Cipher Exercises - Material - Cipher-Exercises-Material

Cipher Exercises - material
Cryptography and network security (Anna University)
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1 Caesar Cipher
The Caesar cipher shifts all the letters in a piece of text by a certain number
of places. The key for this cipher is a letter which represents the number of
place for the shift. So, for example, a key D means “shift 3 places” and a
key M means “shift 12 places”. Note that a key A means “do not shift” and
a key Z can either mean “shift 25 places” or “shift one place backwards”.
For example, the word “CAESAR” with a shift P becomes “RPTHPG”.
Question 1.1.
(a) What does “CAESAR” become with a shift of F?
(b) What key do we need to make “CAESAR” become “MKOCKB”?
(c) What key do we need to make “CIPHER” become “SYFXUH”?
(d) Use the Caesar cipher to encrypt your rst name

With any encryption method, we need to be able to decrypt our cipher-
texts.
Question 1.2.
(a) Above we saw that “CAESAR” becomes “RPTHPG” using a key P.
Can you nd a key that will turn “RPTHPG” back into “CAESAR”?
(b) Use a key N to shift “CAESAR”. What key is need to shift back?
What do you notice? Is this true for all texts?
(c) How can we nd the decryption key from the encryption key
Caesar ciphers are very simple to create but are also quite easy to crack.
One method we can use to crack ciphers is called Frequency Analysis.
This is where we look at the frequency (i.e. the number of times) that each
letter appears. The most common letters in the ciphertext are related to
the most common letters in the plaintext. The most common letters in the
plaintext are likely to be the most common letters in the language.
Question 1.3.
(a) What do you think are the most common letters in English?
(b) What do you think are the least common letters in English?
(c) Is this true for other languages?
Encryption Worksheets Stephen Drape, OUCL

Another way to crack ciphers is by looking at one and two letter words.
If we see a single letter word in the ciphertext then it is likely to be A or I.
Also we can look at repeated letters (such as “t” in “letter”).
Question 1.4.
(a) What do you think are the commonest two letter words?
(b) What do you think are the most common repeated letters? What
about the least common?
We can now use these methods to crack Caesar Ciphers.
Question 1.5.
(a) Crack the following plaintext
TRVJRI TZGYVIJ RIV HLZKV VRJP KF TIRTB
What encryption key was used?
(b) Make you own ciphertext using the Caesar cipher. Can you crack other
people’s ciphertexts?

2 Substitution Cipher
To use a substitution cipher we replace (substitute) each letter of the plain-
text with a dierent letter in the cipher text. To use this cipher we need a
table of letter replacements. For example, look at the following table
Plain C D E H I N P R S T Y
Cipher X J L A Z E V K H O M
Using this substitution, the plaintext
THIS SENTENCE IS ENCRYPTED
is changed to this ciphertext
OAZH HLEOLEXL ZH LEXKMVOLJ
Question 2.1.
(a) Check that this substitution is correct
(b) Given this ciphertext JLXKMVO OAZH which has been created using the
substitution above, can you nd the plaintext?
(c) Encrypt some more words using this substitution.
Obviously to make this cipher useful we have to provide substitutions
for the whole alphabet. As with the Caesar cipher, we can use frequency
analysis to crack substitution ciphers.
Question 2.2. Crack the ciphertext given below
D LJELKOKJKOUV COSIYM OL IDMRYM KU CMDCZ KIDV
D CDYLDM COSIYM EJK GY CDV LKOXX JLY PMYQJYVCB
DVDXBLOL KU POVR KIY WULK CUWWUV XYKKYML.
O SMUWOLYR BUJ KIDK O GUJXR JLY DXX KGYVKB LOF
XYKKYML LU KIDK WYDVL KIDK O IDHY TUK KU DRR
YFKMD GUMRL LJCI DL NYXXB DVR AUU.
This text contains all 26 letters. To help you crack the cipher, use the table
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

and the text spaces below
_ ____________ ______ __ ______ __ _____ ____
_ ______ ______ ___ __ ___ _____ ___ _________
________ __ ____ ___ ____ ______ _______.
_ ________ ___ ____ _ _____ ___ ___ ______ ___
_______ __ ____ _____ ____ _ ____ ___ __ ___
_____ _____ ____ __ _____ ___ ___.

You will nd that the rst few letters in the top row of the table spell out
a word.
Question 2.3. Use the table below to make your own substitution ciphers.
Can you crack other people’s ciphers?

