Unit 1 - Introduction

1. Explain overview of translation process.

 A translator is a kind of program that takes one form of program as input and converts
it into another form.
 The input is called source program and output is called target program.
 The source language can be assembly language or higher level language like C, C++,
FORTRAN, etc...
 There are three types of translators,
1. Compiler
2. Interpreter
3. Assembler

2. What is compiler? List major functions done by compiler.

 A compiler is a program that reads a program written in one language and translates
into an equivalent
ent program in another language.
language

Source Program Compiler Target Program

Error report
Fig.1.1. A Compiler
Major functions done by compiler:
 Compiler is used to convert one form of program to another.
 A compiler should convert the source program to a target machine code in such a way
that the generated target code should be easy to understand.
 Compiler should preserve
preserv the meaning of source code.
 Compiler should report errors that occur during compilation process.
 The compilation must be done efficiently.

3. Write the difference between compiler, interpreter and

assembler.
1. Compiler v/s Interpreter
No. Compiler Interpreter
1 Compiler takes entire program as an a Interpreter takes single instruction as aan
input. input.
2 Intermediate code is generated. No Intermediate code is generated.
3 Memory requirement is more. Memory requirement is less.
4 Error is displayed after entire program Error is displayed for every instruction
is checked. interpreted.
5 Example: C compiler Example: BASIC
Table 1.1 Difference between Compiler & Interpreter

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2. Compiler v/s Assembler

No. Compiler Assembler
1 It translates higher level language to It translates mnemonic operation code to
machine code. machine code.
2 Types of compiler, Types of assembler,
 Single pass compiler  Single pass assembler
 Multi pass compiler  Two pass assembler
3 Example: C compiler Example: 8085, 8086 instruction set
Table 1.2 Difference between Compiler & Assembler

4. Analysis synthesis model of compilation.

compilation OR
Explain structure of compiler. OR
Explain phases of compiler. OR
Write output of phases of a complier. for a = a + b * c * 2; type of
a, b, c are float
There are mainly two parts of compilation process.
1. Analysis phase: The main objective of the analysis phase is to break the source code
into parts and then arranges these pieces into a meaningful structure
structure.
2. Synthesis phase: Synthesis phase is concerned with generation of target language
statement which has the same meaning as the source statement.
Analysis Phase: Analysis part is divided into three sub parts,
I. Lexical analysis
II. Syntax analysis
III. Semantic analysis
Lexical analysis:
 Lexical analysis is also called linear analysis or scanning.
 Lexical analyzer reads the source program and then it is broken into stream of units.
Such units are called token.
 Then it classifies the units into different lexical classes. E.g. id’s, constants, keyword
etc...and enters them into different tables.
 For example, in lexical analysis the assignment statement a: = a + b * c * 2 would be
grouped into the following tokens:
tokens
a Identifier 1
= Assignment sign
a Identifier 1
+ The plus sign
b Identifier 2
* Multiplication
sign
c Identifier 3
* Multiplication
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sign
2 Number 2
Syntax Analysis:
 Syntax analysis is also called hierarchical analysis or parsing.
 The syntax analyzer checks each line of the code and spots every tiny mistake that the
programmer has committed while typing the code.
 If code is error free then syntax analyzer generates the tree.
=

+
a

a *

b *

c 2
Semantic analysis:
 Semantic analyzer determines the meaning of a source string.
 For example matching of parenthesis in the expression, or matching of if..else
statement or performing arithmetic operation that are type compatible, or checking the
scope of operation.
=

+
a

a *

b *

c 2

Int to float
Synthesis phase:: synthesis part is divided into three sub parts,
I. Intermediate code generation
II. Code optimization
III. Code generation
Intermediate code generation:
 The intermediate representation should have two important properties, it should be
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easy to produce and easy to translate into target program.
 We consider intermediate form called “three address code”.
 Three address code consist of a sequence of instruction, each of which has at most
three operands.
 The source program might appear in three address code as,
t1= int to real(2)
t2= id3 * t1
t3= t2 * id2
t4= t3 + id1
id1= t4
Code optimization:
 The code optimization phase attempt to improve the intermediate code.
 This is necessary to have a faster executing code or less consumption of memory.
 Thus by optimizing the code the overall running running time of a target program can be
improved.
t1= id3 * 2.0
t2= id2 * t1
id1 = id1 + t2
Code generation:
 In code generation phase the target code gets generated. The intermediate code
instructions are translated into sequence of machine instruction.
instructio
MOV id3, R1
MUL #2.0, R1
MOV id2, R2
MUL R2, R1
MOV id1, R2
ADD R2, R1
MOV R1, id1
Symbol Table
 A symbol table is a data structure used by a language translator such as a compiler or
interpreter.
 It is used to store names encountered in the source program, along with the relevant
attributes for those names.
 Information
tion about following entities is stored in the symbol table.
 Variable/Identifier
 Procedure/function
 Keyword
 Constant
 Class name
 Label name

