implies that to be successful the learner will be expected to develop both the
competence of explaining and the knowledge of the major causes of inflation in capitalist
economies.
 Since outcome-based systems expect learners to earn' out the processes defined within
an outcome statement, they are careful to build those processes directly into the outcome
through demonstration verbs. Therefore, one key to recognizing a well-defined outcome
is to look for the demonstration verb or verbs that define which processes the learner is
expected to carry out at the end.

Outcome-Based versus Traditional Educational System

Key Areas Outcome-Based Traditional

Outcome-based Curriculum, instructional Traditional systems already have a
systems build strategies, assessments, and largely predefined curriculum
everything on a performance standards are structure with an assessment and
clearly defined developed and implemented to credentialing system in place. They
framework of exit facilitate key outcomes. In OBE, usually are not structured around
outcomes. curriculum, instruction, and clearly defined outcomes expected
assessment should be viewed as of all students. By and large,
flexible and alterable means for curriculum and assessment

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 Module 1 | Assessment in Learning 1

accomplishing clearly defined systems are treated as ends in

learning "ends." themselves.
Time in an Within reasonable constraints, In the traditional system, just the
outcome-based time is manipulated to the best opposite is true. Time defines most
system is used as advantage of all learners-some system features; it is an inflexible
an alterable students learn some parts of the constraint for teachers and
resource, curriculum sooner, while others students. The schedule and the
depending on the accomplish those parts later. calendar control student learning
needs of teachers and success.
and students.
In an outcome- As in the Girl and Boy Scouts, all The traditional system operates
based system, students potentially are eligible to around a comparative/competitive
standards are reach and receive full credit for approach to standards linked to a
clearly defined, achieving any performance predetermined "curve" or quota of
known, and standard in the system. There are possible successes. Only some
"criterion-based" no quotas on who can be students are destined to do well,
for all students. successful or on what standards and only some get access to the
can be pursued. most challenging areas of the
curriculum. This process of sorting
and selecting begins very early in
the school years and evolves into
an inflexible system of curriculum
tracking by high school.
Outcome-based OBE schools take a "macro" view The current system takes quite the
systems focus on of student learning and opposite approach, testing and
increasing achievement. Mistakes are permanently grading students every
students' learning treated as inevitable steps along step of the way on all segments of
and; ultimate the way to having students the curriculum. All mistakes become
performance develop, internalize, and part of a permanent record, which
abilities to the demonstrate high level accumulates and constantly
highest possible performance capabilities. Working reminds students of past errors.
levels before they to continuously improve student The system emphasizes and
leave school. learning before graduation, rewards students for how well they
outcome-based systems define do assigned work at the time it is
student achievement as the initially covered in class. Those who
highest level of performance a arc fast and consistent performers
student has been able to reach at emerge with the best grades and
any given point in time. Ultimate records. Those who are slower
school achievement is directly never get the opportunity to truly
reflected in what students can do catch up because their record of
successfully at or after their earlier mistakes cannot he erased.
formal instructional experiences
have ended.

The Key Elements of Outcome-Based Education

These key elements are represented graphically in the given figure. This is called "The
OBE Pyramid."
 Module 1 | Assessment in Learning 1

Item Response Theory

 Item response theory (IRT) is a collection of statistical models that have been used to
model responses to educational and psychological test items along with the latent trait(s)
that determine how individuals respond to those items.
 This fundamental psychometric framework has grown to encompass a wide range of
tools and techniques, such as differential item functioning, computerized adaptive testing,
and item analysis.
 IRT’s theoretical and computational framework was developed from the 1950s through
the 1980s and since that time has been used widely by organizational researchers for a
variety of applications and research domains.
 Item response theory provides a useful and theoretically well-founded framework for
educational measurement.
 It supports such activities as the construction of measurement instruments, linking and
equating measurements, and evaluation of test bias and differential item functioning.

 It further provides underpinnings for item banking and flexible test administration designs,
such as multiple matrix sampling, flexi-level testing, and computerized adaptive testing.
 Psychometric theory offers two approaches in analyzing test data: the Classical Test
Theory (CTT) and the Item Response Theory (IRT). Below is the comparison of the two
theories.