3 Vignère Cipher
For the Vignère cipher we use a word as the key. Suppose that we use the
word “KEY” as the key and we want to encrypt the word “CRYPTOG-
RAPHY”. We repeat the key and line up the repeated key and the cipher
text:
Key K E Y K E Y K E Y K E Y
Plaintext C R Y P T O G R A P H Y
Then we use each letter of the key as a shift for the Caesar cipher and
encrypt each letter of the plaintext. So, to encrypt the letter ‘C’ in the
plaintext we use ‘K’ (a shift of 10) from the key and we get ‘M’. Then, we
continue along the text, so, for example, to encrypt ‘H’ in the plaintext we
use ‘E’ (a shift of 4) from the key to get ‘L’. Here’s the completed ciphertext:
Key K E Y K E Y K E Y K E Y
Plaintext C R Y P T O G R A P H Y
Ciphertext MVW Z XMQVY Z LW
To make the encryption process easier we can have a table of letters to work
out the ciphertext — see Table 1. Using this cipher, we do not encrypt
spaces or punctuation marks so we often remove them.
Question 3.1.
(a) Use the key “CODE” to encrypt the sentence “TO BE OR NOT TO
BE”. Some of the ciphertext is already completed for you:
Key C O D E C O D E C O D E C
Plaintext T O B E O R NO T T O B E
Ciphertext V F R
(b) Use your own key and phrase and encrypt it using the Vignère cipher.
Question 3.2.
(a) With the Caesar and Substitution ciphers we can use frequency analy-
sis to guess some of the letters in the ciphertext. Can we use frequency
analysis with the Vignère cipher? Explain your answer using the some
of the ciphertexts that you’ve created.
(b) [Harder] Is it possible to use the ciphertext to guess anything about

the key? Explain your answer using some ciphertexts.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
A A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
B B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A
C C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B
D D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C
E E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D
F F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E
G G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F
H H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G
I I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H
J J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I
K K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J
L L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K
M M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L
N N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M
O O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N
P P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
Q Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P
R R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
S S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R
T T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S
U U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T
V V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U
W W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V
X X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W
Y Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X
Z Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y
Table 1: Table of letter keys for the Vignère cipher
Question 3.3.
(a) Earlier we used the key “KEY” to encrypt “CRYPTOGRAPHY” to
get “MVWZXMQVYZLW”. What key word would turn the ciphertext
back into the plaintext? Use Table 1 to help.
(b) Now work out the keys to reverse the other ciphertexts.
(c) [Very Hard!] Here is some text that has been encrypted:
OINCHHFIAFYASZGUIVJCRKIWLLKJ
The plaintext begins with the letters WELLDONE. Use this piece of text,
called a crib, to work out the key and the whole of the plaintext. Can
this technique still be used if the crib is not at the start of the text?

4 RSA Encryption
RSA encryption is much more complicated than the encryption methods we
have seen so far. The RSA method encrypts numbers rather than pieces of
text. Here is a description of what you must do to use RSA encryption
(a) Pick two large prime numbers p and q
(b) Work out the products n = p × q and k = (p − 1) × (q − 1)
(c) Pick a public key e which does not have any factors in common (apart
from 1 of course) with the number k
(d) Find a private key d so that d × e = 1 (mod k)
(e) To encrypt a number m work out me (mod n)
(f) To decrypt a number c work out cd (mod n)
You will see that there is lots of Maths involved to use this encryption.
Let us have a look at the Maths behind this encryption method.
First, a reminder about factors. Let us look at the factors of 12. A
number is a factor of 12 if it divides exactly into 12 with no remainder. So,
the factors of 12 are 1,2,3,4,6 and 12. Two things to note: (a) 1 and the
number itself are always factors and (b) factors usually occur in pairs.
Question 4.1.
(a) nd the factors of 30
(b) nd the factors of 100
(c) nd the factors of 23
You should notice that 23 has exactly two factors. A number is prime
if it has exactly two factors — so, for example, 2 and 3 are prime but 1 and
4 are not prime.
Question 4.2.
(a) nd all the prime numbers that are less than 20
(b) nd a three digit prime number
(c) can we nd prime numbers bigger than 1 million? bigger than 1 billion?

