Design for Manufacture and Assembly

Tolerance Analysis

2.9 Geometric Tolerance:

2.9.1 Conventional Or Coordinate Tolerancing
System:
Coordinate tolerance is a dimensioning system where a part feature is
located (or defined) by means of a rectangular dimension with the given
tolerance.

Geometric Tolerancing:

Geometric tolerance of a feature (point, line, axis, surface or medium

plane) specifies the tolerance zone within which the feature is required to
be contained.

The geometric tolerance feature provides a precise and brief method of

indicating brief geometric requirements on engineering drawings. The
symbols being internationally been accepted are very useful when
overseas manufacture is involved.
Geometric tolerancing is very useful especially when conventional
dimensioning and drawing methods are inadequate and doesn’t ensure
that parts will assemble satisfactorily after manufacture.

2.10 Basic Definitions

2.10.1. Maximum Material Condition (MMC)
It is that condition of a feature or a part, which contains the maximum
amount of material, e.g. minimum hole size or maximum shaft size. In
certain cases its use allows an increase in the specifies tolerance if it is
indicated that the tolerance applies to the feature at its MMC.

2. 10.2 Straightness
It is the shortest distance between two points. The tolerance value is the
specified distance between two parallel straight lines.

2.10.3 Datum
A datum feature may be a plane or axis. For practical purposes the plane
surface or axis is used for manufacture or inspection.

2.10.4. Flatness
Flatness tolerance controls the deviation of the surface from the true
plane and is the space between the two parallel planes

2.10.5. Roundness
It is the condition where the feature is a continuous curved surface, any
point on the surface is at a constant distance from the centre or axis. The
roundness tolerance zone is the annular space between two co-planar,
concentric circles.

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2.10.6. Cylindricity
It is a combination of parallelism, straightness and roundness, applied to
the surface of a cylinder. The cylindricity tolerance zone is the annular
space between two coaxial cylinders and its value is the radial distance
between them.

2.10.7. Concentricity
It is the relationship between two cylinders, which have the same axis or
common centre. Concentricity tolerance is the deviation of the axis from
the true position.

2.10.8 Squareness
It is the condition where a line, plane or surface lies at 90 degrees to the
another. It is the space between the two parallel lines or surfaces.
2.10.9. Parallelism
This is the condition where two lines or surfaces are separated by a
uniform distance. Parallelism tolerances control the parallelism between
the two lines or surfaces and the tolerance zone is the distance between
them.

2.10.10. Angularity
It defines the position between two lines or surfaces which are nor parallel
or perpendicular to each other.

2.10.11. Position
The positional tolerance controls the position between a feature and a
datum or from another feature. The tolerance value is the specified
deviation from the true position.

2.10.12. Symmetry
It is the feature where a feature is divided into identical parts by means of
a line or plane. Symmetry tolerances control the area between the parallel
lines or planes, which are parallel to the datum feature, and there value is
the distance between them.

2.10.13. Circular Runout

It is the permissible variation of position of any point fixed on a surface,
which occurs when a part is rotated through 360 degrees about its own
axis. The resultant indications include errors of other characteristics
without differentiating them. The combined errors must not exceed the
stated tolerance value.

2.10.14. Total Runout

The difference between simple Runout and total Runout is that in the
former, one measurement is taken during one revolution while in the later
the measuring instrument is moved along the component during several
revolutions.

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TABLE 1: Symbols of toleranced characteristics

Type of Characteristics to be Symbols
Tolerµ sance toleranced
Straightness
Flatness
FORM Circularity (Roundness)
Profile of any line
Profile of any surface
Parallelism
ORIENTATION Perpendicularity
Angularity
Position
LOCATION Concentricity and
coaxiality
Symmetry
Simple runout
RUNOUT
Total Runout

2.11 Benefits Of Geometric

Dimensioning And Tolerancing (GD&T)
2.11.1. Improves Communication:
GD&T can provide uniformity in drawing specification and
interpretations, thereby reducing controversy, guesswork and
assumptions. Design, production and inspection all in the same
language

2.11.2.Provides Better Product Design:

The use of GD&T can improve your product design by providing
designers with the tool to “say what they mean” and by following the
functional dimensioning philosophy.

2.11.3. Increase Production Tolerance:

There are two ways tolerance are increased through the use of GD&T .
First under certain conditions, GD&T provides “bonus” or extra
tolerance for manufacturing. This additional tolerance can reduce the
production cost significantly. Second, by use of functional
dimensioning, the tolerances the tolerances are assigned to the part
based upon its functional requirements. This often results in a larger
tolerance for manufacturing. It eliminates the problem that results
when designers copy existing tolerances, or assign tight tolerances,
because they don’t know how to determine a reasonable tolerance.
.

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TABLE 2: COMPARISON BETWEEN GD&T AND COORDINATING

TOLERANCING
DRAWING COORDINATE GEOMETRIC
CONCEPT TOLERANCING TOLERANCING

CONDITION CONDITION
Square or rectangular can use diameter
zones for hole symbols to allow
TOLERANCE locations round tolerance
ZONE SHAPE zones
RESULTS RESULTS
1.less tolerance 1.57%more tolerance
available for for hole location
hole. 2.lower mfg. costs.
2.higher mfg. costs
CONDITION CONDITION
1. Tolerance zone is 1.use of MMC
TOLERANCE fixed in size modifier allows
ZONE tolerance zone to
FLEXIBILITY increase under
certain conditions
RESULTS RESULTS
1.functional parts 1.functional parts
scrapped used
2.higher operating 2.lower operating
costs. costs
CONDITION CONDITION
1.implied datum allows 1.the datum system
EASE OF choice for set up communicates one
INSPECTION during inspection of set up for inspection
part.
RESULTS RESULTS
1.multiple inspectors 1.clear instruction for
may get different inspection.
results. 2.eliminates disputes
2.good parts scrapped. over part acceptance.
3.bad parts scrapped

2.12 Flatness
2.12.1 Introduction:
This concept involved in defining the form of a part surface. Form controls
limit the flatness, straightness, circularity or cylindricity of part surfaces
form is a characteristic that limits the shape error of a part surface so (or
in some cases an axis or center plane) relative to its perfect counter parts.
For example, a form characteristic of a planar surface is flatness. The
flatness defines how much a surface can very from its perfect plane.

