Course Module

English for College Students

Majoring in Informatics & Information Systems

Course Name : ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONE (BAHASA INGGRIS I)

Course Code : - TIKK 102 (INFORMATICS)
- SIKK 103 (INFORMATION SYSTEMS)
Course Credit : TWO-CREDIT-HOURS COURSE
Semester : I (ONE) / ODD SEMESTER
Academic Year : 2023 / 2024
Study Program : INFORMATICS & INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Faculty : INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Institution : UNIVERSITY OF WIDYA DHARMA PONTIANAK
Lecturer : MARNANGKOK PAKPAHAN, S.Pd., M.Pd.
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER 01

1.1 What is a computer? 01
1.2 Why do we need to study about computer? 01
1.3 The computer today 02
1.3.1 Mainframes and Minicomputers 02
1.3.2 Personal Computers and Workstations 02
1.3.3 Laptop Computers and Pocket PCs 03
1.3.4 Supercomputers 03
1.3.5 Embedded and Special Purpose Computers 04
1.4 Computers are all the same 05
1.5 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH NOUNS 06

Chapter 2: THE BASICS OF COMPUTER HARDWARE 17

2.1 The Basic Sub-systems of a Computer System 18
2.2 The Computer Peripherals 21
2.3 Input, Output, and Storage Devices 22
2.4 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH PRONOUNS 27

Chapter 3: THE BASICS OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE 40

3.1 Introduction to Computer Software 40
3.2 Types of Computer Software 40
3.2.1 System Software 40
3.2.2 Application Software 42
3.2.3 Programming Language Software 44
3.3 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH VERBS 45

Chapter 4: THE BASICS OF COMPUTER NETWORK 55

4.1 What is a Computer Network? 55
4.2 Digital Connections 62
4.3 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH ADJECTIVES 63

Chapter 5: THE BASICS OF COMPUTER SECURITY 67

5.1 Understanding the Basics of Computer Security 67
5.2 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH ADVERBS 73

Chapter 6: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE & INFORMATION SYSTEMS 77

6.1 The Definition of Artificial Intelligence 77
6.2 Information Systems (IS) 82
6.3 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH CLAUSES 85
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

“Information Technology makes many things possible,

but it is only education that makes things happen.”
Bill Gates

1.1 What is a computer?

A computer can simply be defined as an electronic device that processes data, and
then converting it into meaningful information that becomes useful to users or humans.
Any computer, regardless of its type or category, is controlled by the software that tells it
what it has to do. This software serves as the instructions to make the computer run.

1.2 Why do we need to study about computer?

We can accomplish a lot of tasks by using this most amazing machine, which is
called “computer”, whether you are working on your case study, term paper, or thesis
written in Microsoft Word. This is in the case of the students, and in the case of the
teachers, they are using spreadsheet application software such as the Microsoft Excel to
compute the grades of their students. Seminar and conference speakers are presenting their
topics animatedly in the LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Projector using Microsoft
PowerPoint slides.
Let us go to the companies on how they use computers to enhance their office-work
productivity. The Sales Manager in the company is using the Microsoft PowerPoint for his
or her sales report presentation. An office secretary is using the Microsoft Word to type
the company’s circular memorandum.
How about other professionals? Are they also use the computer to enhance their
productivity? Let us see if they are, for examples, architects are using AutoCAD software
to design buildings and houses, combat pilots are using computer to simulate and practice
landing an F14 fighter plane on the deck of an aircraft carrier.
This time, we have to go to some business establishments. Banks are using
Automated Teller Machine (ATM) so that we can withdraw money anytime or anywhere
we want. Remember that an ATM is 100 percent computer. Airlines and shipping
companies are using computers for their online reservation systems so that we can book
our flight online anytime and anywhere conveniently.
How about for children? Are they also enjoying the many things a computer could
offer? Yes, indeed! Today’s children are enjoying playing their favorite computer games.

1
 Imagine, all of these are made possible because we have this computer technology.
But what we are discussing here is just a tip of an iceberg of what the computer can do for
us to enjoy life. There are actually hundreds of reasons why we have to study computer
for our own goodness.

1.3 The computer today

Today, there are many types of computers which people are using and talking about.
Let us start learning and discussing the different types of computers as follows:

1.3.1 Mainframes and Minicomputers

Today, large companies are still using computers for massive computing tasks and
to utilize their big investments on these expensive room-sized machines. These
mainframes are housed inside an air-conditioned room in big companies to keep them in
good working condition. That’s the reason why most of us have not seen them personally.
Even-though most of the people are not aware of their existence, most of us are
really using them indirectly and benefiting from their power and capability. For example,
when we are withdrawing money from an ATM (Automatic Teller Machine) or
depositing money in our bank accounts. Big and large banks are still utilizing their
mainframe computer for their banking operations, though these banks are using PCs
(Personal Computers) at the same time for their other daily transactions.
Minicomputers are also like mainframes, though they are smaller and less
expensive compared to mainframes. However, they are less powerful than mainframes
but more powerful than personal computers. In today’s presence of technology, this
description can no longer be true. The new breed of Personal Computers (PCs) which are
called high-class network servers can surpass the power and capabilities of
minicomputers in terms of speed, accuracy and reliability.

1.3.2 Personal Computers and Workstations

As the name implies, Personal Computer (PC) is for single or personal use by a
certain individual. Most of the computers that we see and use today are under this
category. They are almost everywhere, from the comfort of our home to every office of
a well-established company. When the personal computer is connected to a main
computer called “server” (to form a network), it is called a workstation.

2
 Note:
Personal computer (PC) is also called microcomputer and desktop computer. The PC is
called microcomputer since it is smaller than the minicomputer in terms of its size and
weight. It is also known as desktop computer because PC usually sits at the top of the
desk.

1.3.3 Laptop Computers and Pocket PCs

In the late 1980s, portable computers were approximately 20-pound suitcase
lookalike with fold-out keyboards and small TV-like screens. They are called portable
because we can carry them from one place to another. Today, those portable computers
were replaced by flat-screen and battery-powered laptop computers. They are so light
and handy enough to rest in our lap while we are working with our company memo,
budget estimates or simply our e-mail to be sent when we get our internet connections in
the office or at home. In our present trend, the typical laptop is called notebook
computer that weighs much less and can be carried like a book.
Not only that, the palmtop computers (hand-held) are the fast-emerging type of
portable computers nowadays. They are small enough to be put into a jacket’s pocket.
Generally, portable computers are more expensive than their personal computer
(desktop) counterparts.
The next big wave in portable computers is the Pocket PC such as the famous Palm
Pilot PC. Have you seen them in the latest computer magazine today? or in your favourite
computer store?

1.3.4 Supercomputers
The supercomputer like Cray 1 generates data for aerodynamics research using
computational fluid dynamics. Supercomputer is primarily used for scientific research
that involves with the manipulation of highly complex mathematical data and equations.
These data require trillions of operations to resolve.
Physicists use supercomputers to study and analyze the results of explosions of
nuclear weapons which are presently being tested. Meteorologists use supercomputers to
analyze and study the formation of tornadoes. Scientists and engineers are using
supercomputers to sort through, analyze, and interpret mountains of seismic data
gathered during oil-seeking explorations. There are only few hundred supercomputers
presently used in the whole world today.
3
1.3.5 Embedded and Special Purpose Computers
There are computers that are made for special purposes. They perform specific
tasks such as controlling the temperature and humidity in big building offices, and to
monitor the heart rate of patients in the hospital. Embedded computers can be found in
almost all electronic consumer goods: game machines, video player, phones, stereos,
ovens, and in some parts of automobile’s electronic systems. Yet, we didn’t realize that
they are inside those electronic devices we are using in our day-to-day living.
We may wonder how these embedded computers are being put inside our stereos,
video player, or phones. Do they have keyboards, mouse, monitor, and disk drives? No,
they haven’t. What they have are the capabilities of performing tasks which are similar
to personal computers. These embedded computers are usually built-in to a chip
(integrated circuit) with a special-purpose program inside it. This special-purpose
program, inside a chip, performs the task such as temperature control and heart rate
monitoring. In other words, they are a combination of hardware (the IC) and software
(the program) in one microprocessor-like packaged chip. The program inside it is
technically called firmware.

Computers for people like us

These are the types of computers that we are using personally:
❖ Personal Computer (PC) or Desktop computer
❖ Laptop Computer or Notebook computer
❖ Smart Phone or Handheld computer

Handheld personal computer or Smart phone is a computing device that is small

enough to fit in our hand. A popular type of handheld PC is the Personal Digital Assistant
(PDA). It is a small appointment book and is normally used for special applications, such
as taking notes, displaying phone numbers and addresses and keeping track of dates or
agendas.

Smart phone is a cellular phone with advanced features such as an Internet Web
surfing capability and access to e-mails, as well as a personal organizer at the same time.

4
 Computers for companies
❖ Mainframes and Minicomputers (Midrange)
❖ Supercomputers
❖ Network Servers

Network Server is usually a powerful personal computer with powerful software

and peripherals that enables it to function as the primary computer in the network.
Workstations that are used by the employees in the company are usually connected
to the network server which served as the central main computer. Most of the company’s
resources are stored to this main computer, that is why the employee can use any
workstation in any department to access their files or folders or any information they
need anywhere they are in the company premises.

1.4 Computers are all the same

Have you heard someone who is angry about men’s promiscuous affair? That
particular woman would surely say (at the top of her voice), “All men are the same!”. But
before we go on with this battle of the genders, let us apply that to the computer. As you
will learn later on, all computers regardless of their types, categories, sizes, or specific
functionalities – they are basically the same. Why? Because all of them are made up of the
same basic components or parts, such as every computer has as CPU, memory,
motherboard, adapter cards, and so on. In addition, they can only run if they have the
needed software that instructs them to accomplish a certain task.

5
1.5 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH NOUNS

A. Identifying Nouns
Nouns are commonly defined as words that refer to persons, places, things, or ideas.
How can you identify a noun?

Quick tip 1
If you can put the word the in front of a word and it sounds like a unit, the word
is a noun.
For example, the boy sounds like a unit, so boy is a noun. The chair sounds like
a unit, so chair is a noun. Compare these nouns to *the very, *the walked, *the because.
So, very, walked, and because are not nouns. While you can easily put the and very
together (for example, the very tall boy), the very, by itself, does not work as a unit
while the chair does. So, chair is a noun; very is not a noun.

Test yourself 1
Which of the following words are nouns? See if they sound like a unit when you put
them here: the ______.
Noun Not a noun
Sample: always _____ ____√____

1. tree _____ _________

2. when _____ _________
3. beds _____ _________
4. glass _____ _________
5. speak _____ _________
6. slowly _____ _________
7. factory _____ _________
8. ticket _____ _________
9. boxes _____ _________
10. almost _____ _________

6
B. Concrete and Abstract Nouns
Here’s an unusual sentence: He smelled the marriage. What makes this sentence
unusual is that we don’t generally think of the noun ‘marriage’ as something that can
be smelled. Some nouns are concrete, that is: they can be perceived by our senses --
they are things that we can see, hear, smell, taste, or touch. On the other hand, the nouns
that are not concrete are abstract nouns. Marriage is something abstract, so it is odd to
say it’s being perceived by one of our senses, our sense of smell.
Other nouns, such as advice, idea, and hope are abstract; this means that they
refer to things that you cannot perceive with your senses, that is things you cannot see,
smell, feel, taste, or touch. Here are some more concrete and abstract nouns:
Concrete nouns Abstract nouns
newspaper love
heel honesty
glass culture
jewellery mind

Quick tip 2
Concrete nouns refer to things we can perceive with one of our senses. Abstract
nouns cannot be perceived by our senses.

Test yourself 2
Decide if each noun below is concrete or abstract.
Sample: discussion abstract
1. muffin ________
2. violin ________
3. freedom ________
4. elegance ________
5. train ________
6. friend ________
7. friendliness ________
8. economics ________
9. dormitory ________
10. capitalism ________

7
 An abstract noun is sometimes easier to identify if you create a sentence with it.
For example, the happiness is a unit, as it can be seen in: The happiness on her face
delighted him. Thus, happiness is a noun. Here are some other abstract nouns in
sentences; the nouns are underlined.
1. It was not the complaint which bothered him.
2. They were attempting to stop the abuse.
3. The joy which they felt was obvious.
Another easy way to identify a noun, especially an abstract noun, is to put the
word his/her in front of it and see if it sounds like a unit. For example, his complaint,
his happiness, her concern all are units; therefore, complaint, happiness, and concern
are nouns.
The nouns are underlined in the following sentences:
4. The author lives with her husband.
5. Do most people live their life pleasantly?
6. Your photograph of that sleeping child won you a prize.
As you can see from these sentences (4, 5, and 6), while the _____ or his _____
are ways to test a word to see if it is a noun, a noun doesn’t necessarily have the or his
in front of it in every sentence. Since we can say the author, the husband, the people,
his life, the photograph, his child, and his prize, the underlined words in sentences 4 -
6 are all nouns.

Test yourself 3
Underline the nouns in the sentences below.
Sample: The repair of my camera went smoothly.
1. I wrote every word of the letter.
2. The house was near the city.
3. Why did he get on an elevator?
4. She has my phone.
5. Your younger brother was busy.
6. A group of three generals sent the troops away.
7. The £ag was near your desk.
8. My mother acted in a play.
9. He called the house every day.
10. You have to give her salary and benefits.
8
C. Singular and Plural Nouns
What is the difference between cat and cats? The noun cat is used when it refers
to only one cat; its form is singular. The noun ‘cats’ is used when it represents more
than one cat; its form is plural. Thus, the singular and plural forms tell us about
number. Below are some nouns in their singular and plural forms.
Singular Plural
box boxes
bed beds
kite kites
day days
country countries
man men
child children

Test yourself 4
Underline each noun in the sentences below and indicate whether it is singular (sg.) or
plural (pl.). There may be more than one noun in a sentence.
Sample: They used her computer (sg.) to download the files (pl).

1. He had a few good ideas.

2. The boys spoke in a quiet whisper.
3. The tourists greeted the queen with attitudes of respect.
4. My neighbor is a neurologist.
5. The exterminator found bugs in the office.
6. Sharks live in water.
7. Yesterday, I caught a big trout.
8. There are many beautiful homes on this block.
9. Visitors to this country must obtain visas.
10. His cousin fought in a brutal battle to free ninety hostages.

9
Regular and Irregular Plural nouns
Usually, we pluralize a noun by adding an ‘s’ to it, as in books; these nouns are
called regular plural nouns. There are a handful of nouns that are pluralized in other
ways; these nouns are called irregular plural nouns.
Irregular plural nouns form their plural in different ways. Here are some common
patterns:
1. changing a vowel, for example: man → men
2. adding ‘ren’ or ‘en’, for example: child → children, ox → oxen
3. adding nothing, for example: fish → fish
4. changing ‘f’ to ‘v’ and then adding ‘s’: knife → knives, wife → wives

Test yourself 5
Underline each plural noun in the sentences below and indicate if it is regular (reg.) or
irregular (irreg.) in terms of how it is pluralized.
Sample: The women (irreg.) received their education at some exclusive schools (reg.).

1. The doctor treated most of the patients who were waiting.

2. The geese crossed the road near my car.
3. She set a trap to catch the mice that had invaded her kitchen.
4. You will have to feed the oxen most afternoons.
5. Whenever I travel to the countryside, I see many sheep, ducks, deer, and cows.
6. Those husbands and wives lead interesting lives.
7. Her feet have grown since last year.
8. The back window of my apartment overlooks about a dozen roofs.
9. The salesmen surrounded me in the showroom.
10. Kenneth had to buy two bottles of disinfectant to get rid of the lice in his bathroom.

To enhance your understanding

What is the plural of the word ‘blun’? Even though you’ve probably never seen
this nonsense word, you’re likely to say its plural is bluns. That’s because we don’t
have to memorize the ending of regular plurals; we simply use our plural formation
rule: adding an ‘s’. But the forms for irregular plural words, like children and men, need
to be memorized since they don’t follow a consistent pattern.