For RSA we need two big prime numbers. Currently to make the en-
cryption secure we have to nd prime numbers than have more than 600
digits!
You will have seen in the description of RSA expressions like this:
a (mod n)
The word “mod” stands for modulus which is another word for remainder.
So, if we had
17 (mod 5)
this means “give me the remainder when 17 is divided by 5” and so
17 (mod 5) = 2
because
17 = (3 × 5) + 2
Some more examples for you:
29 (mod 6) = 5 49 (mod 10) = 9 35 (mod 7) = 0
Some calculators allow you to work out mod using the fractions button
a b/c . So if you type
2 9 a b/c 6 =
you get an answer 456 and the penultimate number 5 gives us the re-
mainder. This does not always work though as sometimes the fraction is
cancelled down.
Question 4.3. Fill in the missing numbers * below
25 (mod 6) = ∗ 31 (mod 12) = ∗
18 (mod ∗ ) = 5 ∗ (mod 3) = 1
An example Let us now go through an example in which we use RSA

encryption by following the steps we saw earlier.
(a) First we need to pick two primes, so let’s take p = 7 and q = 13
(b) So now n = 7 × 13 = 91 and k = 6 × 12 = 72.

(c) For the public key, we will try e = 5 which does not have any factors
in common with 72.
(d) Now the private d is 29 — if we work out d × e we get 5 × 29 = 145.

Now 145 = 2 × 72 + 1 and so d × e = 1 (mod 72). So d is a suitable
private key.
(e) Let’s encrypt 23 so we need to work out 235 (mod 91). If we work out
235 then we get 6436343 — it quite hard then to work out what the
remainder would be when we divide this by 91. Instead we can work
the power in stages and nd the remainder at each stage. So rst do
232 = 529 = 5 × 91 + 74 = 74 (mod 91)
Now we can do the other powers
233 = 232 × 23 = 74 × 23 (mod 91) = 1702 = 64 (mod 91)
234 = 233 × 23 = 64 × 23 (mod 91) = 1472 = 16 (mod 91)

235 = 234 × 23 = 16 × 23 (mod 91) = 368 = 4 (mod 91)
So when we encrypt 23 using the key 5 we get an answer of 4.
(f) Let’s now undo this encryption, so when we use the private key to
work 429 (mod 91) we should get our original number of 23. To work
429 we could use the same method as before but this would take 28
steps. However we can do it fewer steps. Since 29 = 1 + 4 + 8 + 16 we
can write:
429 (mod 91) = 41 × 44 × 48 × 416 (mod 91)
So
44 = 256 = 74 (mod 91)
8 4 4
4 = 4 × 4 = 74 × 74 (mod 91) = 5476 = 16 (mod 91)
416 = 48 × 48 = 16 × 16 (mod 91) = 256 = 74 (mod 91)
So,
429 = 4 × 74 × 16 × 74 (mod 91)

We can do this in stages
429 = 296 × 16 × 74 (mod 91)

= 23 × 16 × 74 (mod 91)
= 368 × 74 (mod 91)
= 4 × 74 (mod 91)
= 296 (mod 91)
= 23 (mod 91)
So we get our original number back.
Question 4.4.
(a) Using the same public key 5 encrypt the number 5 using RSA
(b) Using the private key 29, undo the encrpytion
Question 4.5. Now, let us take p = 5 and q = 11. So n = 55 and k = 40.
(a) Suppose that we take the public key e = 3. Check that d = 27 is a

suitable private key.
(b) Encrypt 18 using the public key 3. You should nd that your nal
answer is 2.
(c) What should be the answer to 227 (mod 55)? Check that this is true.
As a nal note about RSA encryption, up to now we have looked at

numbers rather than letters. We can change letters into a single number in
lots of dierent ways. For instance, we can take A=1, Z=26 and “Space”
to be 27. Then we can think of a sequence of letters as a number in Base
28. Just as 245 is really (2 × 102 ) + (4 × 101 ) + (5 × 100 ) then we can take
“BCD” to be
(2 × 282 ) + (3 × 281 ) + (4 × 280 ) = 1568 + 84 + 4 = 1656

Commands for the Haskell program
You must type in the commands exactly as they are written. Be sure to
include spaces and use lower and upper case letters correctly. A useful
command is $$ which repeats the last result. For example,
Main> 35 + 78
113
Main> 4 * $$
452
The last calculation works out 4 × (35 + 78).
Some example sentences