Classical Test Theory versus Item Response Theory

Classical Test Theory Item-Response Theory

 The test is the unit of analysis  The item is the unit analysis
 Measures with more items (longer)  Measures with lesser items (shorter)
are more reliable than their can be more reliable than their
counterparts counterparts
 Comparing scores from different  Item responses of different measures
measures can only be done when the can be compared as long as they are
test forms/measures are parallel measuring the same latent trait
 Item properties depend on a  Item properties don’t depend on a
representative sample representative sample
 Position on the latent trait continuum  Position on the latent trait continuum
is derived from comparing the test are derived by comparing the distance
score with scores of the reference between items on the ability scale
group  Items on a measure can have different
 All items on the measure must have response categories
the same response categories

Uses of Item Response Theory

 Interpreting and improving item performance

 Scoring examinees with maximum likelihood or Bayesian methods
 Form assembly, including linear on the fly testing (LOFT)
 Calculating the accuracy of examinee scores
 Development of computerized adaptive tests (CAT)
 Data forensics to find cheaters or other issues.
 In addition to being used to evaluate each item individually, IRFs are combined in various
ways to evaluate the overall test or form.

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 Module 1 | Assessment in Learning 1

The two most important approaches are the conditional standard error of
measurement (CSEM) and the test information function (TIF). The test information function is
higher where the test is providing more measurement information about examinees; if relatively
Assessment Task 1.4

1. How can fairness and accountability be achieved in educational assessment?

2. What are the possible pitfalls of a standards based education?

3. How does outcome-based implementation affect schools and students?

4. Cite a research study that involved Item Response Theory? How is IRT used in the
study? What was the finding of the study?

low in a certain range of examinee ability, those examinees are not being measured accurately.
The CSEM is the inverse of the TIF, and has the interpretable advantage of being usable for
confidence intervals; a person’s score plus or minus 1.96 times the SEM is a 95% confidence
interval for their score.

Feedback

How did you go on so far with this module? Were you exhausted seeing a lot of terms used
in assessment? Where you able to digest everything that you have read? Well, these are but
simple concepts you will always encounter as you go on studying this subject. If you are having a
hard time on some lessons, you can always go back. Remember that assessing learning
outcomes is one of the many works of a teacher. So, it is necessary that you have a good
knowledge about assessment. Some links are provided for you in the suggested reading section
to aid your understanding on the topics presented in this module, feel free to log on.

Summary

To aid you in reviewing the concepts in this module, here are the highlights:
 Assessment is the systematic collection, review, and use of information about
educational programs undertaken for the purpose of improving student learning and
development.

 Assessment for learning, Assessment of learning, and Assessment as learning are the
types of classroom assessment.

 The Principles and Indicators of Assessment of Student Learning includes:

-The Primary Purpose of Assessment is to Improve Student Learning.
-Assessment for Other Purposes Supports Student Learning.
-Assessment Systems Are Fair to All Students.
-Professional Collaboration and Development Support Assessment.
-The Broad Community Participates in Assessment Development. Assessment
-Communication about Assessment is Regular and Clear.
-Assessment Systems Are Regularly Reviewed and Improved.
 Assessment is used to inform and guide teaching and learning, help students set
learning goals, assign report card grades, and motivate students.
 Measurement as “the process of quantifying observations and/or descriptions about
quality or attribute of a thing or person.” The process of measurement involves three
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 Module 1 | Assessment in Learning 1

steps: identifying and defining the quality or attribute that is to be measured;