10
D. Animate and Inanimate Nouns
Take a look at the following sentence:
1. The postcard saw the mailman.
What’s strange about this sentence? What’s strange is that we don’t expect a
postcard, which is not alive, to be able to see something; only things that are alive have
the ability to see.
Nouns that refer to things which are alive are called animate, while nouns that
refer to things which are not alive are called inanimate. Postcard is an inanimate noun
and using it as an animate one makes for a very unusual sentence.

Test yourself 6
Decide if each noun below is animate or inanimate.
Sample: apple inanimate

1. word _________
2. lizard _________
3. glasses _________
4. calendar _________
5. baby _________
6. criminal _________
7. furniture _________
8. doctor _________
9. mouse _________
10. truck _________

Now take a look at the following sentence:

2. The dog wrote a best-selling novel.
Again, there’s something strange here. We know that dog is animate. However,
only a special type of animate noun has the ability to write a best-selling novel: a
human noun. The following sentence is fine since teacher is a human animate noun:
My teacher wrote a best-selling novel. On the other hand, since dog is a non-human
animate noun, sentence 2 does not sound right.
In conclusion, nouns may be human animate (e.g., teacher), non-human animate
(e.g., dog), or inanimate (e.g., postcard).
11
E. Count and Noncount Nouns
Let’s take a closer look at the noun hand. Notice that you can say the following:
the hand a hand hands
Here are some other nouns which demonstrate the same pattern:
the store a store stores
the idea an idea ideas
the tissue a tissue tissues
Let’s compare the noun hand to the noun furniture. As with hand, we can say the
furniture. But we can’t say *a furniture or *furnitures. Here are some other nouns which
demonstrate the same pattern as furniture:
the dust *a dust *dusts
the energy *an energy *energies
the biology *a biology *biologies
Thus, there are some nouns that can be counted, so we can use a or an with them
and can also make them plural. These nouns are called countable nouns or count
nouns. So, hand, store, idea, and tissue are countable nouns (count nouns).
There are other nouns that typically cannot be counted, so we do not use a or an
with them and do not typically make them plural. These nouns are called uncountable
nouns or noncount nouns. Another name for a noncount noun is a mass noun. So,
furniture, dust, energy, and biology are noncount nouns.
Well, you may say to yourself, ‘‘Wait a minute, I can count furniture. I can say
something like: three couches and three chairs make six pieces of furniture.’’ And of
course, you’d be right. But notice that in this sentence, the words: couch and chair can
be made plural, but not the word furniture. And the word piece can be made plural
becoming pieces, but, again, not the word furniture.
Note that a noun is considered to be a count noun if it can be made plural, even
if it’s not plural in a particular sentence. Thus, in the sentence: I ate a cookie, the word
cookie is a count noun because one could pluralize it into cookies without changing its
basic meaning.

12
Test yourself 7
For each of the underlined noun in the sentences below, indicate if it is count noun
(CN) or noncount (NC).
Sample: Her hairstyle (CN) clearly revealed her face.

1. The lights (__) of the city (__) twinkled.

2. I love eating rice (__).
3. His anger (__) was barely under control.
4. Her job (__) was rather demanding.
5. Many types of information (__) are available at the library (__).
6. The police (__) will be here in a moment.
7. He leaned on the handle (__) and cursed.
8. I was so thirsty, I needed three glasses (__) of water (__).
9. How much money (__) do you make in an hour (__)?
10. By 11 p.m., the train-station (__) was nearly empty.

There is also another good way to decide if a noun is count count (CN) or
noncount (NC). Take a look at the use of the words much and many in the following
sentences.
1. He has many children.
2. That man has many interests.
3. That will take too much time.
4. They have many lights on in the house.
5. We have much furniture in our store.
6. I wonder how much wealth is in Silicon Valley.
As you may have noticed, many is used with count nouns and much is used with
noncount nouns.

Quick tip 3
If you can use many with a noun (when it is pluralized), it is a count noun (CN).
If you can use much with a noun, it is a noncount noun (NC).

13
 Another way to distinguish count nouns from noncount nouns can also be done
using the following way:
7. He has fewer children than I do.
8. That man has fewer interests than he used to.
9. That will take less time than I thought.
10. They have fewer lights on in the house.
11. We have less furniture in our store.
12. I don’t have less money in my purse than you have.
As you have probably figured out from these examples, we use fewer with count
nouns and less with noncount nouns.

Quick tip 4
If you can use fewer with a noun (when it is pluralized), it is a count noun. If you
can use less with a noun, it is a noncount noun.

To enhance your understanding

Many nouns can be used as either count nouns or as noncount nouns, depending
on how they are being used in a specific sentence. Let’s look at the following sentence
containing the word sugar:
13. The sugar is spilling onto the floor.
In this sentence, is the word sugar being used as a count or noncount noun? Would you
say: The sugars are spilling onto the floor? or Many sugars are spilling onto the floor?
Probably not. So, sugar, in sentence 13 is a noncount noun.

Now take a look at another sentence with the word sugar:

14. This gourmet shop has sugars I’ve never even heard of.
In this sentence, is the word sugar being used as a count or noncount noun? First, notice
that the word sugar here is pluralized. Second, notice that you can say: This gourmet
shop has many sugars I’ve never even heard of. So, sugar, in sentence 14 is a count
noun. In terms of meaning, what is important here is that the sentence is talking about
different types of sugars, say for example: brown sugar, white sugar, etc.

14
And one more sentence type with the word sugar:
15. The sugar that works best in this recipe is brown sugar.
Here, the word sugar, which is not pluralized, could be pluralized when it refers to a
kind of sugar. For example, you could say: The sugars that work best in this recipe are
brown sugar and white sugar. For these reasons, sugar is being used here as a count
noun.

Here are some more examples of sentences with nouns which, like sugar, are
typically used as noncount nouns but can also be used as count nouns.
16a. I like to drink milk. (milk used as noncount noun)
16b. That store has milks with different kinds of flavouring: chocolate, vanilla,
mocha, and strawberry. (milks used as count noun)
16c. The milk that is the healthiest is non-fat milk. (milk used as count noun)
17a. A plentiful supply of water is important for a community’s survival. (water
used as noncount noun)
17b. There are different kinds of gourmet waters on the market these days.
(waters used as count noun)
17c. The water I usually order in restaurants is imported. (water used as count
noun)

15
F. Proper and Common Nouns
Do the following sentences look a little strange?
1. Mrs. smith took the 10th grade class of lincoln high school to france for a trip.
2. The class visited paris and was thrilled to see the eiffel tower.
Normally, we capitalize the first letter of nouns that are actual names, no matter
where they are in a sentence. Let’s look at the same sentences with the names
capitalized:
3. Mrs. Smith took the 10th grade class of Lincoln High School to France for a trip.
4. The class visited Paris and was thrilled to see the Eiffel Tower.
Nouns that are actual names are called proper nouns; nouns that are not names
are called common nouns. Notice that not only people have names: places (Rome),
companies (IBM), and books (Gone With The Wind), among others, can have names,
too.
Quick tip 5
Nouns that are actual names, for example Mary, London, are called proper nouns.
Nouns that are not names are called common nouns, e.g., girl, pen.
One way to identify a proper noun is to ask yourself: is this a noun I would capitalize,
no matter where it is in a sentence? If so, it is a proper noun.

Test yourself 8
For each noun below, determine if it is a proper noun or common noun.
Sample: England proper noun

1. Seattle _____________
2. Crater Lake National Park _____________
3. tissues _____________
4. sofa _____________
5. Pepsi Cola _____________
6. Mediterranean Sea _____________
7. Disneyland _____________
8. company _____________
9. British Broadcasting Company _____________
10. television _____________

16
 Chapter 2: THE BASICS OF COMPUTER HARDWARE

“Man is still the most extraordinary computer of all.”

John F. Kennedy, Jr.
The computer is very powerful and useful that it makes our life very convenient and
comfortable. They are used in scheduling airlines flight which makes ticket reservation so easy
and fast, not to mention accuracy and convenience. They are even used to predict or forecast
the weather conditions, making us well-informed about the incoming typhoon (or even a tidal
wave). Automated Teller Machines (ATM) are computers that allow us to withdraw cash
anytime and anywhere. Those are just a few benefits which we have enjoyed because of the
invention of computers. Imagine, living without computers, how lousy life could be.
But what the computer can really do? Why can they accomplish such incredible tasks?
The truth is, computers can do only four simple tasks: receive an input, process information,
produce output, and store information. The question here is, why can they accomplish such
tremendous tasks? The answer is: man made them so. Behind every computer’s power and
tremendous capabilities is an intelligent man. Man’s boundless creativity and brilliance are the
driving forces that power-up this computer; and they express it in terms of a program. A
program is a set of commands or instructions for a computer to follow. We usually call this
end-product: a software. This will be our topic in the next chapter. For this moment, we will
just limit and focus our discussions to the hardware aspects of computer.
Every computer system contains hardware components that are used for receiving
input, processing information, producing the output, and storing information. Let us start with
the input device. The most common input devices are keyboards, mouse, and joystick (used in
computer games). And the most common output devices are monitor (screen) and printer.
Let us go on to the microprocessor. The microprocessor is used in processing
information such as performing arithmetic computations and making decisions based on given
choices or alternatives. Technically speaking, the microprocessor is also called the central
processing unit (CPU) or the brain of the computer.
The most common storage devices that are used for storing information are floppy
diskettes, hard disks, CD-ROMS, DVD-ROMS, USB Flash Drive, and backup tapes.
Computer’s memory (both temporary or permanent storages) such as RAM (Random Access
Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are considered as storage devices (technically
speaking). It’s because they are capable of holding information temporarily (in the case of
RAM chips) and permanently (in the case of ROM chips). The computer is made of these major
components.

17
2.1 The Basic Sub-systems of a Computer System
The three basic sub-systems of a computer system are: the Central Processing Unit
(CPU), the Random-Access Memory (RAM), and the Storage Devices. Each sub-system
can be broken down into smaller systems, but these are the three major sub-systems of any
computer.

The CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The CPU is the component that processes instructions. It receives input from the
computer’s user, operates applications and the operating system, and processes data to
provide output to the user.
The CPU is also called microprocessor. It is considered as the brain of the
computer. The CPU interprets and carry out the instructions or commands in each program
or software. Moreover, it does arithmetic and logical data manipulations, and
communicates with all the other parts of the computer system. This may be the reason why
the microprocessor is considered as the brain, since it has these capabilities as though it
has a capability to think and decide on its own when given it is tasks, situations or
alternatives.
The speed of the microprocessor to perform its tasks is measured in units called
megahertz (MHz). So, a CPU with 300 MHz means its speed to accomplish a task is 300
MHz, and today’s computer runs in 2 GHz or more. We have to remember that mega is an
engineering term which means: million, while the term giga is an engineering term that
refers to a meaning of a billion. So, in other words, 2 GHz means two billion hertz. Many
software applications that use intensive graphics (such as pictures, images, and drawings)
and large number calculations (in over ten digits) require faster CPU speed.
The performance of the microprocessor is dictated mainly by its internal design, or
commonly known in computer engineering field as “architecture”, and the number of bits
of data it can process at any one time. For example, some microprocessor designs or
architectures are based on the complex instruction set computing (CISC). The computer
you own now is based on this microprocessor (unless you are holding a supercomputer
right this time which is impossible if not improbable), since IBM-compatible PCs are
designed with CISC. The other microprocessor architecture is called reduced instruction
set computing (RISC). Most of the UNIX-based computers (such as the high-end servers
and workstations) are RISC-powered and as well as other Apple Macintosh computers too.
Today’s Macintosh is powered by Intel Core 2 Dou and Quad Core microprocessor
18
technology, which means that the new breed of Macintosh computers is CISC
microprocessor designed.
Another microprocessor design technology is emerging in the present time (though
it is not a new idea, historically-speaking). Its hype is so overwhelming. It is popularly
known as parallel processing microprocessor design. This system has a multi-processing
capability. We have to remember also that the microprocessor’s architecture has the
biggest influence on how many transistors it has. And in microprocessor design, the more
transistors a microprocessor has, the faster and powerful it is.

The RAM and ROM

The RAM (Random-Access Memory) is the computer’s main memory. RAMs are
integrated circuits (IC) or chips that can be used to store program instructions and data
temporarily. The computer accesses information through this main memory randomly by
using a unique memory address number for each data stored. This unique address (memory
location) scheme is applied so that the computer would easily find where to retrieve the
data or information needed. Remember that the RAM is capable of holding millions of
data temporarily. In other words, to make it easier to search the data needed, the computer
uses this memory address scheme to locate it. RAM is a volatile type of memory, because
whatever we stored into it during the time we use it, the computer would vanish completely
once we turn off the computer’s switch.
The RAM has a tremendous impact on the speed, power and performance of your
PC. Generally speaking, the higher the bytes of RAM in your computer, the more it can
perform certain tasks faster and better. So, you better upgrade your computer’s RAM to
enjoy some higher speed and better performance. RAM provides the operating memory
for the computer. The more processes a computer needs to run at a single time, the more
RAM it needs.
The ROM (Read Only Memory) is a non-volatile type memory because the program
and data stored into it are permanent. Like RAM, the ROM is also a chip. The computer
can only read information or instructions from it, but it can never write or store any new
information or program on it. The ROM is used to check the basic sub-systems of the
computer hardware, in order to ensure that all basic parts are working and in good
condition. Otherwise, the ROM won’t let the computer to function. In short, the ROM
holds the instructions (programs or software, technically speaking - a firmware) that the
PC needs to operate.
19
The Storage Devices
Storage devices of computers refer to the hardware used to store digital data pre-
input or generated later within a computer. They can retain information temporarily (short-
term) or permanently (long-term). A storage device can also be called a storage media or
storage medium. A computer’s storage device permits it to permanently store files and
data. The hard drive is a common storage device that varies in capacity.
With the storage devices of computers, you can write data into them, carry data by
them, and read data through them. A storage device is one of the basic and necessary
components/elements of a computer (desktop, laptop, notebook, or tablet). Except for
hardware firmware, it contains almost all data and applications on a computer.
There are four types of computer storage devices, they are: primary, secondary,
tertiary, and offline storage devices.
Primary Storage, also called a prime memory, main memory or internal memory, is
often referred to as memory. It is the only directly accessible storage to the CPU, such as
RAM and ROM (Read-only Memory). The CPU continuously reads instructions saved in
the primary storage and executes them as required. All data actively operated on are also
saved there in a uniform manner.
Secondary storage, also called an external memory or auxiliary storage, differs from
the primary storage for its indirectly accessible by the CPU. Computers often rely on
input/output (I/O) channels to access the secondary storage and transfer the desired data to
the primary storage. Examples of secondary storage devices of computer are hard disk
drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs). The common secondary storage devices can
be further divided into internal and external storage devices of computer according to their
location, inside or outside of computers or servers. And, external storage devices are also
called portable computer storage devices.
Tertiary storage, also called tertiary memory, is a level below the secondary storage.
Typically, it involves a robotic mechanism that mounts and dismounts removable storage
media into computer storage devices under the system requirements. Such kind of data is
usually copied to the secondary storage before being used. The tertiary storage is mainly
used for archiving rarely accessed data and it is much slower than the secondary storage.
The tertiary storage is primarily used for extraordinarily large data storage like tape
libraries or optical jukeboxes, accessed without human intervention. Thus, tertiary storage
is also known as nearline storage. Magnetic tape, magnetic card and CD/DVD, for
example, are all tertiary storage.
20
 Offline storage is a kind of computer digital data storage on a media that isn’t
controlled by the CPU. The media is usually recorded as a secondary or tertiary storage
device and be physically removed or disconnected from its attached computer. To access
it again, you must insert or connect it to your computer. Offline storage devices are usually
used to data transfer and long-term data storage, and are also called disconnected or
removable computer storage devices. Some examples are floppy disk, magnetic tape, CD
and DVD.