Main> qwe
"THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPED OVER THE LAZY SLEEPING DOG"
Main> shake
"TO BE OR NOT TO BE THAT IS THE QUESTION"
The rst one contains all 26 letters and the second has some short words.
Caesar cipher
To shift the word “HELLO” using a key ’R’, type
Main> caesar ’R’ "HELLO"

"YVCCF"
To undo the Caesar cipher, we use the function uncaesar:
Main> uncaesar ’R’ "YVCCF"

"HELLO"
We can do a frequency analysis using the function analyse:
Main> analyse qwe

[(1,’A’),(1,’B’),(1,’C’),(2,’D’),(6,’E’),(1,’F’),(2,’G’),
(2,’H’),(2,’I’),(1,’J’),(1,’K’),(2,’L’),(1,’M’),(2,’N’),
(4,’O’),(2,’P’),(1,’Q’),(2,’R’),(1,’S’),(2,’T’),(2,’U’),
(1,’V’),(1,’W’),(1,’X’),(1,’Y’),(1,’Z’)]
This gives us a list of pairs (frequency, letter). It is not always easy to see
the results so we can use the function printPairs to print the results:

Main> printPairs analyse qwe
’A’: 1
’B’: 1
...
To show the top 4 frequencies:
Main> topFreq 4 (analyse qwe)

’E’: 6
’O’: 4
’U’: 2
’T’: 2
(We can change 4 to another number between 1 and 26.) Remember that
we can replace qwe by any text string in the commands above.
To nd the most frequent letter in a string, we can type:
Main> freqLet "HELLO WORLD"

’L’
The function crackCaesar tries to guess the plaintext from a ciphertext:
Main> crackCaesar "YMJ HFY XFY TS YMJ RFY"

"THE CAT SAT ON THE MAT"
and just to conrm:
Main> caesar ’F’ "THE CAT SAT ON THE MAT"

"YMJ HFY XFY TS YMJ RFY"
Substitution Cipher
We can check a string is suitable as a key by using checkKey:
Main> checkKey "KJHGTYRUIOPQWSAZMFCVBDELNX"

True
Main> checkKey "KJHGTYRUIOPQWSAZMFCVBDELN"
False
Main> checkKey "KJHGTYRUIOPQWSAZMFCVBDELNXG"
False
The rst key is suitable, the second has two few letters and the third has G
twice.
We can create a substitution key by giving the rst few letters:

Main> createKey "CIPHER"
"CIPHERABDFGJKLMNOQSTUVWXYZ"
Main> createKey "CRYPTOGRAPHY"
"CRYPTOGAHBDEFIJKLMNQSUVWXZ"
Here are some examples for using the substitution cipher:
Main> subst "KJHGTYRUIOPQWSAZMFCVBDELNX" "HELLO WORLD"

"UTQQA EAFQG"
Main> subst (createKey "CIPHER") "HELLO WORLD"
"BEJJM WMQJH"
Main> subst "KJHGTYRUIOPQWSAZMFCVBDELNX" qwe
"VUT MBIHP JFAES YAL OBWZTG ADTF VUT QKXN CQTTZISR GAR"
Here’s a function that undoes the cipher:
Main> unsubst (createKey "CIPHER") "BEJJM WMQJH"

"HELLO WORLD"
Vignère
To use the Vignère with key “KEY” and plaintext “HELLO WORLD”:
Main> vig "KEY" "HELLO WORLD"
"RIJVSUYVJN"
Note that the space has been removed.
To undo the cipher
Main> unvig "KEY" "RIJVSUYVJN"

"HELLOWORLD"
There is also a function called revKey which nds the key with which we
can undo a Vignère cipher:
Main> revKey "KEY"
"QWC"
and thus
Main> vig "QWC" "RIJVSUYVJN"
"HELLOWORLD"
If we know some of the plaintext then it possible to guess the key by

using the command crackVig. So if we had

Main> vig "KEY" "THISISENCRYPTED"
"DLGCMQORABCNDIB"
then crackVig prints out a list of possible keys.
Main> crackVig "ENCRYPT" "DLGCMQORABCNDIB"

["KEY"]
Sometimes it is not possible to guess a key
Main> crackVig "THIS" "DLGCMQORABCNDIB"