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Source program

Lexical Analysis

Syntax Analysis

Semantic Analysis
Symbol Table Error detection
and recovery
Intermediate Code

Code Optimization

Code Generation

Target Program

Fig.1.2. Phases of Compiler

5. The context of a compiler.

compiler OR
Cousins of compiler. OR
What does the linker do? What does the loader do? What does
the Preprocessor do? Explain their role(s) in compilation
process.
 In addition to a compiler, several other programs may be required to create an
executable target program.
Preprocessor
Preprocessor produces input to compiler. They may perform the following functions,
1. Macro processing: A preprocessor may allow user to define
define macros that are shorthand
for longer constructs.
2. File inclusion: A preprocessor may include the header file into the program text.
3. Rational preprocessor: Such a preprocessor provides the user with built in macro for
construct like while statement or if
i statement.
4. Language extensions: this processors attempt to add capabilities to the language by
what amount to built-in
built in macros. Ex: the language equal is a database query language
embedded in C. statement beginning with ## are taken by preprocessor to be database
access statement unrelated to C and translated into procedure call on routines that
perform the database access.
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Skeletal source

Preprocessor

Source program

Compiler

Target assembly

Assembler

Relocatable M/C code

Linker / Loader

Absolute M/C code

Fig.1.3. Context of Compiler
Assembler
Assembler is a translator which takes the assembly program as an input and generates the
machine code as a output. An assembly is a mnemonic version n of machine code, in which
names are used instead of binary codes for operations.
Linker
Linker allows us to make a single program from a several files of relocatable machine code.
These file may have been the result of several
several different compilation, and one or more may be
library files of routine provided by a system.
Loader
The process of loading consists of taking relocatable machine code, altering the relocatable
address and placing the altered instructions and data in memory at the proper location.

6. Explain front end and back end in brief. (Grouping of phases)

 The phases are collected into a front end and back end.
Front end
 The front end consist of those phases, that depends primarily on source language and
largely independent of the target machine.
 Front end includes lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, intermediate code
generation and creation of symbol table.
 Certain amount of code optimization can be done by front end.
Back end
 The back end consists of those phases, that depends on target machine and do not
depend on source program.

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 Back end includes code optimization and code generation phase with necessary error
handling
ling and symbol table operation.

7. What is the pass of compiler? Explain how the single and multi
multi-
pass compilers work? What is the effect of reducing the
number of passes?
 One complete scan of a source program is called pass.
 Pass include reading an input file and writing to the output file.
 In a single pass compiler analysis of source statement is immediately followed by
synthesis of equivalent target statement.
 It is difficult to compile the source program into single pass due to:
 Forward reference: a forward reference of a program entity is a reference to the entity
which precedes its definition in the program.
 This problem can be solved by postponing the generation of target code until more
information concerning the entity becomes available.
 It leads to multi pass model of compilation.
 In Pass I: Perform analysis
analysis of the source program and note relevant information.
 In Pass II: Generate target code using information noted in pass I.
Effect of reducing the number of passes
 It is desirable to have a few passes, because it takes time to read and write
intermediate file.
 On the other hand if we group several phases into one pass we may be forced to keep
the entire program in the memory. Therefore memory requirement may be large.

8. Explain types of compiler. OR

Write difference between single pass and multi pass compiler.
Single pass compiler v/s Multi pass Compiler
No. Single pass compiler Multi pass compiler
1 A one-pass
pass compiler is a compiler that A multi-pass
pass compiler is a type of compiler
passes through the source code of that processes the source code or abstract
each compilation unit only once. syntax tree of a program several times.
2 A one-pass
pass compiler is faster than A multi-pass
pass compiler is slower than single
single-
multi-pass compiler. pass compiler.
3 One-pass
pass compiler are sometimes Multi-pass
pass compilers are sometimes called
called narrow compiler. wide compiler.
4 Language like Pascal can be Languages like Java require a multi
multi-pass
implemented with a single pass compiler.
compiler.
Table 1.3 Difference between Single Pass Compiler & Multi Pass Compiler

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9. Write the difference between phase and pass.

Phase v/s Pass
No. Phase Pass
1 The process of compilation is carried Various phases are logically grouped
out in various step is called phase. together to form a pass.
2 The phases of compilation are lexical The process of compilation can be carried
analysis, syntax analysis, semantic out in a single pass or in multiple passes.
analysis, intermediate code
generation, code optimization and
code generation.
Table 1.3 Difference between Phase & Pass

Dixita Kagathara, CE Department | 170701 – Compiler Design 8