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Figure 9 Flatness Symbol

2.12.2 Definition
Flatness is the condition of the surface having all of its elements in one
plane .A flatness control is the geometric tolerance that limits the amount
of flatness error a surface is allowed .the tolerance zone for a flatness
control is 3 dimensional. It consists of 2 parallel planes within which all the
surface elements must lie the distance between the parallel planes is
equal to the flatness control tolerance value (Refer Fig 9 and Fig 10)

Flatness is measured by comparing a surfaces surface to its own true

counterpart. In case of flatness the first plane of the tolerance zone is
established by contacting the 3 high points of the controlled surface. The
second plane of the tolerance zone is parallel to the first plane and offset
to the flatness tolerance value. All the points of the controlled surface
must lie within the tolerance zone.

A flatness control is always applied to a planar surface. Therefore, a

flatness control can never use an MMC or LMC Modifier.

Figure 10 Flatness Tolerance Zone

2.13 Rule #1's Effect On Flatness.

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Whenever this applies to a feature of size that consists of two parallel
planes (i.e. tab or slot), an automatic indirect flatness control exists for
both surfaces. This indirect control is a result of the interrelationship
between Rule#1(Perfect form at MMC) and the size dimension. When the
feature of size is at MMC, both surfaces must be perfectly flat. As the
feature departs from MMC, a flatness error equal to the amount of the
departure is allowed.

Since Rule#1, provides an automatic indirect flatness control, a flatness

control should not be used unless it is a refinement of the dimensional
limits
of the surface.

Figure 11 Rule#1 As An Indirect Flatness Control

2.14 Flatness Control Applications.

Some examples of when a designer uses a flatness control on a drawing
are to provide a flat surface (Refer Fig 12)
1. For a Gasket of Seal
2. To attach a mating part
3. For better contact with the Datum Plane.

2.15 Indirect Flatness Controls:

There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the flatness
of a surface. They are Rule#1, Perpendicularity, Parallelism, Angularity,

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total run out, and profile of a surface; they also limit the flatness of a
surface. How ever indirect form controls are not inspected.

For a flatness control applications, the conditions are

 No datum references can be specified in the feature control frame.
 No modifiers can be specified in the feature control frame.
 The control must be applied to a planar surface.
 The flatness control tolerance value must be less than any other
geometric control that limits the flatness of the surface.
 The flatness control tolerance value must be less than the size
tolerance associated with the surface.

Figure 12 Flatness Control Applications.

2.16 Straightness Control

2.16.1 Introduction:
Cylindrical surfaces can have three different form characteristics:
Straightness, Circularity, and Cylindricity. Straightness defines how much

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a line element can vary from a straight line. Form controls are used to
define the shape of a feature in relation to itself. Therefore they never use
a datum reference. The straightness form control, its symbol, and an
example of straightness are shown in Fig 13.

Figure 13 Straightness Control

2.17 Straightness as a surface element

control:
Definition:

Straightness is the condition where each line element (or axis or

centerline) is a straight line. A straightness control is a geometric
tolerance that, when directed to a surface , limits the amount of
straightness error allowed in each surface element. The tolerance zone for
a straightness control( as a surface line element control) is two
dimensional; it consists of two parallel lines for each line element of the
surface. The distance between the parallel lines is equal to the
straightness tolerance value.
(Refer Fig 14)

Figure 14 Straightness As A Surface Line

Element

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The first line element of the tolerance zone is established by the two high
points of the line element of the surface. The second line element of the
tolerance zone is parallel to the first line element and offset by the
straightness tolerance value. A straightness tolerance zone may be
located anywhere in between the dimensional limits of the surface. All the
points of each controlled line element must lie within the tolerance zone.

When straightness is applied to surface element control, the following

conditions apply.

 The tolerance zone applies to the surface elements.

 The tolerance zone is two parallel lines.
 Rule#1 applies.
 The outer/inner boundary is not affected.
 No modifiers may be specified.
 The tolerance value specified must be less than the size tolerance.

2.18 Rule#1’s Effects on surface

straightness.
This explains about the automatic indirect straightness control exist for
the surface line elements. The indirect control is the result of the
interrelationship between Rule#1 and size dimensions.
When the feature of size is at MMC, The line elements must be perfectly
straight. As the FOS departs from MMC, a straightness error equal to the
amount of departure is allowed.(Refer Fig 15)

Figure 15 Indirect Surface Straightness That Results From Rule#1

2.19 Definition of the Straightness as an

Axis/Center plane Control.

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Straightness of an axis is the condition where an axis is an straight line.
Straightness of a center plane is a condition where each line element is a
straight line. A straightness control applied to a FOS is a geometric
tolerance that limits the amount of straightness error allowed in the axis
or center plane.