[]
RSA Encryption
To do RSA encryption we need to work out an expression such as:
138 (mod 55)
To work out this, we can do:
Main> 13^8
815730721
and then
Main> mod $$ 55
36
Since we need to do this calculation many times, there is a function power

which work this out:
Main> power 13 8 55
36
Example Let’s work through an example of RSA encryption. We take

p = 7 and q = 13 so n = 7 × 13 = 91 and k = 6 × 12 = 72. We now need
to pick a public key e which does not have any factors in common with 72.
Using e we need a private key d such that d × e = 1 (mod 72). Suppose we
take e = 5 and to work out the private key we do
Main> private 5 7 13
29

The function private needs three things: the rst is our public key and the
last two are our prime numbers. We can check that d = 29 is a suitable key:
Main> mod (29*5) 72

1
If we do not pick a good public key e then we will get an error message
Main> private 6 7 13
Program error: Not coprime
Now let’s encrypt the number 23 using the public key e = 5. We want
to work out 235 (mod 91) so we type
Main> power 23 5 91
4
Now to decrypt using the private key d = 29:
Main> power 4 29 91
23
We can apply RSA to letters by changing the letters into numbers. So

using the primes 7 and 13 and public key 23.
Main> rsa "WELL" 5 (7*13)

[4,31,38,38]
Note that “W”, which is changed to 23, is encrypted to 4, as above. To

change this back, we use the private key 29:
Main> unrsa [4,31,38,38] 29 (7*13)

"WELL"
There are some sample keys which can be used. Typing in p1 and q1 will
give you two prime numbers and their product is dened to n1. A suitable
public key is e1 and the corresponding private key is d1.
Main> p1
241679
Main> q1
8123471
Main> n1
1963272347809
Main> p1 * q1

1963272347809
Main> e1
3
Main> d1
1308842655107
Main> private e1 p1 q1
1308842655107
So we can try
Main> rsa qwe e1 n1

[1244282649599,1568503221394,684458173516,1772351482757,
346990991405,1861579902643,538356473688]
Then to decode
Main> unrsa [1244282649599,1568503221394,

684458173516,1772351482757,
346990991405,1861579902643,538356473688] d1 n1
"THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPED OVER THE LAZY SLEEPING DOG"
There’s some larger primes p2 and q2 with public key e2 and private
key d2. An example using the larger primes and shake:
Main> rsa shake e2 n2

[944552924503602346111,24180811974541611992954,
19885192145733533765925]
Main> unrsa $$ d2 n2
"TO BE OR NOT TO BE THAT IS THE QUESTION"
(where $$ means the last calculation).
Sample texts
In the program, there are a few sample texts that you can use to try things
out. As well as qwe and shake there is the opening paragraph from a Poirot
story by Agatha Christie:
Main> poirot
"Pure chance led my friend Hercule Poirot, formerly chief of
the Belgian force, to be connected with the Styles case. His
success brought him notoriety, and he decided to devote

himself to the solving of problems in crime. Having been
wounded in the Somme and invalided out of the Army, I finally
took up my quarters with him in London. Since I have a
first-hand knowledge of most of his cases, it has been
suggested to me that I select some of the most interesting and
place them on record. In doing so, I feel that I cannot do
better than begin with that strange tangle which aroused such
widespread public interest at the time. I refer to the affair
at the Victory Ball. "
Also, there is the text for Question 2.2:
Main> substExample
"D LJELKOKJKOUV COSIYM OL IDMRYM KU CMDCZ KIDV D CDYLDM
COSIYM EJK GY CDV LKOXX JLY PMYQJYVCB DVDXBLOL KU POVR
KIY WULK CUWWUV XYKKYML. O SMUWOLYR BUJ KIDK O GUJXR JLY
DXX KGYVKB LOF XYKKYML LU KIDK WYDVL KIDK O IDHY TUK KU
DRR YFKMD GUMRL LJCI DL NYXXB DVR AUU."
You may want to do a frequency analysis on this:
Main> analyse substExample
[(1,’A’),(5,’B’),(9,’C’),(20,’D’),(2,’E’),(2,’F’),(4,’G’),
(1,’H’),(10,’I’),(9,’J’),(25,’K’),(19,’L’),(12,’M’),(1,’N’),
(13,’O’),(2,’P’),(1,’Q’),(8,’R’),(3,’S’),(1,’T’),(15,’U’),
(10,’V’),(5,’W’),(10,’X’),(20,’Y’),(1,’Z’)]
and the top ve frequencies are:
Main> topFreq 5 (analyse substExample)
’K’: 25
’Y’: 20
’D’: 20
’L’: 19
’U’: 15
You may also want to nd all the three letter words in the text:
Main> sizeWord 3 substExample
["EJK","CDV","JLY","KIY","BUJ","JLY","DXX","LOF",
"TUK","DRR","DVR"]
There are some texts which have encrypted using the Vignère cipher.
The texts poirotVig1 and poirotVig2 are encrypted versions of the poirot
using two dierent keys. For example,