2.2 The Computer Peripherals

The computer peripherals are devices. A peripheral device is any hardware device
that is not a part of the computer’s central processing unit (CPU) or motherboard. It does
not contribute to the primary function of a computer system, but it helps users access and
use the additional functionalities of that device associating with the computer.
Peripheral devices are connected to the motherboard through various expansion slots
or via serial ports on the back or front of the chassis. Since they are not essential to the
function of the computer, the computer can still operate without them.
The peripheral device is a device that either enters information into a computer
system or receives information from the computer system. It receives data and commands
from the user, processes the data according to the given commands, presents the processed
data to the user, and stores or prints the processed data if the user gives a command to save
or print.

Types of Peripheral Devices of Computers

Peripheral devices of computers are classified mainly into five types. These types
are Input devices, Output devices, Storage peripheral devices, Internal peripheral devices,
and External peripheral devices.
An input device inserts data or commands into the computer system. Keyboard,
Mouse, Joystick, Trackball, Digital Camera, Scanner, Barcode Reader, Digital Pen,
Webcam, OCR (Optical Character Recognition), Biometric Machine, and Microphone, are
some examples of input devices.
An output device receives the processed data from the computer system and presents
that data to the user. Monitor, Printer, Speakers, Plotter, Headphone, Multimedia and
Screen Projector, Sound Card, Video Card, GPS, and Speech Synthesizer are some
examples of output devices.
21
 Storage peripheral devices store data. Hard drive, Pen drive, and SSDs are some
examples of storage peripheral devices.
Internal peripheral devices are connected to the PC motherboard. Memory and Video
Cards are examples of internal peripheral devices.
External peripheral devices are associated with the computer with cables. Keyboard,
Mouse, Printer, and Scanner are some examples of external peripheral devices.

2.3 Input, Output, and Storage Devices

Input devices as well as output devices are a necessity in order to ensure that data is
entered into a computer to be processed and the results are given in the form of output or
information. Such data and information need to be stored to eliminate re-entry and/or
reprocessing.

The Input Devices

An input device is a peripheral which accepts data and sends it to the CPU. Data
presented to an input device has to be in the right form for the device, e.g., a bar-code
reader will only read bar codes. The input device converts the data into the computer's own
internal code before sending it to the CPU.
The most common types of input devices are: Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick, Scanner,
Bar code, Light Pen, Touch Screen, Digital Camera, Speech Input Device, and Webcam.
Keyboard is a text base input device that allows the user to input alphabets, numbers
and other characters. It consists of a set of keys mounted on a board. The computer
keyboard is similar to typing on a typewriter’s keyboard. Whatever you typed from the
keyboard will be displayed into the screen or monitor at the position of the blinking cursor.
The cursor is the current position indicator.
Mouse is a small device used to point to a particular place on the screen and select
in order to perform one or more actions. It can be used to select menu commands, size
windows, start programs etc. The mouse is a pointing device that is designed to move a
big arrow pointer around the screen and point to a specific character or object. The most
conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top: the left one being used most
frequently.
Joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction the stick is
moved. It typically has a button on top that is used to select the option pointed by the

22
cursor. Joystick is used as an input device primarily used with video games, training
simulators and controlling robots.
Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry from the source document into
the computer system. It converts the document image into digital form so that it can be fed
into the computer. Capturing information like this reduces the possibility of errors typically
experienced during large data entry. A scanner can convert photographs, drawings, charts,
and other printed information into bit patterns which can be saved or stored in a computer’s
storage device or main memory. This stored information can be manipulated, revised,
modified or changed by the user using a special type of software. Hand-held scanners are
commonly seen in big stores to scan codes and price information for each of the items.
A bar code is a set of lines of different thicknesses that represent a number. Bar Code
Readers are used to input data from bar codes. Most products in shops have bar codes on
them. Bar code readers work by shining a beam of light on the lines that make up the bar
code and detecting the amount of light that is reflected back. The bar code readers use light
rays to read a product code for the purpose of easy inventory and monitoring of product
movements and status. In well-established stores, bar code readers are attached to the POS
(Point-of-Sale) machines or to the ECR (Electronic Cash Register) machines. POS
machines resemble like the ECR, but it is 100 percent computer since all the basic parts
and features of Personal computer (PC) can be found on it.
Light pen is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is quite
like the mouse (in its functionality) but uses a light pen to move the pointer and select any
object on the screen by pointing to the object. Users of Computer Aided Design (CAD)
applications commonly use the light pens to directly draw on screen. The light pen can be
used on personal digital assistants (PDA), handheld-computers, or tablet PCs, for
inputting data. The other term for pen is a stylus. To use the light pen, we have to hold the
pen and write it on a special pad or directly on the PDA’s screen or on the screen of the
tablet PC. Because of the reason that human’s handwriting is so difficult to recognize,
light-pen-based computers or PDAs are not used to input large amounts of data or text,
instead it is used frequently to take short notes or messages. It is also used for data
collection, where the touch of a light pen might place a check in a check box or a dot on a
radio button to indicate a product to be ordered or a service that has been requested by a
customer.
Touch screen allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the
display screen. Common examples of touch screen include information kiosks, and bank
23
ATMs. The touch screen can respond when the user points to or touches a particular part
of the screen regions. This touch screen is commonly used in a well-established malls,
airports, and libraries. Another example of touch screen device is: touch tablet. The touch
tablet is used by designers, engineers, artists, and many more. They use it for drawing or
designing a particular object.
A digital camera looks like an ordinary camera that we are using in taking pictures
to preserve a treasured memories and special moments in our lives. However, a digital
camera is not limited to capturing printed images; it can capture snapshots of the real
images. Instead of capturing images or pictures on the film, a digital camera stores bit
patterns on disks or other digital storage devices. A digital camera can store many more
pictures than an ordinary camera. Pictures taken using a digital camera are stored inside
its memory and can be transferred to a computer by connecting the camera to it. A digital
camera takes pictures by converting the light passing through the lens at the front into a
digital image.
A microphone is a speech input device used to record speech. This is really important
in multimedia application when the presentation can benefit from the narration of the user.
With the microphone or a headset microphone with an earphone, we can use computer to
make telephone calls or use it in video-conferencing over the Internet. By using audio
recording software packaged with Windows Operating System (OS), we can record our
voice and save it on a disk or flash drive. We can incorporate it in our multimedia
presentation, embedded in Web pages or send it through e-mails. To operate a speech input
device, we require using a microphone to talk to the computer. Also, we need to add a
sound card to the computer. The Sound card digitizes audio input into 0/1s. A speech
recognition program can process the input and convert it into machine-recognized
commands or input.
Webcam is used when people want to their relatives, friends and acquaintances in a
distant place while chatting with them using the Internet. A webcam is a small camera
which images can be accessed through the Internet, instant messaging, or in video
conferencing. This webcam is attached to our desktop computer or already built-in in our
laptop computer.
Another example of input device is audio digitizer. An audio digitizer contains
circuitry to digitize sounds from microphones and can be stored into a computer’s main
memory or storage device. Once it was stored, it can be modified, manipulated or enhanced
through the use of a special type of software. There are also other input devices such as
24
sensing devices which are designed specifically to monitor temperature, pressure, and
humidity. The data provided by these sensing devices is used in scientific research and
application, robotics, medical monitoring, weather forecasting, and environmental climate
control.

The Output Devices

One of the most important output devices in a computer system is its screen which
is commonly called monitor. It is an output device which displays all the programs and
applications which are running on the computer system.
The most common types of output devices are: Monitor, LCD (Liquid Crystal
Display), Printer, Plotter, and Audio Output: Sound Cards and Speakers.
Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen and uses a Cathode
Ray Tube (CRT) to display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for
manual input of characters and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays
the program or application output. Like the television, monitors are also available in
different sizes.
LCD was introduced in the 1970s and is now applied to display terminals also. Its
advantages like low energy consumption, smaller and lighter have paved its way for usage
in portable computers (laptops).
Printer is used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on
the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers. Impact
printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper
through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under
this category. Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use
chemical, heat or electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser,
Thermal printers fall under this category of printers. When we talk about printers, we refer
to two basic qualities associated with printers: resolution, and speed. Print resolution is
measured in terms of number of dots per inch (dpi). Print speed is measured in terms of
number of characters printed in a unit of time and is represented as characters-per-second
(cps), lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute (ppm).
Plotter is used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands
and makes line drawings on paper using multi-coloured automated pens. It is capable of
producing graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc. Computer Aided Engineering (CAE)

25
applications like CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAM (Computer Aided
Manufacturing) are typical usage areas for plotters.
Audio output is an output device that produces output sound. Two components of
audio output are needed to produce output sound, they are: Sound card functioning to play
the contents of digitized recordings and Speakers which are attached to the sound card.

The Storage Devices

A storage device is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the
information and instructions to be processed. A storage device is an integral part of the
computer hardware which stores information/data to process the result of any
computational work. Without a storage device, a computer would not be able to run or
even boot up. Or in other words, we can say that a storage device is hardware that is used
for storing, porting, or extracting data files. The storage device can also store
information/data both temporarily and permanently.
Computer storage devices are mainly classified into two main types, they are:
Primary Storage Devices and Secondary Storage Devices. These two storage devices have
their own specification and use. Some of the commonly used storage devices are:
1. Primary storage devices are usually in the forms of RAM (Random-Access Memory)
and ROM (Read-Only Memory).
2. Magnetic Storage Devices are usually in the forms of Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, Magnetic
Card, Tape Cassette, and Super Disk.
3. Flash memory Devices are usually in the forms of Pen Drive, SSD, SD Card, Memory
Card, and Multimedia Card.
4. Optical Storage Devices are usually in the forms of CD, DVD, and Blu-ray Disc.
5. Cloud and Virtual Storage are secondary memory devices which nowadays have been
upgraded to virtual or cloud storage devices. Therefore, people can now store their files
and other stuff in the cloud and the data are stored for as long as they pay for the cloud
storage. There are many companies that provide cloud services largely, e.g., Google,
Amazon, Microsoft, etc. People can pay the rent for the amount of space they need and
they get multiple benefits out of it. Though it is actually being stored in a physical
device located in the data centers of the service provider, the user doesn’t interact with
the physical device and its maintenance. These sorts of innovations represent the
frontier of where storage media goes.

26
2.4 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH PRONOUNS

PRONOUNS
As Melissa entered the door of the dimly lit Cathedral, Melissa held tightly to
Melissa’s backpack. Suddenly, Melissa thought that Melissa saw a shadow moving. ‘‘This
is scary,’’ whispered Melissa to Melissa.
What is strange about the sentences in the above text? What is strange is that the
sentences are missing pronouns ─ words that replace nouns in a sentence. You’ll
probably agree that these next sentences are a better improvement on the first version:
As Melissa entered the door of the dimly lit Cathedral, she held tightly to her
backpack. Suddenly, she thought that she saw a shadow moving. ‘‘This is scary,’’
whispered Melissa to herself.
We may never find out what happens to Melissa, but replacing Melissa with
pronouns like she and her makes her more appropriate.
As far as pronouns go, there is bad news and there is good news. The bad news is
that there are a number of different kinds of pronouns. The good news is that there are only
a few pronouns of each type. Look at the pronouns themselves and get a feel for the kinds
of words they are. Some of the types may have long labels, but the pronouns themselves
are usually short words.

A. SUBJECT & OBJECT PRONOUNS

Subject pronouns
Let’s look at the following sentences:
1a. Diplomats travel more often.
1b. They travel more often.
2a. Professor Susan Fields chaired the meeting.
2b. She chaired the meeting.
3a. Ben plays games every week.
3b. He plays cards every week.
Notice that in each sentence pair above, the underlined pronoun replaces the
underlined noun. The underlined noun is doing the action in the sentence and comes
before the verb. This kind of noun is called the subject of the sentence and the pronoun
that replaces it is called a subject pronoun.
27
Now let’s examine these sentences:
4a. Biology is her favourite subject.
4b. It is her favourite subject.
5a. Bob seems happy.
5b. He seems happy.
6a. Mrs. Peters becomes restless easily.
6b. She becomes restless easily.
Notice again that in each sentence pair, the underlined pronoun replaces the
underlined noun. Here, the underlined nouns come before linking verbs; although they
are not performing an action, they are still considered to be subjects. Again, the
pronoun that replaces the subject is a subject pronoun.
There are only seven subject pronouns in English; they are listed in Quick tip 1
below.

Quick tip 1
The subject pronouns are: I, you, he, she, it, we, and they.

Test yourself 1
Underline the subject pronouns in each sentence below.
Sample: We wandered around the town, looking for a place to have lunch.

1. I crossed the piazza and headed towards the church.

2. Unfortunately, it was closed.
3. They simply stood there, waiting for me.
4. Yesterday, she went shopping.
5. We should get together sometime.
6. He is the grandson of an immigrant from Italy.
7. We often dream about important things.
8. You have been to their house for dinner.
9. They often have interesting discussions.
10. Last night they drove to San Francisco.

28
Object pronouns
7a. Kathy bought the red car.
7b. Kathy bought it.
8a. The prize was given to Steve and Bill.
8b. The prize was given to them.
9a. I’m watching the baby.
9b. I’m watching her.
The underlined nouns in the sentences above are not subjects, but they are
objects and they either follow the main verb or they follow a preposition. Pronouns
that replace objects, like those underlined in sentences 7b, 8b, and 9b above, are called
object pronouns.
There are only seven object pronouns in English; they are listed in Quick tip 2
below.

Quick tip 2
The object pronouns are: me, you, her, him, it, us, and them.
You can see that there are two pronouns, you and it, which are particularly
hardworking, they can function as either subject or object pronouns.

Test yourself 2
Underline the object pronouns in each of the sentences below.
There may be more than one pronoun in a sentence.
Sample: Churchill called them to a meeting.

1. Mary heard him.

2. The detective watched us suspiciously.
3. Stop bothering me!
4. Steven sat down between him and her.
5. Do the students understand it?
6. My friends have never heard of them.
7. Barry gave her a present.
8. Harry’s cousin lives near them.
9. Most competitors were envious of him.
10. A strange man is standing next to you and me.
29
Test yourself 3
Underline the pronouns in each of the sentences below. Identify each pronoun whether
it is a subject pronoun or an object pronoun. Keep in mind that the pronouns you and
it can be either subject or object pronouns, depending on how they are being used.
There may be more than one pronoun in a sentence.
Sample: You really did it right. (Subject; Object)
1. The clerk had been sent to work with him. ( ______________ )
2. The research required them to work closely together. ( ______________ )
3. It is brighter than that other lamp. ( ______________ )
4. If you know the answer, please tell me. ( ______________ )
5. We will be moving near you. ( ______________ )
6. They were hiding in the bushes. ( ______________ )
7. I am giving it to you. ( ______________ )
8. He went too far this time. ( ______________ )
9. Theresa’s parents worried about her. ( ______________ )
10. She hears from him often. ( ______________ )
You know that when you are talking about yourself, you use the pronouns I or
me, and when you are talking about a group of people, you use the pronouns they or
them. Therefore, we choose different pronouns depending on the person or thing the
pronouns replace. Pronouns that vary in this way are called personal pronouns.
Subject and object pronouns are types of personal pronouns.
Personal pronouns that replace the speaker in a conversation, like I and we, are
called first person pronouns. Those that replace the listener, like you, are called
second person pronouns. And those that replace anyone or anything else, like he, she,
it or they, are called third person pronouns.
In addition, pronouns that replace only one person or thing, like I and he, are
called singular pronouns; those that replace more than one person or thing, like we
and they, are called plural pronouns.
Here is a complete breakdown of the subject and object pronouns:
Subject Object
First person singular I me
Second person singular you you
Third person singular he, she, it him, her, it
First person plural we us
Second person plural you you
Third person plural they them

30
B. REFEXIVE PRONOUNS
Do the following sentences seem strange to you?
1. John Smith saw John Smith in the mirror.
2. My friends were talking among my friends.
3. Sam’s cat was taking care of Sam’s cat.
The above sentences are strange because they are missing reflexive pronouns -
those pronouns that end in -self or -selves. As you can see from the sentences below,
we use reflexive pronouns whenever we refer to the same person or thing more than
once in the same basic or main sentence. Sentences 1- 3 should be stated like this:
4. John Smith saw himself in the mirror.
5. My best friends were talking among themselves.
6. Sam’s cat was taking care of herself.
Here are some more examples, first without and then with a reflexive pronoun.
7a. The boy washed the boy.
7b. The boy washed himself.
8a. Tom and Harry watched Tom and Harry on the video.
8b. Tom and Harry watched themselves on the video.
9a. You can see you doing that.
9b. You can see yourself doing that.
Notice that if we hear, for example, The boy washed the boy, without a reflexive
pronoun, then we assume that someone is talking about two different boys. Similarly,
the sentence He shaved him suggests that the person (a male) who did the shaving and
the person (a male) who received the shaving are not the same. The reflexive pronoun
lets the listener know that the speaker is referring to the same person or thing.
Quick tip 1 below lists the reflexive pronouns. They are easy to identify because
they all end in -self or -selves (Quick tip 2).