When a straightness control is applied to a diameter, a diameter symbol

modifier is shown in the tolerance portion of the feature control frame, and
the tolerance zone is a cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder is equal to
the straightness tolerance value. The axis of FOS lie within the cylindrical
tolerance zone.(Refer Fig 16)

Figure 16 Determining When A Straightness Control Is Applied To

A Fos

When a straightness control is applied to a FOS(feature of Size), It can be

specified at RFS(by default), at MMC, or at LMC. (RFS is automatic when no
modifier is shown)

Whenever a straightness control is associated with the size dimensions of

a FOS, The following conditions apply.

 The tolerance zone applies to the axis or centerplane.

 Rule#1 is overridden.
 The virtual condition (outer or inner boundary layer) is affected.
 MMC or LMC modifiers may be specified.
 The tolerance value may be greater than the specified tolerance.

Whenever Rule#1 applies to a FOS, It provides an automatic straightness

control for the axis of the center plane.

Note: Straightness is the only geometric tolerance that can override

Rule#1.

2.19.1 Indirect straightness control:

There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the
straightness of an axis or center plane. They are cylindricity, total runout
and in some cases profile of a surface. When these controls are used, they
may affect the straightness of an axis or center plane of an FOS.

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2.20 Circularity Control

Introduction:

Cylindrical surfaces can have three different form characteristics:

Straightness, circularity, and cylindricity. Circularity defines how much
circular elements can vary from a perfect circle. Form controls are used to
define the shape of a feature in relation to itself. Therefore they never use
a datum reference. The circularity control, its symbol, an example is
shown in the Figure 17.

Figure 17 The Circularity Control

2.20.1 Circularity control:

Definition:

Circularity is a condition where all points of a surface of revolution, at any

section perpendicular to a common axis, are equidistant from that axis.
Circularity can be applied to any part feature with a diametrical (round)
cross section.

Figure 18 Circularity Control Example.

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A circularity control is a geometric tolerance that limits the amount of
circularity on a part surface. It specifies that each circular element of a
feature’s surface must lie within a tolerance zone of two coaxial circles. It
also applies independently at each cross section element and at a right
angle to the feature axis. The radial distance between the circles is equal
to the circularity control tolerance value. See Fig 18.

A circularity control can only be applied to a surface; therefore, MMC, LMC,

diameter, projected tolerance zone, or tangent plane modifiers are not
used.

2.20.2 Rule#1’s Effects on circularity:

Whenever Rule#1 applies to a FOS with a diametrical cross section, an
automatic indirect circularity control exists for its surface. This indirect
control is the interrelationship between Rule#1 and the size Dimension.

When a diameter is at MMC, its cross section elements must be perfectly

circular. As a diameter departs from MMC, a circularity error is
permissible, its cross section elements must lie between two coaxial
circles, one equal to the MMC of the diameter, the second radially smaller
by the size tolerance. Therefore, a diametrical dimension automatically
restricts the circularity of a diameter to be equal to its size tolerance.

Circularity application
A common reason for using a circularity control on a drawing is to limits
the lobbing (out of round) of a shaft diameter. In certain cases, lobbing of
a shaft diameter will cause bearings or bushings to fail prematurely. In the
above figures, the circularity control limits the maximum allowable
amount of circularity error of the shaft diameter. In this application, the
following statements apply:

 The diameter must be within its size tolerance.

 The circularity control does not override Rule#1.
 The circularity control tolerance must be less than the size
tolerance.

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 The circularity control does not affect the outer boundary of the

FOS.
Fig 19 Circularity Application
Indirect Circularity Control:
There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the
circularity of a diameter; they are Rule#1, cylindricity, profile, and runout.
When any of these controls are used on a diameter, they also limits the
circularity error of the diameter. However, indirect circularity controls are
not inspected. If it is desired to have the circularity of a diameter
inspected, a circularity control should be specified. If a circularity control
is specified, its tolerance value must be less than the tolerance value of
any indirect circularity control that affects the diameter.

2.21 Cylindricity
Introduction :
Cylindricity defines how much a surface can vary from a perfect cylinder.
The cylindricity control, its symbol, and an example of a cylindricity control
are shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20 The Cylindricity Control.

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2.21.1Cylindricity Control
Cylindricity is a condition of a surface of revolution in which all points of
the surface are equidistant from a common axis. A cylindricity
control is a geometric tolerance that limits the amount of
cylindricity error permitted on a part surface. It specifies a
tolerance zone of two coaxial cylinders within which all points of
the surface must lie. A cylindricity control applies simultaneously
too the entire surface. The radius. The distance between the two
coaxial cylinders is equal to the cylindricity control tolerance
value. A cylindricity control is a composite control that limits the
circularity, straightness, and taper of a diameter simultaneously.
See Figure 21.

A cylindricity control can only be applied to a surface; therefore, the

MMC,LMC, diameter, projected tolerance zone, or tangent plan modifiers
are not used.

Figure 21 Cylindricity Control Example.

2.21.2 Rule#1's Effects on Cylindricity

Whenever Rule #1 applies to a cylindrical FOS. an automatic indirect
cylindricity control exists for its surface. This indirect control is the result

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of the interrelationship between Rule#1 and the size dimension. When
the diameter is at MMC, its surface must be perfectly cylindrical. As the
diameter departs from MMC, As the diameter departs from MMC, a
cylindricity error is permissible. Figure 14 illustrates an example of how
Rule#1 indirectly affects cylindricity.

Figure 14 illustrates that whenever a diameter is controlled by Rule#1, its

surface must lie between two coaxial cylinders, one equal to the MMC of
the diameter and the second radially smaller by the size tolerance.
Therefore, a diametrical dimension automatically restricts the cylindricity
of a diameter to be equal to its size tolerance.