Main> poirotVig1
"WUJXKUGFJEDXLZEXYIWGLUKJJUDXXBOJVTXHZZKJSYUAQRLGMTZXJRRYPAFYW
EIWAOTXKBTFLCLXLJOLOTZXAGEDLSUTARNAZSMVKRYKIRGNOUZZPMFHBBXALTQ
TVQNWKEUBLRJLVDWOWGKZPMKXTSZGAHWLWYBAUGGYXEUTSEELQAIJPMWAIIOFN
BWXVJUMUDWWQAZZLSGFURGFKIFOIYOVLDGNBBLLOESKULOXPNSETLZGVKMIULW
MHRLXZFCAAHZBUVTDVNVHVFOFJEAAIIKSMIJLBUGFKKFHEYKVNEGYUBYLVFZBA
PGKLSAMPNYTLEFLCTMWZTWWBBSWAHSMQFKDLCLLWZKGMTZXUBYLPNLXZRYLPNY
TVQVDHCWMPRSGURWVWEJAUDGBVTYGPFWXTGNSAIUTVAULKOTXBGKJAHSGJRMAU
WAMPGNSASLKIAMWAAFZTRCZPCZTZBAKLDKNKUCAKEKIZRGVWUTEQPOFAEJXAGG
LAHWMQZKAYEXXZGULOESYNNOJHTLAMIOUAOJRJNRD"
See if you can work out what the keys are.

It is possible to work out the length of the key of a Vignère by working
out the lengths between matching characters. For example,
Main> keyLengths poirotVig1

[(24,1),(18,2),(23,3),(25,4),(20,5),(23,6),(20,7),
(30,8),(13,9),(14,10),(18,11),(14,12),(20,13),(25,14),
(21,15),(45,16),(18,17),(20,18),(15,19),(19,20),(28,21),
(18,22),(17,23),(29,24),(26,25),(15,26),(19,27),(18,28),
(18,29),(13,30)]
Looking at the top 3 frequencies:
Main> topFreq 3 (keyLengths poirotVig1)

16: 45
8: 30
24: 29
This means that the key is likely to have length 8, 16 or 24. Since 8 is a
factor of both 16 and 24 then the most likely key length is 8. You may also
try to nd the keys by using a crib.
There is another Vignère encrypted text:
Main> vigExample
"OVPWAAAVGVDAHEDSUHPHZIRAKYXMSLIIIMRKYGLSEDHZGOVPQEDFFPHCZQPUH
CTISQRVMGVVJBOWLQMJMJCOTYUHVLOWWOAMBULYWCHGFSUTOSLFLAHYXMGNKIE
HJMCSYUIOCXGDGTQKQOTAJHSHVFVVRNHZZIPHYXDFHDRPGSXISLWLFVVBMQWRE
WGRGYGEDVFSUPVZVLRSPIBNYWBMZHYXNOXHHUFVVOWZQ"
Can you decrypt this?

Answers
Caesar Cipher
Question 1.1
(a) HFJXFW
(b) The key is ‘K’
(c) The key is ‘Q’
Question 1.2
(a) We need a shift of ‘L’
(b) After a shift of ‘N’, “CAESAR” becomes “PNRFNE”. The same key
‘N’ shifts the ciphertext back to “CAESAR”. This is true for all texts.
It is also true for the key ‘A’
(c) The encryption and decryption keys occur in pairs (apart from ‘A’ and
‘N’). The pairs are (‘B’,‘Z’), (‘C’,‘Y’) and so until (‘M’,‘O’).
Question 1.3
(a) The most common letters are E,T,A and I.
(b) The least common letters are Z, X, J and Q.
(c) This is not true for all languages.
Question 1.4
(a) Words such as “of”, “to”, “he”, “we”, “it” and “is” are common in
English.
(b) Letters such as ‘T’, ‘P’, ‘S’, ‘L’, ‘E’ and ‘O’ are commonly repeated let-
ters. But letters such as ‘Q’, ‘J’ and ”W” are not commonly repeated
in English words.
Question 1.5
(a) The plaintext decrypts to “CAESAR CIPHERS ARE QUITE EASY
TO CRACK” and the key was ‘R’. Note that ‘V’ and ‘R’ are the
most common letters in the ciphertext: ‘V’ corresponds to ‘E’ and ‘R’
corresponds to ‘A’.