determining a set of operations by which the attribute may be made manifest and
perceivable; and establishing a set of procedures or definitions for translating
observations into quantitative statement of degree or amount.
 Test is a formal and systematic instrument, usually paper and pencil procedure
designed to assess the quality, ability, skill or knowledge of the students by giving a set
of question in uniform manner.
 Testing is one of the different methods used to measure the level of performance or
achievement of the learners. It also refers to the administration, scoring, and
interpretation of the procedures designed to get information about the extent of the
performance of the students.
 Standardization is the process of trying out the test on a group of people to see the
scores which are typically obtained. This process provides a mean (average) and
standard deviation (spread) relative to a certain group.
 High-stakes tests are tests used to make important decisions about students. These
include whether students should be promoted, allowed to graduate, or admitted to
programs.
 Evaluation is a process of summing up the results of measurements or tests, giving
them some meaning based on value judgments.
 Types of Test and Assessment Procedures
 1. Nature of Assessment
-Maximum Performance
-Typical Performance
2. Form of Assessment
- Fixed-choice Test
-Complex-performance Assessment
3. Use in Classroom Instruction
-Placement
-Formative
-Diagnostic
-Summative
4. Methods of Interpreting Results
-Criterion-referenced
-Norm-referenced
5. Other Types of Test
-Non-standardized and Standardized Test
-Objective and Subjective Test
-Supply and Fixed-response Test
-Individual and Group Test
-Mastery and Survey Test
-Speed and Power Test
 High Quality Assessment components include clear purpose, clear and appropriate
targets, appropriate methods, adequate sampling, and objectivity.

 Standards-based education refers to systems of instruction, assessment, grading, and

academic reporting that are based on students demonstrating understanding or
mastery of the knowledge and skills they are expected to learn as they progress
through their education.

 Outcome-based education is a model of education that rejects the traditional focus on

what the school provides to students, in favor of making students demonstrate that they
"know and are able to do" whatever the required outcomes are. OBE reforms
emphasize setting clear standards for observable, measurable outcomes.

 Item response theory (IRT) is a collection of statistical models that have been used to
model responses to educational and psychological test items along with the latent
trait(s) that determine how individuals respond to those items.
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Suggested Readings
If you want to learn more about the topics in this module, you may log on to the following
links:

https://sites.google.com/site/assess4learning/assessment-defined
https://www.fairtest.org/principles-and-indicators-student-assessment-system
https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.209653!/file/Principles_of_Assessment.pdf
https://wikieducator.org/images/2/2d/The_Process_of_Assessment.pdf
https://classroom.synonym.com/new-trends-classroom-authentic-assessment-11726.html
https://online.uwsuper.edu/articles/pros-cons-standards-based-education.aspx
https://highqualityassessment.weebly.com/high-quality-classroom-assessment.html
https://www.k12academics.com/education-reform/outcome-based-education/what-obe
https://assess.com/what-is-item-response-theory/

References

Alberta Assessment Consortium. Refocus: Looking at Assessment for Learning. 2nd ed.
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Buendicho, F. C. (2013). Assessment of Student learning 1. Rex Bookstore, Inc, Manila,

Philippines.

Darling-Hammond, L., Herman, J., Pellegrino, J., et al. (2013). Criteria for high-quality
assessment. Stanford, CA: Stanford Center for Opportunity Policy in Education.

Delclos, V. R., Vye, N., Burns, M. S., Bransford, J. D., & Hasselbring, T. S. (1992). Improving the
quality of instruction: Roles for dynamic assessment. In H. C. Haywood & D. Tzuriel
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Gabuyo, Y.A. (2012) Assessment of Learning I. Rex Book Store, Inc., Manila, Philippines.

Gipps, C., & Stobart, G. (2009). Fairness in assessment. In C. Wyatt-Smith & J. J. Cumming
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Huitt, W. (1996). Measurement and evaluation: Criterion- versus norm-referenced

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Jones, M.G. & Enne, M. High-stakes testing. Retrieved at

https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756810/obo-
9780199756810-0200.xml

Le Grange, L.L. & Reddy, C. (1998). Continuous Assessment: An Introduction and Guidelines to
Implementation. Cape Town, South Africa: Juta

National Research Council (2001) Knowing what Students Know: the science and design of
educational assessment. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press

Popham, J. W. (1975). Educational evaluation. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Stefanakis, E. (2002) Multiple Intelligences and Portfolios. Portsmouth: Heinemann.

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Spady, W. (1994). Outcomes-Based education: critical issues and answers. The American
Association of School Administrators. Retrieved at
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED380910.pdf

Tierney R.D. (2016) Fairness in Educational Assessment. In: Peters M. (eds) Encyclopedia of
Educational Philosophy and Theory. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
981-287-532-7_400-1

Weiss, C.H. (1972). Evaluation Research: Methods of Assessing Program Effectiveness.

Englewood Cliffs (NJ), USA: Prentice-Hall.

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