Cylindrical Application

A common reason for a cylindricity control to be used on a drawing is to

limit the surface conditions (out of round, taper, and straightness) of a
shaft diameter. In certain cases, surface conditions of a shaft diameter will
cause bearings or bushings to fail prematurely. In Figure 22, the
cylindricity control limits the maximum allowable cylindricity error of the
shaft diameter. In this application, the following statements apply.

 The diameter must also be within its size tolerance.

 The cylindricity control does not override Rule#1.
 The cylindricity control tolerance must be less than the total size
tolerance.
 The cylindricity control does not affect the outer boundary of the
FOS.

Indirect Cylindricity Controls :

There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the
cylindricity of a diameter; they are Rule#1, profile of a surface, and total
runout. When any of these controls are used on a diameter, they also
limits the cylindricity of the diameter. However, indirect cylindricity
controls are not inspected. If it is desired to have the cylindricity of a
diameter inspected, a cylindricity control should be specified. If a
cylindricity control is specified, its tolerance value must be less than the
tolerance value of any indirect cylindricity controls that affect the
diameter.

2.22 Perpendicularity
Introduction
This lesson explains the concepts involved in defining the perpendicularity
of part features. Perpendicularity in one of the orientation controls.
Orientation controls define the perpendicularity (square ness),

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angularity, and parallelism of part features. Orientation controls must
contain a datum reference. The perpendicularity orientation control and its
symbol are shown in Figure 22
Figure 22 Perpendicularity Control

2.22.1 Perpendicularity Control

Implied Right (90) Angles:

Wherever two lines on a drawing are shown at 90 degrees, they are at

implies 90degree angle. The tolerance for an implied 90 degree angle
comes from the title block tolerance ( on some drawings it is contained in
the general notes ). See Figure 23(Top). This method works satisfactorily
for some drawings, but it contains two shortcomings. First, the tolerance
zone is fan-shaped; it increases the farther it gets from the origin of the
angle. The second shortcoming is that it lacks a datum reference; the part
could use either side of the 90degree angle to begin the measurement,
which may affect functional relationships. In Figure 23(Bottom) , the
part could be inspected in two different ways: using the long side as the
datum feature to check the angular relationship of the short side, or using
the short side as the datum reference to check the angular relationship of
the long side.

Figure 23 Implied Right(90 Degrees) Angles.

2.22.2 Definition of perpendicularity

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Perpendicularity is the condition that results when a surface, axis, or
centerplane is exactly 90deg to a datum. A Perpendicularity control is a
geometric tolerance that limits the amount a surface, axis, or centerplane
is permitted to vary from being perpendicular to the datum.

2.22.3 Perpendicularity Tolerance Zones

The two common tolerance zones for a perpendicularity control are:
 Two parallel planes
 A cylinder

The following applications show these tolerance zones and discuss their
use. Perpendicularity Applications

Most perpendicularity application fall into one of three general cases

refer Figure 24)
2.. Perpendicularity applied to a surface
2.. Perpendicularity applied to a planar FOS
2.. Perpendicularity applied to a cylindrical FOS

Figure 24 Perpendicularity Applied To A Surface

a perpendicularity control is applied to a surface. This is the most common

application of perpendicularity. When perpendicularity is applied to a
surface, The following conditions apply:

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2.. The shape of the tolerance zone is two parallel planes that are
perpendicular to the datum plane.
2.. The tolerance value of the perpendicularity control defines the
distance between the tolerance zone planes.
2.. All the elements of the surface must be within the tolerance
zone.
2.. the perpendicularity tolerance zone limits the flatness of the
toleranced feature.
In Figure 25, a perpendicularity control is also applies to surface. In this
application, the perpendicularity control contains two datum references.
When two datum references are used in a perpendicularity control, the
tolerance zone is perpendicular to two datum planes, and all the
conditions from Figure 24 apply.

Figure 25 Perpendicularity With Two Datum References.

2.22.4 Indirect Perpendicularity Controls :

There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the
perpendicularity of a part feature. tolerance of position, runout, and profile
can limit perpendicularity; however, indirect perpendicularity controls are
not inspected. Their effect on perpendicularity is a result of the part
surface, axis, or centerplane being within the zone for the specified
geometric control. If it is desired to have the perpendicularity of a part
feature inspected, a perpendicularity control should be specified. If a
perpendicularity control is used, its tolerance value should be less than
the tolerance value of any indirect perpendicularity controls that apply.

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2.23 Angularity
Introduction:

This lesson explains the concepts involved in defining the angularity of

part features. Angularity is considered one of the orientation controls.
Perpendicularity is used to control the orientation of surfaces that are
orientated by a basic angle (other than 90 deg) from the datum plane. The
angularity control and its symbol are shown in Figure 26.

Figure 26 Angularity Control

2.23.1 Angularity Control

Definition

Angularity is the condition of a surface, center plane or axis being exactly

at a specified angle. An angularity control is a geometric tolerance that
limits the amount a surface, axis, or center plane is permitted to vary from
its specified angle

Angularity tolerance Zones

The two common tolerance zone shapes for an angularity control are:

i. Two parallel planes

ii. A cylinder

Angularity Applications
Most angularity applications fall into one of two general cases:
i. Angularity applied to a surface
ii. Angularity applied to a cylindrical FOS

When an angularity control is applied to a surface, the WCB of the

toleranced surface is not affected. When an angularity control is applied to
a FOS, the WCB of the FOS is affected. The WCB of a FOS that is
toleranced with an orientation control is oriented relative to the datum
specified.