Substitution Cipher
Question 2.1
(b) DECRYPT THIS
Question 2.2 The plaintext is
A SUBSTITUTION CIPHER IS HARDER TO CRACK THAN A CAESAR CIPHER

BUT WE CAN STILL USE FREQUENCY ANALYSIS TO FIND THE MOST
COMMON LETTERS. I PROMISED YOU THAT I WOULD USE ALL TWENTY
SIX LETTERS SO THAT MEANS THAT I HAVE GOT TO ADD EXTRA WORDS
SUCH AS JELLY AND ZOO.
Here’s the key:
D E C R Y P T I O N Z X W
V U S Q M L K J H G F B A
It was created by using the word “DECRYPTION” and the rest of the
alphabet in reverse order.

Vignère Cipher
Question 3.1
(a) VCEIQFQSVHRFG
Question 3.2
(a) We cannot use frequency analysis for this cipher. Look at the encryp-
tion of TOBEORNOTTOBE in the previous question. The letter O
is encrypted to the letters C, Q, S and R. While in the ciphertext, we
have two Qs which come from the letters O and N.
(b) We can sometimes guess the length of the key by looking at letters
which are repeated in the ciphertext and nding the length of the
repeat. In the CRYPTOGRAPHY example earlier, R is encrypted to
V twice — with a repeat length of 6 — Y is encrypted to W twice —
with a repeat length of 9. So since 3 is a factor of 6 and 9 we could
guess that the key length is 3 (which it is!).
We have to be careful with this method as sometimes we can get false
matches — for example, there are two letter Ms in the ciphertext
(with a repeat length of 5) but these come from dierent letters in the
plaintext.
Question 3.3
(a) The reverse key for “KEY” is “QWC”. Using the table, for each letter
of the key you look along the row of the table for that letter. When
you nd the letter A, you look at what column you are in. So looking
at the row for ‘K’, you will see that ’A’ is in column ’Q’.
(b) For example, the reverse key for “CODE” is “YMXW”
(c) You know that the rst letter in the plaintext is W, the letter in the
cipher text is O, so using the table, looking along row ‘W’ you nd ‘O’
in column ‘S’. So the rst letter of the key is ‘S’.
Now look at row ‘E’ until you nd ‘I’ - this happens in column ‘E’ —
so the second letter of the key is ‘E’. Continuing this process gets you
the characters “SECRETSE” — so it looks like the key is “SECRET”.
Using this key, the plaintext is “WELLDONEYOUHAVEDECRYPT-
EDTHIS”.

This technique can be used with any crib. What you do is to try
the crib at each position of the ciphertext and work out what the key
would be. If the key starts to repeat then we are likely to have found
the correct key.

RSA encryption
Question 4.1
(a) 1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30
(b) 1,2,4,5,10,20,25,50,100
(c) 1,23
Question 4.2
(a) 2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19
(b) 101 is the smallest and 997 is the biggest
(c) There are primes numbers that are bigger than any number you can
think of as there are innitely many primes. Whether you can actu-
ally nd such a prime is a dierent matter. Many computer scientist
regularly try to nd the next biggest prime number.
Question 4.3
25 (mod 6) = 1 31 (mod 12) = 7 18 (mod 13) = 5
For the last one, there are many dierent possible answers: 1,4,7,11 etc.
Question 4.4
(a) We need to work out 55 (mod 91) So
53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125 = 34 (mod 91)
54 = 53 × 5 = 34 × 5 = 170 = 79 (mod 91)

55 = 54 × 5 = 79 × 5 = 395 = 31 (mod 91)
(b) We need to work out 3129 (mod 91).
312 = 31 × 31 = 961 = 51 (mod 91)

314 = 312 × 312 = 51 × 51 (mod 91) = 2601 = 53 (mod 91)
318 = 314 × 314 = 53 × 53 (mod 91)2809 = 79 (mod 91)
3116 = 318 × 318 = 79 × 79 = 6241 = 53 (mod 91)