Quick tip 1
The reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, and themselves.

Quick tip 2
All the reflexive pronouns end in -self (singular) or -selves (plural).

31
Test yourself 1
Underline the reflexive pronouns in each of the sentences below.
Sample: That computer is so smart, it can repair itself.

1. John was a person who always pushed himself to the limit.

2. Watch yourself!
3. We prided ourselves on being silly.
4. The directors of that company can blame no one but themselves.
5. I see myself as a successful writer someday.
6. All of you should be ashamed of yourselves!
7. Rosanna treated herself to a lavish vacation.
8. I wish my car started itself in the dead of winter.
9. Would everyone in the room please identify himself?
10. You should take better care of yourself!

Test yourself 2
Underline the reflexive, subject, and object pronouns in each of the sentences below.
Label each as reflexive, subject, or object. Some sentences will have more than one
pronoun.
Sample: Greta’s persistence benefitted both herself and the rest of the staff.
(reflexive).

1. I have found that I can do it when the room is quiet.

2. He noticed that she often immersed herself in a book.
3. We have known her for years.
4. Some guests told us that they forced themselves to get up at 6 A.M.
5. You don’t need to explain yourself tome.
6. Mr. Ballantine said that he appreciated us.
7. If you want to leave, please let me know.
8. Who among us wants to commit himself to another year of service?
9. Jay’s wife promised herself never to do it again.
10. Reflexive pronouns are easy to identify, don’t you agree?

32
C. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
Do you remember the underlined words in the sentences below?
1. Are you sure you want this?
2. We agreed about that.
3. I’m not sure I like these.
4. Those look delicious.
When we use demonstratives before a noun, for example: this dog, that idea,
these songs, and those curtains, that means that we use demonstratives as determiners.
But demonstratives can also be used without a noun following them, as you can see
them in the sentences 1- 4 above. In those cases, each demonstrative replaces a noun
(or noun phrase), it is called a demonstrative pronoun. For example, in sentence 1, the
demonstrative pronoun this can be replacing a noun such as spaghetti or magazine.
It’s easy to remember demonstrative pronouns because there are only four of
them and they are listed in Quick tip 1 below.

Quick tip 1
There are only four demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, and those.
It might help you remember the word ‘‘demonstrative’’ if you think of this word
as ‘demonstrating’ something, that is pointing to something.

Test yourself 1
Underline the demonstrative pronoun in each of the sentences below.
Sample: Lenny wasn’t sure he really wanted those.

1. That wasn’t really Hannah’s job, but I appreciate her doing it anyway.
2. Natasha really likes these.
3. He wasn’t good at riddles but managed to solve those.
4. I never thought it would come to this.
5. These are very difficult times.
6. Those were the good old days.
7. Sean thought he would never see that.
8. This is absolutely unacceptable.
9. Mrs. Wallace would rather buy these.
10. That is the funniest thing I’ve ever seen.
33
D. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
You will not be surprised to learn that possessive pronouns are pronouns that
indicate possession or ownership. Some possessive pronouns are underlined here:
1. Mr. Smith explained his ideas to the audience.
2. I wish I could attend their invitation.
3. That suitcase isn’t mine.
4. Yours was the best essay in the class.
If you look closely at sentences 1-4 above, you’ll notice that the possessive
pronouns in sentences 1- 4 fall into two groups. The ones in sentences 1 and 2 are
followed by a noun: his ideas, their invitation. The ones in sentences 3 and 4 are not
followed by a noun; but they stand on their own in the sentence. We will talk about
each kind separately.
The possessive pronouns in sentences 1 and 2 may look familiar to you. Like
articles (a, an, the), possessive pronouns which function as determiners can occur in
the slot _____ house (for example, his house, our house, your house). Since they
function as determiners, you can understand why they are followed by a noun. These
determiners are called determiner possessive pronouns. We repeat them here: my,
your, his, her, its, our, and their.

Test yourself 1
Underline the determiner possessive pronoun in each of the sentences below.
Remember: Determiner possessive pronouns are followed by nouns.
Sample: Many of your ideas were absurd.

1. The woman hid her feelings well.

2. He was younger than his wife.
3. Mr. and Mrs. Bradford adored their son.
4. Thomas and Natalie were the best students in my class.
5. Your eyes look very tired.
6. The salesman’s car does not show its age.
7. We should just pack up our things and get out of here.
8. I took a look at your face and I knew immediately that you were honest.
9. My daughter is very good about brushing her teeth regularly.
10. Gamblers are secretive about their losses.
34
 The possessive pronouns in sentences 3 and 4 are the kind of possessive
pronouns that can stand alone in a sentence. Here are some more examples:
5. Their tent was broken in the storm but ours remained secure.
6. Yours was the first card I noticed.
7. The scientist hurried from that laboratory to mine.
These possessive pronouns replace a whole noun (actually, a whole noun phrase,
but we haven’t gotten to that yet). And since the word nominal means ‘noun-like’, so
these pronouns are sometimes called possessive pronouns with nominal function.
Therefore, we will simply call them nominal possessive pronouns.

Quick tip 1
Nominal possessive pronouns replace a whole noun (or noun phrase). For example,
instead of saying That book is Sally’s book, we can simply say: That book is hers.
The nominal possessive pronouns are: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
Notice that the pronouns his and its can function either as determiner possessive
pronouns or nominal possessive pronouns.

To enhance your understanding

Don’t confuse possessive pronouns with contracted pronouns:
8a. It’s (= It is) a wonderful day. (Contracted pronoun)
8b. Its positives outweigh its negatives. (Determiner possessive pronoun)
9a. You’re (= You are) absolutely right. (Contracted pronoun)
9b. Your shoelaces are untied. (Determiner possessive pronoun)
10a. They’re (= They are) leaving. (Contracted pronoun)
10b. Their leaving early was unexpected. (Determiner possessive pronoun)
As you can see, the contracted pronoun is always written with an apostrophe.

Test yourself 2
Underline the nominal possessive pronoun in each of the sentences below.
Sample: Pete and Cathy are convinced that the idea was theirs.
1. The rattlesnake is his.
2. The mother needs her nourishment and the baby needs hers also.
3. Yours is the room on the left.
4. The computer on the table is mine.
5. Ours is the next house on the block.

35
E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
What do you notice about the underlined words in the following sentences?
1. Who went first?
2. What was the man carrying?
3. Which did you buy?
You undoubtedly recognize them as question words. They are called
interrogative pronouns; we list them in Quick tip 1 below.

Quick tip 1
Interrogative pronouns are question words. The interrogative pronouns are: how,
what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why. Look for the question mark to
help find them.

You may be wondering why these are considered to be pronouns. Like other
pronouns, interrogative pronouns represent something else, often a noun. They
represent missing information -- the information that is the answer to a question:
4a. Who went first?
4b. Harry went first.
5a. What was the man carrying?
5b. The man was carrying a camera.
6a. Which did you buy?
6b. I bought the red car.
Since, when we ask a question, we don’t yet know what the answer will be, so
we have no choice but to use a question word, or interrogative pronoun, to represent
the information we are asking about.

To enhance your understanding

Don’t confuse the following – they sound the same:
7a. Who’s (= Who is) there?
7b. Whose party are we going to?

36
Test yourself 1
Underline the interrogative pronoun in each of the sentences below.
Sample: Why is his approach so exciting?
1. To whom did you send the package?
2. Whose is it?
3. What can the producer do about it?
4. How can I believe you are telling the truth?
5. Where have you been?
6. When did you come home last night?
7. Why is it so dark in this room?
8. Which do you prefer?
9. Who gave you permission to open that box?
10. From whom did you get this call?

To further enhance your understanding

As we discussed before that interrogatives function as pronouns – they replace
nouns.
Note, however, that some interrogatives can also function as determiners – they
can precede a noun. You can see this in the examples below:
8. Which book did you read last?
9. Whose purse is on the table?
10. What name did they choose for their baby?

Test yourself 2
Underline the pronouns in each of the sentences below. Don’t worry about what kind
of pronoun it is. Some sentences will have more than one pronoun.
Sample: What will they buy at his store?
1. You keep hurting yourself when you go skiing.
2. We should get it to them as soon as possible.
3. Who was Bill thinking of sending them to?
4. She has a great opportunity to advance herself in her company.
5. When will your great novel be finished?
6. Our hope is that one day we will find ourselves living it up in style.
7. That will never happen under his watch.
8. Her determination gave her the impetus to improve herself.
9. Where are those new shirts you bought yourself yesterday?
10. Our ball club prides itself on its ability to win most of our games.
37
F. RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Here are some sentences with interrogative pronouns, like the ones you’ve
already seen previously.
The interrogative pronouns are underlined.
1. Who was laughing?
2. Whose is this?
Now look at the following sentences, which contain the same underlined words.
How are these sentences different from sentences 1 and 2?
3. I like the woman who lives next door.
4. He’s the engineer whose life was disrupted by a messy divorce.
You have probably noticed that, unlike sentences 1 and 2 above, sentences 3 and
4 are not questions.
The same pronouns are being used, but not to ask a question. Instead, these
pronouns which are used in sentences 3 and 4 are functioning to replace a noun that
is already mentioned earlier in the sentence. When used this way, these pronouns are
called relative pronouns. They are listed in Quick tip 1 below.

Quick tip 1
The most common relative pronouns are: that, which, who, whom, and whose. They
refer back to a noun in the sentence.

Test yourself 1
Underline the relative pronoun in each of the sentences below.
Sample: The prominent oil man who bought that house is not a generous man.
1. John’s is the essay that was the most well-written.
2. His wife was the woman whom he loved the most.
3. There is no one who can make me laugh more than you.
4. Danny bought a gift which appealed to him.
5. Last week I met the man whose cousin married my friend.
6. In general, Sharon is nice to people whom she meets.
7. I will stand on the line which is shorter.
8. The person who leaves last should turn the lights off.
9. She saw the journey which she had undertaken stretch out before her.
10. Anna leaves a good impression on employers who interview her.
38
Now let’s look at sentences 3 and 4 above more closely.
3. I like the woman who lives next door.
In this sentence, who lives next door? The answer is: the woman. So instead of
saying something like: I like the woman. The woman lives next door, we replace the
second occurrence of the woman with the pronoun who, giving us the sentence: I like
the woman who lives next door. In fact, the word who is doing two things: it is
representing the woman and it is joining lives next door to the main part of the
sentence.
4. He is the engineer whose life was disrupted by a messy divorce.
In this sentence, whose life was disrupted by a messy divorce? The answer is:
the engineer’s life. So instead of saying something like: He is the engineer. The
engineer’s life was disrupted by a messy divorce, we replace the second occurrence of
the engineer (actually, in this case, the engineer’s) with the relative pronoun whose,
giving us the sentence: He is the engineer whose life was disrupted by a messy divorce.
Again, the word whose is doing two things: it is representing the engineer and it is
joining life was disrupted by a messy divorce to the main part of the sentence.

In the following sentence, what was broken?

5. Sam fixed the computer that was broken.
The answer is: the computer. So, instead of saying something like: Sam fixed the
computer. The computer was broken, we replace the second occurrence of the
computer with the pronoun that, giving us the sentence: Sam fixed the computer that
was broken. Again, the word that is doing two things: it’s representing the computer
and it’s joining was broken to the main part of the sentence.

39
 Chapter 3: THE BASICS OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

“Power comes not from knowledge kept, but from knowledge shared.”
Bill Gates

A computer software is a program. A software is a program that drives the hardware (the
computer) to do amazing things. Without a software, a computer is just a box, it is nothing and
just a lifeless box. Software truly brings the computer to life. Basically, the software enables a
computer to perform specialized task. In other words, the software contains a set of instructions
for a computer to follow willingly, like a servant following his or her master’s commands.
Generally, the software is categorized into two. The first one is the system software, and the
second one is the application software.

3.1 Introduction to Computer Software

The computer software can be meant as the language of the computer and it can also
be considered as a set of instructions or programs that are used to execute any particular
task. The computer software can also be said to be the variable part of the computer system
while the hardware can be said as an invariable part of the computer system.

3.2 Types of Computer Software

Basically, there are three types of computer software, they are: System software,
Application software, and Programming language software.

3.2.1 System Software

The system software is the software that runs the computer by activating,
controlling, and coordinating the hardware. The system software is a type of computer
software that is designed for running the computer hardware parts and the application
programs. The system software acts as a middle layer between the user applications and
hardware. Some examples of system software are as follows:
A. Operating System
The most relevant example of system software is an operating system. It is an
interface connecting the users to the computer hardware. Linux, Windows, Edge,
etc. are a few famous operating systems that people usually use. The operating
system is used to manage all other programs installed on the computer.

40
B. BIOS
A basic input-output system is part of Read-Only Memory or flash memory.
The first software that users activate at their computer is BIOS because it loads the
drivers to assist storage of operating systems. It has a set of commands to make the
devices perform effectively.
The starting up of a device refers to boot, the ROM commands automatic
execution of loading boot in memory once the device starts.

C. Device driver
Device driver is responsible for controlling computer hardware by providing
an interface. The kernel uses this software to communicate with the processor. The
operating systems usually have these drivers to work with hardware systems.

D. Assembler
Assembler is a language program with input being an assembly and output
being an object. The programmer has a basic interpretation machine that uses
hardware for fundamental instructions. It uses machine language to get machine
memory in place.

E. Compiler
Compiler is a system software that takes care of high-level languages by
accepting the source program and producing a corresponding object program. An
interpreter is a program responsible for executing a source program. FORTRAN,
COBOL, etc. may designate to a compiler and its associated language.

F. Loader
Loader is a system software responsible for loading the program and executing
it is a loader. Absolute, relocating, and direct-linking are some of the loading
schemes. The assembler outputs the program to the device and the loader executes
it. This is a smaller program compared to the assembler.
Some features of system software are: They are very close to the system, they
have a very fast speed, they are difficult to design and understand, they are less
interactive, they have small size, they are hard to manipulate, and they usually use
low-level language.
41
3.2.2 Application Software
Application software is a type of software that is used for specific tasks related to
user’s needs and their ease. Unlike system software, a computer doesn’t need
application software to function. The users can install and uninstall this software
according to their needs. They may have only one program or a collection according to
tasks.
Application software is designed for the users to perform some specific tasks like
writing a letter, listening to music, or seeing any video. For doing all these tasks, a
specific software is required for each type of task and the specific software that is
designed for a specific purpose is known as application software. The operating
software runs the application software in the computer system.
The difference between system software and application software is the
difference in the user interface. In system software, there is no user interface present
whereas in application software the user interface is present for each software so that
users can easily use the software. The user cannot see the system software like an
operating system and cannot work in system software but in an application, software
users can see the application software using a graphical user interface and can also work
in the application software. The user also has an option to create its user-written
software and use the software for its personal use.
The templates are present which can be used by the user to create user-written
programs. The application software can be bundled together and that bundle is known
as an application suite. An example of an application suite is Microsoft Office. The
word processor software is designed by combining various small program to make one
single program which can be used for writing text, creating a spreadsheet or creating
presentations. The other type of application software is Mozilla Firefox, internet
explorer. These kinds of application software can be used for searching any article, text
on the web and interact with the outside world. Some examples of application software
types are as follows:

1. Word Processing Software

This word processing software is used for creating editable documents that
users can keep going back to. They can add textual content or edit the existing one
when necessary. Other than this, multiple other features are depending on the
particular application. Some examples are: Ms Word, Google Docs, WordPad, etc.
42
2. Spreadsheet Software
This spreadsheet software is used for making spreadsheets dealing with
information/data. It has grids and columns to tabulate all the data properly making it
easy for the user to maintain records. It enables data processing of even larger files.
There is an option to calculate using different formulas as well. Some examples are:
Ms Excel, Google Sheets, etc.