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Figure 27 Angularity Applied To A Surface.

In Figure 27 an angularity control is applied to a surface; this is the most

common application of angularity. In an angularity application, the part
feature being controlled must be dimensioned with a basic angle relative
to the datum specified. When angularity is applied to a surface, the
following conditions apply:

 The shape of the tolerance zone is two parallel planes.

 The angularity control tolerance value defines the distance between
the tolerance zone planes.
 All the elements of the surface must be within the tolerance zone.
 The tolerance zone is oriented relative to the datum plane by a
basic angle.
 the angularity tolerance zone also limits the flatness of the
toleranced surface.

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In Figure 28 an angularity control is applied to a diametrical FOS. Note the
use of the diameter modifier in the tolerance portion of the feature control
frame. When angularity is applied to a diameter, it controls the orientation
of the axis of the diameter.

Figure 28 Angularity Applied To FOS

In Figure 28, the following conditions apply:

 The tolerance zone is a cylinder.
 The angularity control tolerance value defines the diameter of the
tolerance cylinder.
 The axis of the toleranced feature must be within the tolerance
zone.
 The tolerance zone is oriented relative to the datum plane by a
basic angle.
 An implied 90deg basic angle exists in the other direction.

2.23.2 Indirect Angularity Controls

There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the
angularity of a part feature: tolerance of position, total runout, and profile
can limit angularity. However, indirect angularity controls are not
inspected; their effect on angularity is a result of the part surface, axis, or
centerplane being within the tolerance zone for the geometric control. If it
is desired to have the angularity or a part feature inspected, an angularity
control should be specified. If an angularity control is used, its tolerance
value should be less than the tolerance value of any indirect angularity
controls that apply.

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2.24 Parallelism Control

Introduction:

Parallelism is considered one of the orientation controls. It is used to

control the orientation of surfaces that are parallel to the datum plane

Figure 29 Parallelism Control

Definition Of A Parallelism Control

Parallelism is the condition that results when a surface, axis or centre

plane is exactly parallel to the datum. A parallelism control is a
geometric tolerance that limits the amount of a surface ,axis ,or a
centreplane is permitted to vary from being parallel to the datum.

Implied Parallelism

Wherever two parallel surfaces are shown to be parallel on a drawing, the

size dimension of the surface controls the parallelism between the
surfaces. This method is satisfactory for some drawings, but has two
shortcomings. The first is that the parallelism requirement is the same
value as the size requirement. The second shortcoming is that there is no
datum reference. The part could be inspected from both sides. This would
produce different results by different inspectors. Fig 29

Parallelism Tolerance Zones

The two common tolerance zones for a parallelism control are:

1. Two parallel planes
2. A cylinder

Parallelism Applications

Most parallelism applications fall into two categories:

1. Parallelism applied to a surface
2. Parallelism applied to a diameter (MMC)

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Figure 30 Implied Parallelism

2.24.2 Parallelism Applied To A Surface:

When parallelism is applied to a surface the following conditions apply:
Fig 31
 The tolerance zone is two parallel planes that are parallel to the
datum planes.
 Tolerance zone is located within the limits of the size dimensions.
 The tolerance value of the parallelism control defines the distance
between the tolerance zone planes.
 All the elements of the surface must be within the tolerance zone.
 The parallelism tolerance zone limits the flatness of the tolerance
features.

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Figure 31 Parallelism Applied To A Surface.

2.24.3 Indirect Parallelism Controls

There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the
parallelism of a part feature: tolerance position , total runout and profile
can limit parallelism in certain cases. However indirect parallelism
controls are not inspected: there effect on parallelism is the result of part
surfaces, axis ,or centre plane. Being within the zone for the specified
geometric control, if a parallel control is used its tolerance value should be
less than should be less the value of any indirect parallelism control that
apply.

2.25 Concentricity Control

Introduction:
Concentricity is a type of location control. The symbol for concentricity

control is shown in Fig 32

Figure 32 Concentricity Control.

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Definition
Concentricity is the conditions where the median points of all diametrically
opposed elements of a cylinder (or a surface of revolution) are congruent
with the of a datum feature. A median point is the mid-point is the mid
point of a two-point measurement.
A Concentricity control is a geometric tolerance that limits the
concentricity error of a part feature. The tolerance zone for a concentricity
control is three-dimensional: it is a cylinder that is co-axial with the datum
axis. The diameter of the cylinder is equal to the concentricity control
tolerance value. The median points of corresponding located elements of
the feature being controlled; regardless of feature size must lie within the
cylindrical tolerance zone. When using a concentricity control, the
specified tolerance and datum reference always apply on an RFS basis. Fig

33
Figure 33 Concentricity Control Tolerance Zone.

Concentricity Application

Concentricity controls are used when the primary consideration is precise

balance of the part, equal wall thickness, or another functional
requirement that calls for equal distribution of mass. Before using the
concentricity control, the use of tolerance of position or run out should be
considered. When specifying concentricity, the form of toleranced
diameter is allowed to vary to a greater extent than if a run out control
was used.

When concentricity is applied to diameter the following conditions apply:

( Fig 34)
 The diameter must meet its size and rule1 requirements.
 The concentricity control tolerance zone is a cylinder that is coaxial
with a datum axis.
 The tolerance value defines the diameter of the tolerance zone.

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 All medians points of the toleranced diameter must be within the
tolerance zone

Figure 34: Concentricity Application.

2.26 Symmetry Control

Introduction:
Symmetry control is a type of location control. The symbol for symmetrical

control is shown in Fig 35

Figure 35 Symmetry Control.