So
3129 = 311 × 314 × 318 × 3116 (mod 91)

= 31 × 53 × 79 × 53 (mod 91)
= 1643 × 4187 (mod 91)
= 5 × 1 (mod 91)
= 5
which is our original number.
Question 4.5
(a) We need 3 × 27 = 1 (mod 40) and
3 × 27 = 81 = 2 × 40 + 1 = 1 (mod 40)
(b)
183 (mod 55) = 182 × 18 (mod 55)

= 324 × 18 (mod 55)
= 49 × 18 (mod 55)
= 882 (= 16 × 55 + 2)
= 2 (mod 55)
(c) The answer to 227 (mod 55) should be 18.
227 (mod 55) = 26 × 26 × 26 × 26 × 23 (mod 55)

= 64 × 64 × 64 × 64 × 8 (mod 55)
= 9 × 9 × 9 × 9 × 8 (mod 55)
= 81 × 81 × 8 (mod 55)
= 26 × 26 × 8 (mod 55)
= 26 × 208 (mod 55)
= 26 × 43 (mod 55)
= 1118 (mod 55)
= 18 (mod 55)
There are many other ways to work out this answer.

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(b) What key do we need to make “CAESAR” become “MKOCKB”?

(c) What key do we need to make “CIPHER” become “SYFXUH”?

(d) Use the Caesar cipher to encrypt your rst name

(c) Is this true for other languages?

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We can now use these methods to crack Caesar Ciphers.

(a) Crack the following plaintext

TRVJRI TZGYVIJ RIV HLZKV VRJP KF TIRTB

What encryption key was used?

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_ ____________ ______ __ ______ __ _____ ____

_ ______ ______ ___ __ ___ _____ ___ _________

________ __ ____ ___ ____ ______ _______.

_ ________ ___ ____ _ _____ ___ ___ ______ ___

_______ __ ____ _____ ____ _ ____ ___ __ ___

_____ _____ ____ __ _____ ___ ___.

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(b) [Harder] Is it possible to use the ciphertext to guess anything about

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Table 1: Table of letter keys for the Vignère cipher

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(a) Pick two large prime numbers p and q

(b) Work out the products n = p × q and k = (p − 1) × (q − 1)

(d) Find a private key d so that d × e = 1 (mod k)

(e) To encrypt a number m work out me (mod n)

(f) To decrypt a number c work out cd (mod n)

(a) nd the factors of 30

(b) nd the factors of 100

(c) nd the factors of 23

(b) nd a three digit prime number

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29 (mod 6) = 5 49 (mod 10) = 9 35 (mod 7) = 0

Question 4.3. Fill in the missing numbers * below

25 (mod 6) = ∗ 31 (mod 12) = ∗

An example Let us now go through an example in which we use RSA

(a) First we need to pick two primes, so let’s take p = 7 and q = 13

(b) So now n = 7 × 13 = 91 and k = 6 × 12 = 72.

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(d) Now the private d is 29 — if we work out d × e we get 5 × 29 = 145.

232 = 529 = 5 × 91 + 74 = 74 (mod 91)

Now we can do the other powers

233 = 232 × 23 = 74 × 23 (mod 91) = 1702 = 64 (mod 91)

234 = 233 × 23 = 64 × 23 (mod 91) = 1472 = 16 (mod 91)

429 (mod 91) = 41 × 44 × 48 × 416 (mod 91)

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429 = 296 × 16 × 74 (mod 91)

So we get our original number back.

(b) Using the private key 29, undo the encrpytion

Question 4.5. Now, let us take p = 5 and q = 11. So n = 55 and k = 40.

(a) Suppose that we take the public key e = 3. Check that d = 27 is a

As a nal note about RSA encryption, up to now we have looked at

(2 × 282 ) + (3 × 281 ) + (4 × 280 ) = 1568 + 84 + 4 = 1656

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The last calculation works out 4 × (35 + 78).

Some example sentences

Main> caesar ’R’ "HELLO"

To undo the Caesar cipher, we use the function uncaesar:

Main> uncaesar ’R’ "YVCCF"

We can do a frequency analysis using the function analyse:

Main> analyse qwe

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_ ______ _ __

_ __ _ _ ___ _ _________

____ _ _____.

_ ______ _ ____ _ ___ _ _ __ _

___ _ __ _ __ _ _

___ _ ___ _ ___.