3. Multimedia Software
This multimedia software is used for editing videos, audios, and texts and
allows users to combine all of them as well. They can improve their documents with
interesting visuals and sounds using multimedia software. Some examples are: VLC
player, Premier Pro, Window Media Player, etc.

4. Enterprise Software
This enterprise software is used for particular business functions when the
organizations have multiple tasks to take care of regularly. This may be for
accounting, billing, inventory management, web traffic analysis, etc. Some examples
are: Mailchimp, Google analytics, customer support system, etc.
Some features of application software are as follows:
• Closer to the user.
• Easy to design and understand.
• Interactive.
• Have a slow speed.
• Usually use high-level language.
• Easy to manipulate and use.
• Need large storage space in a device.

43
3.2.3 Programming Language Software
Programming language software is the third category of computer software which
is used by the programmers to write their programs, scripts, and instructions which can
be executed by a computer. This programming language software can also be used for
writing other programs by translating programming languages into machine language.
The developers use them to create, debug, and maintain applications.
The other name of the programming language software is a computer language
that can be used to create some common standards. The programming language
software can be considered as a brick which can be used to construct computer
programs and operating system. The examples of programming languages are: JAVA,
C, C++, and other programming languages.
There is always similarity among the programming languages. The only
difference is the syntax of programming language which makes them different. The
programmer uses the syntax and rules of programming language to write their
programs. Once the source code is written by a programmer in the IDE (Integrated
Development Environment) the programmer then compiles that code in machine
language which can be understood by the computer. The use of programming language
is in developing websites, applications, and many other programs.
The programming language can be broadly divided into two major elements
syntax and semantics. The programming language follows some sequence of operations
so that the desired output can be achieved. The programming language is also known
as high-level language as the programs written by a programmer are easy to read and
easy to understand. The JAVA, C, C++ programming languages are considered as high-
level language. The other category of a programming language is a low-level language.
The low level of language includes machine language and assembly language.
The assembly language contains a list of instructions that are not easy to read and
understand. The machine language contains binary codes that can be read by CPU
directly and not present in a human-readable form. The low level of language can be
directly understood by computer hardware.

44
3.3 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH VERBS

Identifying Verbs
What are verbs? Verbs are words that usually express actions. Here are two easy
ways to identify a verb; you can use either one.

Quick tip 1
If a word can have should in front of it and the phrase sounds complete, the word is
a verb.
Examples: should leave, should sail, should discover, should complain.
So, the words: Leave, sail, discover, and complain are all verbs.

Quick tip 2
If a word can have to in front of it and the phrase sounds complete, it is a verb.
Examples: to leave, to sail, to discover, to complain.
So, the words: Leave, sail, discover, and complain are all verbs.

Here are some examples of verbs. You can see that they all meet the test with should
and the test with to.
go : should go to go
tell : should tell to tell
disagree : should disagree to disagree
spell : should spell to spell
In contrast, the following words do not pass the should or to test:
coffee : *should coffee *to coffee
beautiful : *should beautiful *to beautiful
hard : *should hard *to hard
under : *should under *to under
Thus, coffee, beautiful, hard, and under are not verbs.

45
Test yourself 1
Which of the following words are verbs? See if they sound like a complete unit when you
put the word here: should ______ or to ______.
Verb Not a verb
Sample: characteristic _____ ____√____
1. defend _____ _________
2. include _____ _________
3. largest _____ _________
4. how _____ _________
5. learn _____ _________
6. sightsee _____ _________
7. unbelievably _____ _________
8. look _____ _________
9. grow _____ _________
10. ambitious _____ _________

The Verb Base

Sometimes a verb changes its form. Let’s look at the following sentences. The verb
is underlined in each sentence below.
1. John should study.
2. John studied.
3. John is studying.
4. John studies.
You certainly can’t say: *John should studied, or John to studied, so how do we
know that studied is a verb base? To test the word: ‘studied’, you have to see if it can
follow should or to in a different form.
For example, if you see: John studied, ask yourself if there is a different form of
studied that can follow should or to. In this case there is: John should study or John decided
to study. So, study and all its forms are verbs.
The form of the verb that can follow should or to is called the base form or infinitive
form. The term infinitive is used to refer either to the base form alone (for example, study),
or to the to + base form (for example, to study). Let’s put each of these verbs into its base
form. The base form is underlined.
46
 5. working : (should, to) work
6. believed : (should, to) believe
7. written : (should, to) write
8. wore : (should, to) wear
9. throws : (should, to) throw
10. discusses : (should, to) discuss

Test yourself 2
Put each of the verbs below into its base form. Simply find the form that can follow
should or to.
Sample: grew -- grow
1. wrote : _________
2. talking : _________
3. thought : _________
4. considered : _________
5. seen : _________
6. investigates : _________
7. spoken : _________
8. married : _________
9. decides : _________
10. found : _________

47
Action Verbs and Linking Verbs
The verbs we have looked at so far, such as go, sing, and revise, all indicate actions.
In fact, they’re called action verbs. However, there are other verbs which don’t indicate
actions. These are most commonly called linking verbs. One example of such a verb is the
word seem, as in the sentences: You seem tired and They have seemed busy lately.
Don’t worry, though: seem still follows should or to rules. For examples: Harry
should seem surprised at times; You don’t want to seem arrogant, do you? So, even though
seem isn’t indicating an action, it’s easy to identify it as a verb. Other examples of linking
verbs are: resemble and become. Linking verbs express a relationship between the noun or
pronoun that comes before the linking verb and whatever follows it.

The most common linking verb is: the verb be, often called the copula. You can see
different forms of the verb be in the following sentences.
1. I am happy.
2. You are happy.
3. He is happy.
4. I was happy.
5. You were happy.
6. I have been happy.
7. He is being happy.
Notice how different these forms are from the base form of be. In fact, be is the most
irregular verb in the English language: it has more forms than any other verb. But you can
still use the should or to test to identify be as a verb: You should be happy; They decided
to be happy. For convenience, the forms of the verb be are indicated in Quick tip 3 below.

Quick tip 3
The forms of the irregular verb be are: am, are, is, was, were, be, been, being.
Note that be and become are two different verbs. Here are the forms of become: become,
becomes, became, becoming.

48
Test yourself 3
Underline the forms of the verb be in each of the sentences below. Some sentences may
contain more than one form of be.
Sample: It is a privilege to meet you.
1. Paul was in power at that moment.
2. They are absolutely correct in their thinking.
3. Your suitcases were in the overhead compartment during the flight.
4. Christina has been wanting to go to Europe for a long time.
5. What is wrong with being a good student?
6. The situation is getting out of hand.
7. My niece wants to be a psychiatrist when she grows up.
8. The problem is being corrected as we speak.
9. History might be being made right now.
10. I am happy to show you around town.

Often, forms of the verb be are said and written as contractions, as in these sentences:
8. I’m happy. (verb = am)
9. He’s happy. (verb = is)
10. We’re happy. (verb = are)
11. He’s being happy. (verb = is)

How can you determine if a verb is being used as an action verb or a linking verb?
There are a number of differences between them. One way is to think of a linking verb as
an equal sign (=). For example:
12. Harry resembles his brother.
Harry = his brother.
13. You are happy.
You = happy.
14. That strange looking vegetable tastes awful.
That strange looking vegetable = awful.
Resembles, are, and tastes are each being used here as linking verbs.

49
 Another way to identify a linking verb is to see if you can substitute a form of the
verb be for it, and leave the meaning basically the same. For example, take the sentence:
John seems interested in the conversation. We can substitute a form of be, specifically, is,
for seems: John is interested in the conversation. Thus, seems is a linking verb in the
sentence: John seems interested in the conversation.

Take a look at some more examples below:

15. After a while, the hotel became dirty.
After a while, the hotel was dirty.
16. Annie and Janine look surprised.
Annie and Janine are surprised.
17. Although in his eighties, he remains ageless.
Although in his eighties, he is ageless.
Thus, became, look, and remains are being used as linking verbs in these sentences.
Remember that be and its forms can also be used as linking verbs.
Quick tip 4 below is trustworthy, it will usually help you identify whether a verb is
an action verb or linking verb.

Quick tip 4
If you can substitute a form of the verb be for a verb and the meaning of the sentence
is basically the same, the verb is probably being used as a linking verb. The verb be and
its forms are also linking verbs.
Another way to identify a linking verb is to see if you can substitute a form of the
word seem for it, and leave the meaning basically the same. For example, in the sentence:
The hot shower felt refreshing. We can substitute a form of seem for felt, and leave the
sentence largely unchanged: The hot shower seemed refreshing.
Look at the following examples:
18a. After a while, the hotel became dirty.
18b. After a while, the hotel seemed dirty.
19a. Annie and Janine look surprised.
19b. Annie and Janine seem surprised.
20a. Although in his eighties, he remains ageless.
20b. Although in his eighties, he seems ageless.
Thus, became, look, and remains are being used as linking verbs in those sentences.
50
 Again, Quick tip 5 below also is trustworthy, it will help you identify whether a verb
is an action or linking verb.

Quick tip 5
If you can substitute a form of seem for a verb and the meaning of the sentence is
basically the same, the verb is probably being used as a linking verb.

Hopefully, you now have a good sense of the difference between action and linking
verbs. However, there are some verbs that can be used as either an action verb or a linking
verb, depending on the sentence where it is used. Compare, for example, the following two
sentences with feel:
21. Mary felt tired.
22. Mary felt the softness of the material.
In sentence 21, the verb felt is being used as a linking verb. Note that Mary = tired;
Mary is tired; Mary seems tired, all make sense here.
In sentence 22, Mary is doing an action. Also, one can’t think of it as: *Mary = the
softness of the material, *Mary was the softness of the material, or *Mary seemed the
softness of the material. That is, thinking of felt as an equal sign or substituting a form of
be or seem for felt clearly doesn’t work (doesn’t make sense) here. Thus, in sentence 22,
the verb felt is being used as an action verb.

Here are a few more examples:

23. The dinner at that restaurant tasted delicious. (Linking verb)
(The dinner at that restaurant was delicious.)
24. I tasted the soup. (Action verb)
(*I was the soup.)
25. The flowers smelled heavenly. (Linking verb)
(The flowers are heavenly.)
26. She smelled the fire before she saw it. (Action verb)
(*She was the fire before she saw it.)

51
Transitive Verbs and Intransitive Verbs
Take a look at the following questions, each question or sentence is with an action verb.
1. What did you write?
2. Whom did you help?
3. What did you throw?
These are all perfectly fine questions and easy to answer, e.g., I wrote a letter, I helped my
neighbor, and I threw a ball.
Now compare the first group of questions above to the following group of questions,
each of which also has an action verb.
4. *What did you sleep?
5. *What did you die?
6. *Who did you arrive?
These questions (4, 5, and 6) are all strange and can’t really be answered. That’s because
the verbs in this second group are verbs that do not act upon anything.
Thus, you can see that there are two kinds of verbs. One kind, such as write, help,
and throw, acts upon something. The noun (or noun phrase) that the verb acts upon is
called the direct object of the sentence. Those verbs that act upon something are called
transitive verbs. Typically, in statements, a transitive verb is followed by the noun (or
noun phrase) that it is acting upon. Other verbs, such as sleep, die, and arrive, do not act
upon something. In fact, these verbs can’t have a direct object. Notice that you can’t say,
for example: *I usually sleep the dog, *You die the table, *They’ll arrive the book. Those
verbs that do not act upon something and do not have a direct object are called intransitive
verbs.

Quick tip 6
Action verbs that act upon something are called transitive verbs. Action verbs that
do not act upon something are called intransitive verbs.

So, which of the following verbs are transitive and intransitive?

7. What did you discover?
8. *What did you struggle?
9. Who did you meet?
10. *What did you laugh?

52
 Since sentences 7 and 9 are fine questions, so the verbs: discover and meet are
transitive verbs. Since sentences 8 and 10 are not acceptable questions, so the verbs:
struggle and laugh are intransitive verbs.
Note that although you can say something like, “What did you struggle with?” or,
“What did you laugh at?”, you can’t ask the questions as they are stated above. Therefore,
the verbs are intransitive.

Test yourself 4
Decide if each of the verbs below is transitive or intransitive.
Transitive Intransitive
Sample: mention √ _________
1. tell ________ _________
2. rise ________ _________
3. raise ________ _________
4. fall ________ _________
5. publish ________ _________
6. proclaim ________ _________
7. vanish ________ _________
8. omit ________ _________
9. cry ________ _________
10. remove ________ _________

Now take a look at a few more sentences:

11a. I ate.
11b. I ate dinner.
12a. She dances well.
12b. She dances the tango well.
13a. The audience left.
13b. The audience left the theater.
You can see that there are verbs, such as eat, dance, and leave, that can be used as
either transitive or intransitive verbs.

53
Phrasal Verbs
While most verbs are single words, some are phrasal: they contain two words. In
phrasal verbs, the first word is a verb and the second word is called a particle. Here are
some examples, with the phrasal verbs are underlined:
1. She looked up the answer.
2. We will just drop off the files.
3. The professor pointed out the correct answer.
Notice that the meaning of a phrasal verb is often similar to the meaning of a single verb:
4. She looked up the answer.
She researched the answer.
5. We will just drop off the files.
We will just deliver the files.
6. The professor pointed out the correct answer.
The professor identified the correct answer.
In many cases, the two parts of a phrasal verb, the verb and its particle, can be separated:
7. She looked the answer up.
8. We will just drop the files off.
9. The professor pointed the correct answer out.
Even when the two parts are separated, it’s still a phrasal, or multi-word, verb. When you
can separate the two parts in this way, you know that you’ve got a phrasal verb.

Quick tip 7
If you can substitute a single verb for a verb and the particle or the word following
it, you probably have a phrasal verb. For example, you can say: She pointed out the truth
to us or She showed the truth to us. So, point out is a phrasal verb.

Test yourself 5
Each of the sentences below contains a phrasal verb. Underline the phrasal verb.
Sample: The lecturer summed up his main points.
1. He fixed up the lighting in the hall.
2. They read over the document many times.
3. You dream up the most amazing things.
4. Ron takes out the garbage every Monday night.
5. I will pay off my mortgage in fifteen years.
54
 Chapter 4: THE BASICS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

“Make it simple as simple as possible but not simpler.”

Albert Einstein

4.1 What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is an inter-connection of two or more computers through the

use of cables, telephone lines, radio transmitter, satellites, and other wireless
telecommunication devices of which goal is to successfully communicate to each other
through information interchange and resource sharing.
A network is a set of technologies, including the media used to connect computers
together, as well as the software and hardware used to construct and operate it. These
media are the copper wire, fiber optic cable or radio frequency in the case of a wireless
technology. The network allows many users to access shared data, programs, software,
movies, pictures. MP3s, e-books, and many others, almost instantly. Moreover, the
networks open up new ways and means to communicate, such as Internet chat and e-mails,
and other instant messaging, and phone calls by long-distance which is free-of-charge
using the Voice Over IP (VoIP) technology. See, how this network technology makes our
life so easy, so exciting, and so enjoyable. I cannot imagine life without it!
In addition to e-mails and Internet chat, the company employees and officers enjoy
the benefit of teleconferencing, i.e., one of the best technologies that evolves because of
networking technology. Through teleconferencing, the companies’ meeting is no longer
limited to physical presence of the attendees, but anywhere and anytime they join the
meeting virtually. The attendees just need a computer connected to the networks or Internet
to make this high-tech way of communicating possible. In a teleconference settings, data,
audio, and video signals travel across a Local Area Network (LAN), through the use of
wires, access points, hubs, switches; or across the network’s Internet connections to
company branches located anywhere in the world. The three categories of teleconferencing
that you would always hear or encounter in daily technology “talks” are:
videoconferencing, audio-conferencing, and data-conferencing. Computer networks are
mostly categorized in two main types: Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area
Network (WAN).