Definition
Symmetry is similar to concentricity. The difference is that while
concentricity is used on surface of revolution, symmetry is used on planar
features of size.

Symmetry is the condition where the median points of all opposed

elements of two or more feature surfaces are congruent with the axis or
centre plane of a datum feature.

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Fig 36 Symmetry Applications.

Symmetry Applications

Symmetry controls are used when a primary

consideration of symmetrical features is precise balance of the parts,
equal wall thickness or another functional requirements that call for equal
distribution of part mass.
When symmetry is applied to a slot the following conditions apply(Fig.36)
 The slot must meet its size.
 The symmetry control tolerance zone is two parallel
planes that are centered about the datum centre planes
 The tolerance value of the symmetry control defines the
distance between the parallel planes.
 All the median points of the toleranced slot must be within
the tolerance zone.

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Figure 37 Symmetry Applications.

2.27 Circular Runout

Introduction
Runout is a composite control. A composite control controls the form,
location, and orientation of a part feature simultaneously ( in a single gage
reading). Runout controls are often used to control the coaxiality of
diameters. A runout control always requires a datum axis. There are two
types of runout controls: circular runout and total runout. Fig 38

Figure 38 Circular Runout Control

A runout control can be applied to any part feature that surrounds or is

intersected by the datum axis. A runout tolerance value specified in a
feature control frame indicates the maximum permissible indicator
reading (gage travel)of the considered feature, when the part is rotated
360 degrees about its datum axis.

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2.27.1 Establishing a datum axis for runout
There are three to establish a datum axis for a runout specification:
They are:
 A single diameter of sufficient length
 Two coaxial diameter a sufficient distance apart to create a single
datum axis.
 A surface and a diameter at right angles.

Functional design requirements and a part shape are considerations for

selecting one of these methods to establish a datum axis. Usually, the
feature used for the datum axis is the same features that locate the part
in the assembly. A single diameter is used when the diameter is long
enough to orient the part. Two coaxial diameters are used when they
equally establish the orientation of the parts. A surface primary, diameter
secondary is used when the surface orients the parts. When the surface is
primary the diameter should be very short.

Figure 39 Establishing The Datum Axis For Runout.

Definition
Circular run out is a composite control that affects the form, orientation
and location of circular elements (individually), of a part feature relative to
a datum axis.
A circular run out control is a geometric tolerance that limits the amount
of circular run out of a part surface. Circular run out applies independently
to each circular element of the diameter.

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Figure 40 Circular Runout Tolerance Zone.

When the tolerance zone shape for a circular runout control is applied to a
diameter, it is easily visualized: it is two coaxial circles whose centers are
located on the datum axis. The radial distance between the circles is equal
to the run out tolerance value. Fig 40

Circular Runout Applications

Concentricity controls are used only in a few applications in the industry.
Concentricity is used when the primary consideration is balance of the
part, equal wall thickness (Fig 41)
For circular run out application the following conditions must apply:
 The diameter must meet its size requirements.
 The worst case boundary is affected.
 The runout control applies RFS
 Runout applies at each circular element of the toleranced diameter.
 The runout toleranced zone is radial distance between two coaxial
circles.

Figure 41 Circular Runout Applied to A Diameter.

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2.28 Total Runout

Introduction
This explains the concept involved with the total runout control.Total
runout is not as common as circular runout. However it controls additional
form characteristics over circular runout Fig 42

Figure 42 Runout Controls

Definition
Total runout is a composite control that affects the orientation, form and
location of surface elements (simultaneously) of a diameter (or surface)
relative to a datum axis
A total runout control is a geometric tolerance that limits the amount of
total runout of a surface. It applies to the entire length of diameter
simultaneously. It is referred to as composite control because it affects the
orientation, form and location of part feature simultaneously. Total runout
is usually bused to control the location of diameter. When applied to
diameter it is used to control the circularity, taper, orientation and location
of diameter relative to the datum axis.
When applied to diameter, the tolerance zone shape for total runout can
be easily visualized: it is two co-axial cylinders whose centre located on
the datum axis. The radial distance between the two is the runout
tolerance.
Fig 43

Figure 43 Total Runout

The radius of the largest cylinder is the radius of the surface element that
is farthest from the datum axis. The second cylinder is radially smaller

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from the larger cylinder by the runout tolerance value. When verifying the
total runout of a diameter the dial indicator is kept on the surface element
and the part is rotated 360 degrees and the indicator is moved along the
surface diameter; it indicates the radial distance between the cylinders.

2.28.1 Condition For Total Runout Application

In Fig 44 Total runout application is illustrated. In this application the
following conditions apply.
 The diameter must meet its size requirements.
 The runout control applies RFS.
 The runout tolerance applies simultaneously to all elements of
diameter.
 The tolerance zone is the radial distance between two co-axial
cylinders.

Figure 44 Total Runout Applied To A Diameter.

2.28.2 Comparison Of Circular And Total Runout

Circular and total runout is used to tolerance coaxial diameters. Both
controls are similar but some significant differences exist. The chart below
illustrates the difference it

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Table 3: Comparison of Circular and Total Runout

RUNOUT APPLIED TO DIAMETER

CONCEPT CIRCULAR RUNOUT TOTAL RUNOUT

Tolerance zone Two coaxial circles Two coaxial cylinders

Relative cost to
produce $ $$

Relative cost to $ $$
inspect

Part characteristics
being controlled Location Location
Orientation Orientation
Circularity Circularity

A part could pass a circular runout verification and fail a total runout
verification. Fig 44. The figure below shows two parts with zero circular
error and 0.1mm total runout. In each case, the straightness or flatness
error of the part surface would not be detected in a circular runout test but
would Refer Fig 45

Figure 45 Comparison Of Circular and Total Runout

2.29 Surface Control

Introduction
There are two types of profile control: profile of a line and profile of a
surface. Profile of a surface is considered to be the most powerful tool in

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geometric tolerancing system. It can be used to control the size, form
,orientation and location of a part feature Fig 2.29

Figure 46 The Profile Of A Surface Control

Definition:
A profile of a surface control is geometric tolerance that limits the amount
of error the surface can have relative to its true profile. Common
applications for profile of a surface controls include controlling –either
independently or in combination- the size, location ,form and orientation
of:
 Planar, curved and irregular surface.
 Polygons.
 Cylinders, surfaces of revolutions and cones.
 Coplanar surfaces.

2.29.1 Profile Used To Tolerance A Surface Location

Here is an example (Fig 47) of profile controls used to tolerance the
location, form and orientation of planar surfaces. This is the most common
application of profile. In this application the profile is applied to a planar
surface, and the following conditions apply:
 The profile callout is applied to a true profile.
 The true profile is related to the datum referenced with basic
dimensions.
 The tolerance zone is a uniform boundary centered around the true
profile.

 All elements of the profile must be within the tolerance zone

simultaneously.
 The tolerance limits the form, location and orientation of the
surface.

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Figure 47 Profile Used To Tolerance A Surface Location

2.29.2 Inspecting Profile of A Surface

There are many ways a surface could be inspected. One way is to use a
special gage as depicted in the diagram (Refer Fig 48). First, the part is
located in the datum reference frame. Then the dial indicator is used to
measure the distance between the toleranced surface and the true profile.
Depending on the dial indicator reading of the part surface, the part
surface will be determined to be in or out of the profile tolerance zone.
The number of points to be checked is determined by the inspection plan.

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Figure 48 Inspecting Profile Of A Surface.

2.30 Profile Of A Line Control

Introduction:
The basic concept of profile of a line and surface are same. But differs in
the manner that line profile is 2D while surface is 3D. It is typically used as
a form control or in conjunction with a profile of a surface control. The
symbol for it is shown in Fig 49

Figure 49 The Profile Of A Line Control.

Definition:
The basic concepts of a profile of a surface and a line are same. The basic
difference is that the tolerance zone for the profile of a surface is three
dimensional while that of a line is two dimensional. A profile of a line
control is a geometric tolerance that limits the amount of error for line
elements relative to the true profile. The tolerance zone is same as that
for surface profile. The tolerance zone is two dimensional ; it is two
uniform lines applied at ant cross section of the surface. Profile of a line
provides control in one direction only. Therefore, profile of a line is often
used as a part of a multiple simple segment control of a surface.

Profile Of A Line And The Coordinate Tolerance Used To Control

Form Location
In this example, a profile of a line is used with a coordinate
tolerance. The coordinate tolerance locates the surface, and the profile
call out refines the form. The profile of a line control specifies two datum
references. Therefore the profile of a line control affects the form and
orientation of the line elements. ( Fig 50) the figure shows an example of
a profile of a line and a coordinate tolerance used to control the location ,
orientation and form.

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 In the figure the following conditions apply:
 Profile callout is applied to a true profile
 The coordinate tolerance locates the surface.
 The profile of a line control refines the form and orientation of the
line elements in one direction.

Figure 50 Profile Of A Line Used With A Coordinate Tolerance

2.31 Surface Finish

Tolerance specifications are imposed on dimensions to
ensure functional and assembly requirements of mating parts. Tolerances
determine to a large extent the manufacturing processes required to
produce the part. Surface quality is another important factor that affects
the performance of mating parts relative to each other as well as choice of
manufacturing processes. Tolerances and surface quality are interrelated
in the sense that both are direct outcomes of manufacturing processes. A
manufacturing process such as lapping and honing that produce small
tolerances also produce smooth surfaces. Therefore in specifying
tolerances a designer should consider the requirements of surface finish in
addition to functional and assembly requirements. For example an
interference fit made on a rough surface may have a reduced area which
results in subsequent reduction of the interference force between mating
parts. Higher surface quality results in higher production costs. Thus
designer would normally leave a surface as rough as is feasible.

Surface finish can be evaluated quantitatively by using various measures.

The most popular measures are surface roughness and waviness. The
measure of the irregularities over a sampling length is defined as surface
roughness, whereas the measure of large variations over a wavelength
defines the waviness of the surface.

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There are three methods of calculating the surface roughness
R of a surface. Let us define an imaginary mean surface such that the total
variations (measured by the sum of the areas between the mean surface
and profile of the actual surface) above the mean surface are equal to that
beneath it.

The roughness average Ra measures the average of the absolute

displacement (variation) relative to the mean surface:

1  L
 ∫0| y | dx
Ra = L

Where IyI is the absolute value of the roughness function y(x). The
roughness average Ra is also known as arithmetic average (AA). It is
usually measured using a planimeter.to calculate the area below and
above the mean surface.

Ra values are usually expressed in micrometers or micro

inches and its value can vary quite considerably without affecting the
surface functions.
Another measure of surface roughness is given by the RMS
(root mean square) value Rq which is still an averaging method and is
given by:

1  L 2
 ∫0 y dx
Rq2 =  L 

The third method of roughness is given by the maximum

peak - to - valley height Rmax. Sometimes Rmax is evaluated at various
locations over the length of the surface and an average is calculated.