55
A. Local Area Network (LAN)
The Local Area Network (LAN) is an interconnection of personal computers
that are close to each other, usually in the same building, campus, or area. In a LAN,
one or more computers can serve as a “server” (the main computer), while other
computers connected to it are called workstations or client PCs.
The server serves as a storehouse for software and data that are shared by many
users who are connected to it through cables or antenna (for wireless connection). The
users are usually using the workstations. This is the term used for a computer
connected to the main computer called server. In real setting, there are many
workstations connected to a server. To use this workstation, the user is required to
enter a login name and its corresponding password. This kind of set-up is applied to
protect the software resources and confidential information that can be found in the
whole network. The term used for this application is called system security.

B. Wide Area Network (WAN)

The Wide Area Network (WAN) is an interconnection of many computers that
are located from different cities or countries. WAN is made up of two or more LANs
which are separated by geographic distance and linked through phone lines,
microwave towers, and communication satellites.
Wide Area Network allows users to share computer hardware, software,
information, or data even if they are separated by a long distance. The user can send
(upload) or receive (download) data, information, software, pictures, images, MP3s,
eBooks, and movies through the network. In a network environment, the users can
possibly work together for a particular project. All users can see the changes made by
other users. For example, a company may have its main office and manufacturing
plant in one city or province, and its marketing office in another city. Each site needs
resources, such as data, programs, or projects to work locally, but it also needs to share
data with the other sites. To accomplish this need of data communication, the company
can use a WAN setup. This is possible because some telecommunication networks
usually have a phone company or an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which will link
the different LANs of the company that are located in different cities so that it can
communicate to each other.

56
 WANs can be vital for international businesses, but they are also essential for
everyday use as the internet is considered as the largest WAN in the world. WANs are
the forms of telecommunication networks that can connect devices from multiple
locations and across the globe. WANs are the largest and most expansive forms of
computer networks available today. These networks are often established by service
providers that then lease their WAN to businesses, schools, governments, or the
public. These customers can use the network to relay and store data or communicate
with other users, no matter their location, as long as they have access to the established
WAN. Access can be granted via different links, such as virtual private networks
(VPNs) or lines, wireless networks, cellular networks or internet access.
For international organizations, WANs allow them to carry out their essential
daily functions without delay. Employees from anywhere can use a business’s WAN
to share data, communicate with co-workers or simply stay connected to the greater
data resource centre for that organization. Certified network professionals help
organizations maintain their internal wide area network, as well as other critical IT
infrastructure.

C. Personal Area Networks (PAN)

A Personal Area Network (PAN) connects electronic devices within a user's
immediate area. The size of a PAN ranges from a few centimeters to a few meters.
One of the most common real-world examples of a PAN is the connection between a
Bluetooth earpiece and a smartphone. PANs can also connect laptops, tablets, printers,
keyboards, and other computerized devices.
PAN network connections can either be wired or wireless. Wired connection
methods include USB and FireWire; wireless connection methods include Bluetooth
(the most common), Wi-Fi, IrDA, and Zigbee.
While devices within a PAN can exchange data with each other, PANs typically
do not include a router and thus do not connect to the Internet directly. A device within
a PAN, however, can be connected to a local area network (LAN) that then connects
to the Internet. For instance, a desktop computer, a wireless mouse, and wireless
headphones can all be connected to each other, but only the computer can connect
directly to the Internet.

57
D. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large-scale network that connects
multiple corporate LANs together, across a wide geographical area such as by regions.
Usually, the users are sharing resources with other regional resources. This type of
network is not owned by one company, but usually owned by two or more different
companies. The network devices and communication equipment of Metropolitan Area
Networks are maintained by the network provider that offers network services to
corporate customers.

E. Cloud Computing
Cloud Computing is the practice of using a network of remote servers hosted
on the Internet to store, manage, and process data, rather than a local server or a
personal computer. In a broader sense, cloud computing basically means using
somebody else’s computing facilities, including servers, storage, software, and so
forth, rather than standing up and using real physical hardware in house, along with
the operating systems and applications that make computers work. This may sound
subtle, or perhaps even silly, but the concept of using other people’s resources over
the internet sits at the very core, not just of what cloud computing is and how it works,
but also where and how cloud offers incredible value to those who use it.
The real reason why cloud computing is so pervasive and popular nowadays is
that it offers the best and most effective way to consume computing resources.

F. Wireless Networks (WLAN, WWAN, WMAN)

Wireless LAN is so common today. Even Wireless MAN and Wireless WAN
are prevalent in today’s present technology. We can see and hear how this present
emerging technology works to make our life better and faster. A wireless network
simply enables people to communicate anytime and anywhere, and access application
and information without being required to connect to the network using wires or
cables. This literally provides freedom of movement and the ability to extend
applications to different parts of a building, cities, or practically anywhere in the
world. For example, if I want to connect to the Internet to research some topics of
interest or opening my e-mail, and yet free-of-charge, I will simply bring my Laptop
to Robinsons. Robinsons mall provides free access to the Internet, wirelessly. You can
try it! You will enjoy it.
58
G. The Internet
The Internet is an inter-connection of networks all over the world that links
schools, companies, government agencies, and research institutions. It is a collection
of millions of inter-connected computers located in countries throughout the world -
all linked by phone lines and high-speed cables, satellite discs, satellite space stations
to form a gigantic computer network system. In reality, the Internet is a collection of
thousands of smaller networks, each network linked to the next network to form one
large worldwide network.
The Internet enables us to communicate to other millions of people around the
globe. In the Internet, we can send or receive Electronic Mail (E-mail) to any of these
millions of people who have their own E-mail address. These people could be our
relatives, friends, lovers, clients, or new acquaintances whom we have some special
feelings or interests.
We can connect to any computer server or network from any parts of the world
that is open to public users. Connections and accessing of information that are not
classified or confidential are possible even those that we can find in NASA, The
Whitehouse, and other big companies. We can enjoy these benefits in using the
Internet without worrying to pay long distance charges. We just simply pay a
minimum charge for a monthly rate that is fixed or with an equivalent of hours to be
spent in using the Internet. We pay our bills to an Internet Service Provider (ISP)
such as the Pacific Internet, or Network Service Provider (NSP) like PLDT
SmartBro, or Globe’s Broadband.
We can do our research work without the need to go to a particular library or
school. We simply type or choose a particular topic of interest on a Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) commonly known as websites such as whatis.com and asks.com
websites, then the browser like the Internet Explore (IE) or Firefox would take us to
the topics we are researching. There are many different search engines software in the
Internet like Google.com or yahoo.com which will simplify our research tasks and
make our search endeavour so quick and easy. We can also get a meaning to a
particular word by using the free online encyclopaedia – the Wikipedia.
We can exchange messages, thoughts, beliefs, philosophies, and principles to
other students or teachers in other universities here in the Philippines or abroad. We
can reach these people by sending messages to them through E-mail or chatting with

59
 them through Internet Relay Chat (IRC). We can have real-time discussions and
forum with them anywhere they are in the world.
IRC (Internet Relay Chat) is subdivided into hundreds of categories where users
talk live around the clock and around the world about everything under the sun (the
moon and the stars). The IRC would even permit us to go to a private chat room to
talk about topics that are confidential, rated-R, or personal in nature.
The UseNet produces thousands of pages of discussions every day and
organized subject categories. These subjects can be about politics, cultures, society,
history, or business. We can choose, view or read only those areas or topics that are
important to us. And we can participate the discussion freely and interestingly. The
UseNet Newsgroup is a highly sophisticated venue to broadcast messages or articles
in which we can receive feedbacks, comments, and even answers to our questions.

H. Intranet (The Private Internet)

How about Intranet? The Intranet is the private network version of Internet (the
public network). In private network, only those authorized users are permitted to
access information or resources to the Intranet server or computer system network.
Unlike in the Internet, any user can have access anytime, anywhere. The Intranet is
most commonly used in private big companies. Usually, employees only in these
companies have the right to access in their company’s Intranet.
Intranet is a secure and a reliable enterprise-wide network and associated
applications which use Internet technologies and standards. Most Intranet
implementations today focus primarily on internal corporate World Wide Web
(WWW) servers (Intra-webs) for the purpose of simple document distribution. The full
potential of Intranets can be realized only if the diverse management capabilities and
functionality available in a Local Area Network (LAN) environment can be replicated
at an enterprise-wide level using the Internet platform. Like for example the speed in
accessing resources is faster in the Local Area Network, compared to the Intranet.

60
I. Extranet
The Extranet is an Intranet which is partially accessible by authorized users
who are physically located outside the company or employees in the other companies
that are business partners such as distributors, suppliers, or contractors. These other
company employees need to have a valid login name with the corresponding password
to successfully access and use the Extranet.
In the Extranet setup, these authorized outside users are also limited to view or
access some specific resources in the hosting networks. Based on the user’s login
name, password, or possible domain name, the outside users can be managed and
controlled effectively on what particular web pages or information they are allowed
to view or get. This is also applicable on other shareable resources in the networks
such as downloadable files, videos, pictures, images, company marketing campaign
materials, product demos in mpeg format. So, this is how extranet differs from
intranet.

J. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

Before the popularity and emergence of Internet, organizations with their
branches nationwide or worldwide connect their WAN, through expensive dedicated
leased lines provided by telecommunication companies. Generally, the faster the
service of the leased lines, the higher the cost. The development of VPN (Virtual
Private Network) lowers the cost of WAN connections. This technique on network
set-up simply utilizes the Internet infrastructure (both its software and hardware
components), so that there is no need of a dedicated lines to connect smaller networks
from one city to another, or from one country to another.
The main issue on VPN implementation is about system security because of the
inherent danger posed by the basic design and operation of Internet which operate as
a public network. To solve this issue, the VPN network employs a method called
tunnelling, in which each data from the transmitting source network is encapsulated
and encrypted as it travels through the Internet’s gigantic network infrastructure until
it reaches to the receiving destination network.

61
4.2 Digital Connections

A. DSL Connections
The Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is usually used by Internet users at home.
This is the most affordable and easy to setup and install. Though it has a limited
bandwidth, it is typical for Internet users whose needs are mostly for e-mails using
Hotmail or Yahoo, school-research through Google search-engine, and high-tech
socialization with friends using Friendster, or watching short movies (avi or mpeg)
with YouTube.

B. Broadband Connections
Broadband connections simply describe a network connection that can transmit
data faster than a DSL technology can do. Some of the broadband connections utilize
WAN technologies such as the T1, T3, Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN),
and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).

C. Cable Modem Connections

This is a technology that utilizes the present Cable TV technology infrastructure.
This means that a cable modem connection enables home PC users to connect to the
Internet through their cable TV connection with higher speeds than those offered by
DSL connection.

D. Wireless Connections
The wireless connections technology allows connectivity so that portable and
handheld computers such as Laptops and PDAs can move around while being
continuously connected to the network, and can communicate to each other
successfully without wires. There are many situations when mobility plays an
important role for a particular employee in accomplishing his or her tasks, as well as
increasing his or her productivity level.

62
4.3 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH ADJECTIVES

Identifying Adjectives
An adjective is a word that refers to a characteristic of a noun. How can you identify
an adjective?
If you can put a word between “the” and a “noun” (like boy, or idea), then that word
is an adjective.

Quick tip
If you can put a word between “the” and “a noun” (for example: the boy), then that
word is an adjective.
For example, since we can say the tall boy, tall is an adjective. Similarly, we can say
the smart boy, the interesting boy, and the young boy. Therefore, smart, interesting, and
young are all adjectives.
A number of adjectives, all used in the phrase the _________ boy are listed below.
The adjectives are underlined:
1. the active boy
2. the brilliant boy
3. the good boy
4. the hungry boy
5. the diligent boy

Compare those phrases above to *the very boy, *the a boy, and *the talk boy. Very,
a, and talk are not adjectives.
What do adjectives actually do? Adjectives always tell us something about a noun.
Another way of saying this is that they (the adjectives) modify a noun. In the phrases we’ve
just looked at, the underlined adjectives tell us something about, or modify, the noun boy.

63
Test yourself 1
Which of the following words are adjectives?
See if they sound right when you put them here: the ________ thing.
Put a tick () on the appropriate column.
Adjective Not an adjective
Sample: have ________ 
Getting started
1. yellow ________ ______________
2. wonderful ________ ______________
3. these ________ ______________
4. quickly ________ ______________
5. unreliable ________ ______________
6. is ________ ______________
7. pure ________ ______________
8. on ________ ______________
9. creative ________ ______________
10. almost ________ ______________

Test yourself 2
Underline the adjectives in the sentences below. In each case, the adjective will be
between “the” and a “noun”. A sentence may have more than one adjective.
Sample: She has been the strong leader of this company for years.
Getting started
1. The strange robots marched towards the city.
2. It was the last day of school.
3. We tugged at the enormous gate.
4. The billowing smoke alerted us to the fire.
5. The sudden sandstorm forced the surprised bathers to flee the beach.
6. She received the exciting news in the noisy restaurant.
7. The blind beggar was sitting at the busy corner.
8. Jeremy did not get the subtle humour of the play.
9. The poor people of the world outnumber the rich ones.
10. Keep your hands off the hot stove!

64
 As it is said above, a good way to decide if a word is an adjective is to see if it can
be placed between “the” and a “noun”. But that doesn’t mean that that’s the only place
where an adjective can occur; it’s just a way to test a word to see if it’s an adjective.
Here are some sentences where the adjective is in a different place. In each case, the
adjective is in italic.
6. He is a tall boy.
7. My best friend loves chocolate cake.
8. The house had a low roof.
9. Large cars are harder to drive than small cars.
Let’s make sure that each of the underlined words above passes the adjective test,
that is, that it can appear between “the” and “a noun”.
10. tall : the tall boy
11. best : the best movie
12. chocolate : the chocolate bar
13. low : the low ceiling
14. large : the large window
15. small : the small window.
As you can see, each of these words passes the adjective test. Notice also that each
of these words describes a characteristic of a noun.

Test yourself 3
Find the adjectives in each of the sentences below. A sentence may have more than one
adjective.
Sample: It takes a long time to achieve a great success.
Getting started
1. An evening is a special time for the family.
2. We gathered the important facts from those dusty books.
3. She wrote a boring letter.
4. I could see his face in the red light from the exit sign.
5. The American flag was behind Edward’s desk.

65
What do you notice about the underlined adjectives in the phrases below?
16. the delicious rich cake
17. my tall, red-haired, entertaining friend
18. a bright, colourful, blue, striped pattern
As you can see, a noun can have more than one adjective modifying it. In fact, there
is no limit to the number of adjectives that can modify a noun (except the patience and
tolerance of the listener!).

Test yourself 4
Underline the adjectives in each of the sentences below.
Some of the nouns will be modified by more than one adjective.
Sample: She ate all the crispy, crunchy chips.
Getting started
1. They went off to see an old, gloomy, historic mansion in southern England.
2. She had anticipated his sudden arrival.
3. Angela ignored his annoying, persistent questions.
4. I must get rid of my decrepit, banged-up little old car.
5. We wouldn’t want to cross this wide, busy street, would we?
6. You should heed the advice of wise men and women.
7. Wild animals can be dangerous.
8. The lovely young lady read one of her favourite novels on her comfortable sofa.
9. Why did you buy this outdated computer in the first place?
10. The Dodgers’ frustrated manager benched his brash young pitcher.

66
 Chapter 5: THE BASICS OF COMPUTER SECURITY

“If you can dream it, you can do it.”