Y Root Mean Square roughness Rq

X
Mean surface
Length
Fig 51 Root Mean Square Roughness (Rq)

Roughness Measures
The table below recommends the specifications of surface roughness for
functional processors. These values given are only a guide and a designer
can make his own selection depending upon the process. However from
the point of production economy it is better not to specify values finer
than that are really necessary for satisfactory functioning of the process.
Guide to surface finish from various process
µ m

ROUGHNESS HEIGHT
RATING,

Process 50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.012

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Flame cutting

Snagging

Sawing

Planing,Shaping

Drilling

Chemical milling

Electric Discharge machining

Milling

Broaching

Reaming

Electron Beam

Laser

Electro chemical

Boring, Turning

Barrel finishing

Electrolytic Grinding

Roller Burnishing

Grinding

Honing

Guide to surface finish from

various process (contd…)

ROUGHNESS HEIGHT RATING,

in μm

5 2
process 0 5 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.012
Electropolish

Polishing

Lapping

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Super finishing

Sand casting

Hot Rolling

Forging

Permanent Mold Casting

Investment casting

Extruding

Cold rolling, Drawing

Die casting

The ranges shown are typical of the process listed ->' average application

Higher or lower values may be obtained under special conditions ->' less frequent application

2.31.1 Relationship between Attainable Tolerance

Grade and Various Machining Processes.
Machining Tolerances.

The deviations resulting from different machining operations vary

somewhat from shop to shop and with the type and conditions of the
equipment used. It is helpful for the engineering department to have
records for the variations that can be maintained by the various machines
in the factory. Less will be known for the parts that are sublet and the
work done by the outside vendors.

The variations in these tables are about what might be expected from
good equipment in the hands of experienced workers. The newer and
more precise equipment should give smaller variations, but on the other

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hand, worn machinery will not give the results as good as the tables. The
prospects for the proper dimensioning will improve as more precise
information on the capabilities of production machines becomes available
to the design department.

The following table illustrated below gives you a guideline for calculating
IT grades for various machining processes.

For grades 5 to 16, standard tolerance unit i, is i = 0.45 3√ D + 0.001 D

where i in microns; and D (Dia) in mm.

IT
Grade 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Values 7i 10i 16i 25i 40i 64i 100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 1000i

Grades Of
Holes Manufacturing Processes Used
H5 Fine Boring,Fine Grinding,Honing
H6 Fine Boring,Honing,Handreaming
H7 Internalgrinding,Broaching, Reaming
H8 Boring, Machine Reaming
H9 Boring,Reaming
Not For Diameter Fits: Used For Milled Widths,
H90 Drilled Holes
Not Used In Fits: Punching, Course Drilling
H11 Drawn Recesses

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2.31.2 Normal Dimensional Tolerances and Surface
finish attainable from Traditional Machining Process

Commercial
Commercial Surface
Machining Tolerance attainable finish
Operations in mm in μm
Drilling +/- 0.075 1.6-3.1
Reaming +/-0.025 0.8-1.6
Counter boring +/-0.10 1.6-3.1
Recessing +/-0.25 1.6-3.1
Tapping Class 2
Boring +/-0.025 1.6-3.1
Broaching +/-0.15 0.8-1.6
Rough Turning +/-0.13 1.6-3.1
Finish Turning +/-0.05-0.013 0.4-1.6
Form tool turning
rough +/-0.13 1.6-3.1
Form tool turning
fine +/-0.025-0.05 0.4-1.6
Roller shaving 0.025 0.4-1.6
Skiving 0.025-0.05 0.2-0.8
Die head turning Class 2-3
Single point
threading class3
Roll treading Class 2-3
Slotting +/-0.13-0.25 1.6-3.1
Other milling +/-0.13 1.6-3.1
Burnishing +/-0.013 0.15-0.25

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2.31.3 Normal Dimensional Tolerances and Surface
finish attainable from Non-Traditional Machining
Process.

Normal
Tolerance attainable Normal surface
from Non Traditional Dimensiona finish in
Process l tolerances μm
Laser beam Machining +/-0.025 2.5
+/-0.006-
Electro-chemical honing 0.0125 0.1-0.8
Electrical discharge
machining +/-0.05 1.6-3.2
Electrical discharge grinding +/-0.005 0.4-0.8
Electrochemical machining +/-0.05 1.6
Electrochemical discharge
machining +/-0.025 0.13-0.75
Electrochemical grinding +/-0.025 0.4

2.31.4 Normal Dimensional Tolerances and

Surface finish attainable in various hole-
making processes.

Normal
Normal Surface
Dimensional Finish
Process Tolerances mm in μm
Turning +/-0.025 0.4-6.3
Drilling +0.15-0.025 1.6-6.3
Milling +/-0.05 0.8-6.3
Planing &
Shaping +/-0.13 1.6-12.5
Broaching +/-0.025 0.8-3.2
2.31.5 Relationship between Tolerance Grades and
Machining Processes.
Tolerance Grade (IT number)

Machining 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Process
Lapping & √ √
Honing
Cylindrica √ √ √

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l grinding
Surface √ √ √ √
Grinding
Diamond √ √ √
Turning
Diamond √ √ √
Boring
Broaching √ √ √ √

Powder √ √ √
Metals-
Sizes
Reaming √ √ √ √ √

Turning √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Powdered √ √ √ √
Metal-
sintered
Boring √ √ √ √ √ √
Milling √ √ √ √
Planing & √ √ √ √
Shaping
Drilling √ √ √ √
Punching √ √ √ √
Die √ √ √
casting
√: Attainable grade.

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