Walt Disney

5.1 Understanding the Basics of Computer Security

Awareness is the first step to do to have good computer security. This is according
to Peter Norton - the principal developer of Norton Anti-virus and Utilities.
Safeguarding our Personal Computer (PC) and its valuable information is very
important to us and to our work. Imagine if a virus erases or destroys our documents that
must be submitted in a matter of few hours, or attacked by a hacker who slows down our
connection to the network, thus put all our online-intensive work to crawl. We should
understand all the dangers that specifically threaten our computer system. We need to
know how each threat can affect our work and prioritize them accordingly.

Threats and Countermeasures

A threat is anything that can cause harm to our computer resources. In the context
of computer security, a threat can be a virus infection or an attack by a hacker. Now if we
don’t use any anti-virus software, our computer will become very vulnerable to virus
infections. If we don’t turn-on the Firewall capability of our operating system or did not
implement a Firewall to our computer network system, we are vulnerable to a hacker’s
attack.
How about applying countermeasure posed by a virus infection or a hacker attack?
We can apply regular backup process of our data. This will be our countermeasure against
the threat of data loss caused by virus infection. Putting a firewall to our computer network
system is our countermeasure against a possible attack by a hacker. In other words,
countermeasure is our step to ward off a threat, thus protecting our data from harm.

Identity Theft
Identity theft is a technology term used when someone impersonates you. His or
her impersonation ranges from using your name, Identification Card, SSS number, or your
other personal information in order to get a document or credit in your behalf, without you
knowing it.

67
 Now how the identity theft could steal your money in the bank? By shoulder
surfing! Shoulder surfing is simply watching someone who withdraws on the ATM
machine, and getting to know his or her PIN (Personal Identification Number) number.
An identity theft could also use wire-tapping (by using a telephone line extension)
so that he or she can listen to your conversation on the telephone as you give your credit
card number or other pertinent personal information to a credit card agent. The technology
term for this one is snagging.
An identity theft could also use the dumpster diving technique where he or she can
go to garbage cans or trash bins to get your cancelled checks, bank deposit slips, or credit
card statements.
One of the most predominant sources of identity theft technique is called social
engineering where the theft tricks the unsuspecting victim into providing critical
information under the pretext of something legitimate such as pretending to be the one
who is in authority. Like for example, someone who claimed to be a webmaster and would
like to check if the victim’s online record such as SSS contribution is already qualified to
make a salary loan. Since the hapless victim has a plan to file a salary loan, he or she would
reveal his login-name and password to the decoy’s webmaster.

Computer Viruses
A computer virus is a program that works like a biological virus. It spreads from
software to software, from USB drive to hard disk or vice versa, and from one computer
to another (in the case of computers connected to a network). So, what is a computer virus?
It is simply a tiny and powerful program written and developed by an intelligent and
malicious programmer. This computer virus program has a destructive power,
unpredictable behaviour and has a capability to reproduce itself. Depending on how it is
intentionally designed and programmed, a virus may destroy data files, corrupt software
integrity, gobble up computer’s main memory storage, or cause serious system failures
and errors.
Virus scanner & cleaner software are designed and programmed to search and
destroy computer viruses in the computer system. The computer sub-systems that can be
scanned are hard disk, external hard disk, floppy disk, computer’s main memory
(SIMMs/RAM), CD/DVD ROM drive and USB drive. Once a virus or viruses are found,
the virus scanner and cleaner software will notify the users and remove the viruses from
an infected disks or quarantined them.
68
 Most of the anti-virus software such as the Norton Anti-virus, AVG, and Mc-Afee
Anti-virus utilities have the capabilities or features to continually monitor system activity.
This software watches and reports any suspicious virus-like actions detected upon
monitoring the system.
The virus scanner and cleaner should be continually updated to be able to detect the
newly programmed computer viruses. This means that you have to have a newest version
of this software always. Remember that an old version anti-virus software won’t be able
to detect newer viruses. For example, your anti-virus software is copyrighted 2009, it
means that those viruses created in the year 2010 can no longer be detected or cleaned
successfully by your anti-virus software.
Computer viruses have some brothers too. They are called Trojans (Trojan horses),
Worms, and Logic bombs. A trojan is a program that performs a useful task; however, it
carries out some secret destructive motive and cruel intention. In other words, Trojan
horses introduce malicious software under the pretension of being a useful program.
Usually, these Trojan horses can be found in the Internet with filenames that make them
sound like utilities or games. When a user downloads and runs such program, it might
change data, erase files or folders, or cause some other kinds of trouble.
Worms are like viruses; they can reproduce themselves. There difference is that a
worm can travel independently over computer networks to search out uninfected
workstations to occupy. This worm program resides in a workstation’s memory, not on the
network disk. The worm can be eliminated by turning off all the workstations connected
on the network.
Logic bombs are program triggered to perform a task or mission when it encounters
some sequence of events or activities or after a certain amount of time elapses or when a
date came. Like for example, the Friday the 13th viruses, and April Fool’s Day virus. These
viruses can be classified as logic bomb type, because of the nature of how they are
activated and when they will be activated, and what triggers them to activate. Most of the
textbooks treated all of these programs as viruses.
Well, whatever these programs are called, they are designed with the same purpose:
to destroy or make troubles to our computing tasks. We must try our best to avoid or
eradicate them, and denounce them as evil or bad.

69
Online Spying Tools
The software developers have created a lot of tracking programs that continuously
monitor our online activities in accessing the Internet. Some of these tracking programs
are useful to Webmasters who want to determine the kind of visitors who are surfing their
websites, but some tracking programs intrude our privacy and preference. Here are the
online spying tools: cookies, spyware, spam, and web bugs.

Cookies
So, what is a cookie? We often heard this term over the time. Like for example, when
you study Java programming language, programming a cookie is always a pre-requisite to
learn Java programming.
A cookie is a small code that a Web server asks your Web browser such as Internet
Explorer or Mozilla Firefox to place on your computer. The cookie contains pertinent
information that identifies your workstation’s IP address, your login name, e-mail address,
and some information about your visit to the Web site. For example, the cookie might list
the last time you visited the Web site, which Web page you downloaded, and how long
you were at the web site before leaving from it.

Spyware
The spyware is also known as adware. Like the cookie, the spyware can track a
computer user’s activities and report them to someone else. The spyware collects and
record secretly your e-mail address, web usage, individual keystrokes, and even your
personal information. The spyware can land on your laptop from many sources: e-mail
messages, web pages, and pop-up adds (advertisements).

Spam
If we receive an e-mail or e-mails that is coming from different sources or people
that we do not know, then probably, we received a junk mail called spam. Usually, a spam
offers products or services that usually we don’t need or want. Almost all spam e-mails
are classified as commercial advertisements. Spam is completely defined as unsolicited
commercial e-mail.
Notes:
Malware is the term used to destructive software such computer viruses, Trojan horses, and Worms, as
well as also some attack scripts that turned data into garbled or unusable.

70
Cybercrime
Any act of stealing hardware and software resources are classified as cybercrime.
But a cybercrime is more than just stealing the physical resources of the computer, it is
also about a fraudulent act. A fraud such as stealing account information from
unsuspecting customers, non-delivery of services or merchandise that are ordered online,
or an online auction of something that did not exist, or some ATM card debit fraud or an
international credit card debit fraud. Imagine if you are charge with a big amount in your
credit card of the things you didn’t purchase? Or losing a lot of money from your ATM
card, because someone is withdrawing from it.

Hacking
Hacking is an illegal act of accessing the computer resources of some people without
their knowledge or permission, or unauthorized access into company’s network system.
Usually, a hacker uses a network or Internet connection to connect to some other people’s
computer or a particular company’s computer network, in order to corrupt, change, or
destroy data.
A hacker employs the sniffing technique where he or she tries to guess the password
of the hapless victim. Or in a more highly sophisticated way, he or she would capture the
password of the victim using some type of malware. This malware would capture the
password, then it will send the password to him or her.
The other technique used by a hacker is the IP spoofing. In this technique, the hacker
intercepts the data while it is transmitted or gain access to the computer network system
by posing as an authorized user. The hacker was able to gain entry because he or she
pretends to be using a legitimate computer or workstation connected to the network with
an IP address that is belong to the network where he or she was accessing.
Another technique used by the hacker is called phishing. In this technique, the
hacker may contact the unsuspecting victim by e-mail, and ask the victim to provide
password information for an apparent legitimate reason. Like for example, the hacker
wanted to get your name as well as the CD key of the software you purchased or it’s
registration number. In this way, the hacker can use the software you purchased since he
or she would be required by the software company to enter the name of the one who
purchase the software as well as the registration number, because only the legitimate
purchaser of the software can enjoy the free updates and technical support.
71
Cyberterrorism
Cyberterrorism is an act of attacking the mission-critical information technology
infrastructure and government network system of a particular country. One of the goals of
cyberterrorism is to gain control to key computer network systems that control and monitor
electric power grids, telecommunication system infrastructure, power plants, and water
treatment plants. Their plans could be to disrupt electric power grid operation or shutting
down telecommunication control system.

Firewalls
Putting firewalls in our computer system network is our best defence against the
possible attack of a hacker. This is the counter-measure that we can apply in our computing
task.
Firewalls can be both a hardware device with a software on it or purely a software
that runs in your Personal Computer (PC), Laptop, or in a company’s main computer called
Server, or in powerful Internet device called Router.
The Microsoft Internet Connection Firewall, Norton Firewall, and Checkpoint
Firewall are the types of software that we can use to set restrictions on the information that
is communicated between your PC at home or in a company’s server.
The “stateful” firewall like the Microsoft firewall, monitors, and tracks all aspects
of communications that cross its path and examines the source and destination IP (Internet
Protocol) address of each packet or data that the firewall handles. The firewall keeps a
table of all communications that have originated from the computer that is running the
firewall, in order to prevent unsolicited or malicious traffic from the public side of the
connection from entering the private side of the connection. The firewall compares all
inbound traffic from the Internet to the entries in the table. The inbound Internet traffic is
permitted only to reach your PC or in the computer network of the company, if and only
if there is a matching entry in the table that shows that the data communication exchange
began in your PC or in a company’s private network such as the Intranet or Local Area
Networks (LANs).
The firewall automatically drops or discards any unsolicited data communications it
detected. In this process, the firewall will be able to stop common hacking attempts of the
hackers and intruders through port scanning technique.

72
5.2 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH ADVERBS

Identifying adverbs
Adverbs can be a bit tricky because they do lots of different things and can be in lots
of different places in a sentence.
Look at the sentences below, where the adverb in each sentence is in bold:
1. I live here. (Information about location)
2. My brother is arriving today. (Information about time)
3. She dances beautifully. (Information about manner)
4. That child is very sweet. (Degree information about an adjective, in this case, about
sweet)
5. She works extremely efficiently. (Degree information about another adverb, in this
case, about efficiently)

Quick tip 1
Adverbs generally indicate information about location, time, degree, and manner.
They provide extra information about the action in a sentence, about adjectives, and about
other adverbs.

Quick tip 2
If you don’t know what else a word is (and you have eliminated the other parts of
speech), it’s probably an adverb.
While unfortunately, we can’t give you a simple rule that will help you identify
adverbs 100 percent of the time; the tips below will help you correctly identify adverbs in
many cases.

Quick tip 3
Can the word go in the following slot? Mary slept ________________. If so, it’s
probably an adverb. For example, Mary slept peacefully. Peacefully is an adverb.

Quick tip 4
Can the word go in the following slot? ___________, I gave / will give my speech.
If so, it’s probably an adverb. For example, Yesterday, I gave my speech. Yesterday is an
adverb. Or: Tomorrow, I will give my speech. Tomorrow is an adverb.
73
Quick tip 5
Can the word go in the following slot? He is ________ happy. If so, it’s probably
an adverb. For example, He is very happy. ‘Very’ is an adverb.

Quick tip 6
Does the word end in the suffix -ly? Is it an adjective? If it ends in -ly and it is not
an adjective, it’s probably an adverb (e.g., hopefully, happily, unusually).

Test yourself 1
Underline the adverbs in each of the sentences below.
Sample: They had deliberately been silent when they entered the room.
Getting started
1. She returned the book and quietly left.
2. I’m leaving for Europe tomorrow.
3. That horse is an unusually calm animal.
4. The train came to a stop suddenly.
5. That remark was too shocking.
6. Why don’t you call her sometimes?
7. We were told to handle the merchandise carefully.
8. The doctor informed his patient that his prognosis was very good.
9. The Morgans are not leaving today.
10. Unexpectedly, the principal ordered everyone into the auditorium.

Many, though not all, adverbs end in -ly (rapidly, innocently, sweetly, etc.).
However, some adjectives also end in -ly, for example: lovely, friendly. It’s easy to
distinguish them. Just remember that the adjectives can go in the slot the _____ boy: the
lovely boy, the friendly boy.
While adverbs can go before the adjective, for example the extremely friendly boy
(extremely is an adverb), adverbs cannot occupy the slot directly before the noun. That is,
one cannot say, *the extremely boy or *the innocently boy, so extremely and innocently
are not adjectives; they must be adverbs.
Note that some nouns, for example the flower lily, end in -ly as well. And just to add
a little more spice to the recipe, there are some words that can be used either as adverbs or
as adjectives:
74
6a. That is a pretty easy book. (Pretty here is similar to the word very here, and it is an
adverb of degree.)
6b. That is a pretty child. (Pretty here is an adjective.)
7a. You drive too fast. (Fast here tells us more about the verb drive, so it is an adverb.)
7b. This actor’s delivery was too fast. (Fast here tells us more about the noun delivery, so
it is an adjective.)

Test yourself 2
For each word below, decide if it is an adverb or an adjective.
Use the test for adjectives to help you decide: the _____ boy.
Sample: rarely adverb
Getting started
1. happily _____________________
2. ugly _____________________
3. clearly _____________________
4. gently _____________________
5. manly _____________________
6. predictably _____________________
7. nearly _____________________
8. proudly _____________________
9. barely _____________________
10. silly _____________________

Test yourself 3
Decide whether the bold-typed word in each sentence is being used as an adjective or an
adverb.
Adjective Adverb
Sample: He recently increased his yearly salary. X ______
Getting started
1. He was busily writing a letter when the doorbell rang. _______ ______
2. That is a very hilly road. _______ ______
3. They fell hopelessly in love at first sight. _______ ______
4. I never realized that you have such curly hair. _______ ______
5. The soprano gave a masterly performance. _______ ______
75
6. Mr. Sawyer is paid weekly. _______ ______
7. She undoubtedly deserves top honours. _______ ______
8. This lady eerily resembles my grandmother. _______ ______
9. Janet fully concurs with her husband’s decision. _______ ______
10. Your new house is very lovely. _______ ______

Test yourself 4
Identify each of the sentences below by finding the adverbs and the adjectives in each of
the sentences.
Sample: He was clearly working on a difficult report.
Adverb : clearly
Adjective : difficult
Getting started
1. Excitedly, the men dragged the heavy sack to the clearing.
2. I’ve checked on the situation very thoroughly.
3. Adam waited inside.
4. The old fellow left town yesterday.
5. Afterwards, he regretted his actions.
6. Your generous gift was completely unnecessary.
7. Let’s agree on this beforehand.
8. This offer is too good to pass up.
9. I often think of you fondly.
10. The mailman left an unopened package at the door.

76
 Chapter 6: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE & INFORMATION SYSTEMS

“Try not to be a man of success, but a man of value.”

Albert Einstein

The computer scientists and engineers are devoting too much time and effort in making
computers to reason, perceive, and act like human beings. In spite of its ambitious and near to
impossible goals, the study of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has produced impressive results.
This study resulted to the inventions of robots, electronic chess players, expert systems, and
computers that can communicate in human language (though limitedly).

6.1 The Definition of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the study of how to make computers do things that the
human beings can do. Other computer scientists defined Artificial Intelligence (AI) as the
study of the computations that makes it possible to perceive, reason, and act like humans
do. There are two approaches to Artificial Intelligence (AI). The first approach is an
attempt to use computers to emulate human mental processes. An example of this approach
is about an expert who asks a group of people to explain how they solve a problem. Their
solutions are captured by the expert and transform them into a software model. The end-
product of this complete software is called ‘expert system’.
The second approach involves on designing intelligent machines that are
independent from how the people think. This approach considers that human intelligence
is just one possible kind of intelligence. The methods or procedures on how the machine
solve the problems might be different from the methods used by humans, but not less
intelligent.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is already applied in the word-processor application
software when its automatic grammar checking feature is trying to correct a language
concept that most users cannot fully explain themselves.

77
Computerized Language Translation
An Artificial Intelligence (AI) project, known as Automatic Translator, was
researched and designed as an attempt to develop software that could translate a language
into another language. A parser (a parsing program) would analyze the structure of a
sentence and identify each word according to whether it was a verb, a subject, or other part
of speech. Another program would look up each word in a translation dictionary and
substitute the appropriate word.
After spending many years and millions of dollars in Research and Development
(R&D) fund, the team of computer scientists abandoned the project. Their conclusion is
that the machine translators could not compete with humans in speed or accuracy. Besides,
translation without understanding will only produce an erroneous result. The translator
must know what the sentence means before it can translate it accurately. The computers
have so much trouble in understanding and translating natural-language such as English
language. Unlike in programming languages such as Pascal, C, and BASIC, they have few
keywords with exact and precise meaning. Part of the problem of natural languages, is its
massive vocabulary, which contains thousands of words. In computer application, one
word must have only one meaning, otherwise the computer becomes confused and unable
to follow the command or instruction correctly.
An expert system is a software program designed to emulate the decision-making
process of a human expert. The foundation of every expert system is a knowledge-based
expert system representing ideas from a specific field of expertise. An expert is a person
who has great amount of knowledge and skills on a particular field of study or profession.
By confining his or her practice to that field, the expert achieves mastery. Obviously,
expert systems derive their knowledge and capabilities from the experts.
A knowledge-based expert system represents knowledge in the form of if-then else
rules. Along with the knowledge-based expert system, a complete expert system includes
inference engine which puts the user-input together with the knowledge-based expert
system, apply logical principles, and produces the requested expert advice. Expert systems
aid the user by providing fast automated data analysis and informed second opinions. In
other situation, expert systems assist non-experts (users) by providing advice basing on
decisions and analysis of one or more experts. Some of the first successful expert systems
were researched and developed in medical field. Medical knowledge is orderly and well-
documented, that is why the researchers believed it could be captured and modelled in
knowledge-based expert systems.
78
Here are some real-world examples of expert systems used by the companies today:
➢ Blue Cross Insurance company in the United States is using an expert system that
automates insurance claim processing. The expert system handles up to 200 routine
claims each day. The software extracted diagnostic rules from watching and observing
human claim processor while they apply those rules. The programmers (developers)
analyzed and design the manual process and turned into an expert system. The
developers analyze how the claim processor (an insurance agent) decides and act upon
a particular insurance claim request.
➢ Boeing Corporation is an airplane manufacturing company which uses an expert system
to locate the right tools, parts, and methods for assembling electrical and electronic
connectors of an airplane. The workers are able to reduce the average search time from
42 minutes to 5 minutes.
➢ The Microsoft Corporation uses an expert system to assist product managers to conform
to company guidelines on profitability and packaging. Since newly hired managers are
not familiar with all the techniques and procedures of putting together a successful
software product, this expert system will serve as an advisor to them. Therefore, new
managers don’t need to continually seek advice from senior experienced managers and
engineers, because they can get it from using the expert system software.

The Advantages of Expert System

The expert system can reduce the number of human errors, provide expertise when
experts are not available and make knowledge available to more people. It can also help
train new employees, preserve knowledge of experts after those experts leave the company
and take care of routine-tasks so that the workers can concentrate on jobs that need human
interaction and understanding.

Pattern Recognition
Pattern recognition involves identifying recurring patterns in input data with the goal
of categorizing or understanding that data. The application of pattern recognition includes
face identification, hand writing recognition and fingerprint identification. Other
application includes weather forecasting, automatic voice recognition, surveillance,
satellite data analysis, robot vision, biological slide analysis, and other scientific data
analysis.

79
 One of the best examples of pattern recognition is Partek’s Screener’s Solution. This
is a statistical analysis and visualization software that enables the chemical elements
researchers to easily, reliably, and quickly identify promising lead compounds from plate-
based high throughput screening. The researcher can simply import the chemical and
biological data into it, so that she or he can normalize, filter, and scale the present data
being analyzed.

Image Analysis
The image analysis is the process of identifying shapes and objects in an image,
picture, drawing, or video. This image analysis is applied in piloting cruise missiles and
colorizing old motion pictures.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) was successful in image analysis software invention for
Optical Character Recognition (OCR). OCR is commonly used in shopping malls. Sales
clerks and cashiers are using wand readers to recognize numbers and words when they
input purchases on the Point of Sale (POS) terminals. Today’s POS terminals are hundred
percent computer, which means, they can be programmed like our PCs at home. Inside
them are motherboards, microprocessors, RAMs/SIMMS, ROMs, and many more. The
difference between PC and POS terminals are the case that housed them and some extra
peripherals used by the POS machines such as barcode scanner, a small customer display
screen, and cash box.
The OCR scans the image of the page into the memory of the computer using
scanner, fax modem, or digital camera. The OCR software identifies and locates printed
characters in images or pictures.
Pattern recognition technology is widely used in fingerprint analysis. These benefits
had enabled law-enforcers to easily track and capture criminals, and put them behind bars.
Computers had made our life even better and safer.

Speech Recognition Software

Like Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software, the speech recognition
software applied pattern-recognition technique. Many Macintosh (Apple) computers
feature PlainTalk software that recognizes speech or voice. We can simply command our
computer such as: Open my email or read my e-mail. And the computer will follow our
command through our voice. However, it’s very difficult for the computer to understand
our voice considering the limitation and complexity of how we express it.
80
Neural Networks
The neural network is simply an artificial brain that emulates the actual human brain.
The human brain consists of billions of neurons. They are connected to each other in
massively distributed and parallel structure. The idea of parallel computing technology
was inspired by the human brain’s structure. A neural network is a distributed and parallel
computing system that uses a network of a few thousand simpler processors called
neurons.
A neural network learns patterns by trial and error like our brain learns, that is why
when patterns are often repeated, it develops a habit to recognize it. The neural network
can still function even if some of its neurons are destroyed, because it distributes
knowledge throughout the network.
The application of this technology is useful for recognizing patterns in scientific
research that analyze a large volume of numbers, stock market analysis and bank’s loan
processing. The neural network is applied in signature analysis in a bank with those
signatures that are stored in the database. It is also applied in investment analysis that
attempts to predict the movement of stock currencies from previous data. In the airline
industry, the neural network is applied in monitoring the state of the aircraft engines,
vibration levels and sound, and early warnings of engine problems.

The Robotics Technology

The robots today are computer-controlled machines that are designed to perform
specific and routinary manual tasks. The microprocessor embedded in the robot’s body is
functionally identical to the central processing unit (CPU) we can find in a personal
computer (PC). We send our commands to a screen when we use our PC, which a robot
sends commands to its arms, joints, and other moving parts.
The robots have sensing devices to modify or correct their actions based on feedback
from the outside world. The application of robots is useful in car manufacturing and other
companies that have routinary tasks to perform. The robots can be used to pick up an
integrated circuit (IC), to see infrared light, or draw pictures. Robots are ideal for jobs that
are dangerous for humans to accomplish such as picking up hazardous waste, cleaning
rooms that are high in radiation, and even searching land mines. Hundreds of robots today
are doing welding, part fitting, guiding a herd of sheep, and perform skull drilling for brain
surgeons.

81
6.2 Information Systems (IS)
An Information System is simply defined as a mechanism that helps people gather
data, store, and organize them to produce meaningful information. An information system
must be accurate, redundant entries must be eliminated, and keeping important data safe
from loss or is closed to unauthorized people.

Different Types of Information Systems

Management Information System (MIS)

The Management Information System (MIS) enables managers to decide effectively
on how to manage the business by knowing the company’s financial status through
gathering, organizing, and evaluating information that are important to the company’s
survival and growth. This type of information systems is based on the different needs of
each level of management hierarchy. Meaning, at the different levels, company managers
have different types of data that they need.
For a frontline manager, the daily sales reports are more important information he or
she needs every now and then. While a senior manager would like to have an information
system that deals with the quarterly summary reports of the financial performance of the
company. For an MIS to be effective and efficient to the organization, it must be able to
summarize vast amount of business data into meaningful information that is useful
specifically to any level of managers that need them.

Decision Support System (DSS)

Like Management Information System (MIS), Decision Support System (DSS)
enables managers to become effective decision makers on the companies’ daily operation
strategies and tactics. Mostly, managers in different levels, use DSS to access and analyze
data in the company’s transaction processing system to aid them on how to formulate
strategies in handling companies’ operation in the most competitive ways.
DSS is not only limited to the company’s transaction system, it also involves with
knowing competitors’ data or stock market reports that are vital to companies’ competitive
position in the market and aid the effectiveness of the manager’s mission-critical decisions.
One of the best examples of Decision Support System (DSS) is the e-Prescribing of
the OpenClinical.org (http://www.openclinical.org). The main goal of this DSS is to
reduce medication errors such as incorrect dosages and drug allergy interactions.
82
The Information Systems Department
The Information Systems department is a specialized department that is in-charge of
designing and developing the computerized or automated systems needed in the company.
The computer operators, encoders, programmers, systems analysts, database
administrator, system administrator, network administrator, network engineer, technical
support staff, computer technicians, systems developers, and architects are working on this
department to serve the needs of all computer users in the company. These breeds of
employees are commonly called as IS professionals who are taking care of all the computer
hardware and software, maintaining and managing these very important resources to the
operation of the company. Some organizations prefer to use the term MIS department or
IT Department instead of an IS department. No matter what term is used to refer to this
computer department, they share the same functions and responsibilities.

Managing Data Effectively

Data is the lifeblood of every organization. Therefore, managing them (data)
effectively is of prime importance to each and every manager in the organization. Data
warehousing is the new approach of taking care of these voluminous data that are potential
to produce meaningful information for a corporation’s competitiveness in the business
world.
When the company have these huge collections of data, then the company needs how
to access these data and produce meaningful information. This is where data mining comes
in. Data mining is the process of sorting, searching, analyzing, and finally producing
useful information mined from a voluminous data stored in the enterprise database system.

Information Systems Storage System

Since the functions and responsibilities of Information Systems are gathering and
managing data, any loss of it is extremely damaging and costly to the company. Some
company would suffer a huge financial loss if their data is unavailable or their computer
systems operation is disrupted due to some system errors due to corrupted data.
Storage system plays an important role in preserving the integrity of the data and as
well as the effectiveness of recovering them from access failure. The Redundant Array of
Independent Disks (RAID) is a storage system that solves the possible problems of data
loss due to some unforeseen data access failure. The RAID links any number of disk drives
or disk arrays so that they act as a single disk. This is done for redundancy of disk so that
83
if one disk drive fails, the other array of disk will take over functioning since they have the
same content of data. This technique is called mirroring or stripping with parity.
Mirroring is a storage system technique that writes data to two or more disks
simultaneously, providing a complete copy of all the data on multiple drives in the event
one disk drive fails. This improves reliability and availability, because when one disk fails,
the mirrored disk continues to function as expected, therefore it maintains the availability
of data as well as its reliability.
The stripping storage system technique spreads the data over multiple disk drives
which provide the user with fast data access. This technique of storage system stores parity
information that can be used to reconstruct data when a disk drive fails. The stripping with
parity storage system technique also provides error-checking to ensure data integrity.

Storage Area Network (SAN)

The storage devices are categorized into two categories. The first one is the Direct
Attached Storage (DAS) and the other is Network Attached Storage (NAS). Our PC
and Laptop belong to the DAS category as well as some servers found in the company that
uses only RAID array disks.
The Storage Area Network (SAN) composes of storage devices connected directly
to a high-speed computer network. These storage devices are free-standing disk system
which contain many disk drives, but shared by multiple network servers in the
organization. In a storage area network, all the network servers can devote their processing
power and resources to the task at hand, and let the microprocessors in the storage area
network system handles the storage services.

Information Systems Development

All companies in the world rely their decisions heavily on the reports generated by
mission-critical applications (MCA) and decision-support system (DSS). Business leaders
and managers can decide effectively if these reports are accurate and timely. The IS
professionals must ensure that the computerized system they developed, managed, and
maintained is accurate and delivers mission-critical reports in a fast and efficient manner.
With this, the IS professionals should analyze carefully the company and its internal
business processes, the needs of the employees and customers, as well as the needed
technologies to come up with the most dependable and reliable computerized system that
a company can count on.
84
6.3 Skill Enhancement - ENGLISH CLAUSES

A. Clause
A clause is a group of words that has a subject (a noun) and a predicate (a verb).
A clause functions as one part of speech.
Look at the following sentences, each sentence has two clauses.
a) You show Simon your project when he arrives.
This sentence consists of two clauses, they are:
➢ You show Simon your project.
➢ when he arrives.
b) The boy who has autism is the group leader.
This sentence consists of two clauses, they are:
➢ The boy is the group leader.
➢ who has autism (The boy has autism).
c) Let's find a table that gets the sunlight.
This sentence consists of two clauses, they are:
➢ Let's find a table.
➢ that gets the sunlight (the table gets the sunlight).
d) He lost his double chin after he gave up chocolate.
This sentence consists of two clauses, they are:
➢ He lost his double chin.
➢ after he gave up chocolate.

Explanation of Clause
Look at this sentence:
All cars stop when they see a red flag.
This sentence has two clauses:
1) "All cars stop" (The subject of this clause is ‘All cars’, and the predicate (verb)
is ‘stop’. We can see that this clause is in bold because it is the main clause, or
an independent clause.
2) "when they see a red flag" (The subject of this clause is ‘they’, and the predicate
(verb) is ‘see’. We can see that this clause is in italic because it is a subordinate
clause, or a dependent clause. This clause is functioning like an adverb.
Compare the sentence to this one: ‘All cars stop immediately’. This proves that
"when they see a red flag" is functioning as an adverb (adverb of time).

85
Remember that a clause functions as one part of speech.
Let’s look at the infographic in the following table to understand more about a clause:

A clause : a group of words that has a subject and a verb

which functions as a part of speech.

1 A clause which functions as an ADJECTIVE

Example : My friend who has autism is brilliant at quizzes.

subject verb
→ To prove that it is an adjective:
My autistic friend is brilliant at quizzes.

adjective

2 A clause which functions as an ADVERB

Example : He put on weight when he stopped running.

subject verb
→ To prove that it is an adverb:
He put on weight quickly.

adverb

3 A clause which functions as a NOUN

Example : I cannot remember what happened last night.

subject verb
→ To prove that it is a noun:
I cannot remember a thing (something).

noun

86
B. Types of Clauses
All clauses are categorized as follows:
1) An Independent (Main) Clause
An independent clause functions as a complete sentence.
For example: John eats eggs.

2) A Dependent (Subordinate) Clause

A dependent clause functions like an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. So, there are
three types of dependent clause.
Below are the examples of each of them:
(a) A clause functioning like an adjective:
For example: John eats eggs that his chickens lay.
Compare the sentence above to this sentence: John eats free-range eggs.
The clause: ‘that his chickens lay’ proves that this clause is functioning like an
adjective because the subject of the dependent clause is: ‘his chickens’, and the
predicate (verb) of the dependent clause is: ‘lay’.

(b) A clause functioning like an adverb:

For example: John eats eggs when his chickens lay them.
Compare the sentence above to this sentence: John eats eggs constantly.
The clause: ‘when his chickens lay them’ proves that this clause is functioning
like an adverb, that is adverb of time.

(c) A clause functioning like a noun:

For example: John eats what his chickens lay.
Compare the sentence above to this sentence: John eats eggs.
The clause: ‘what his chickens lay’ proves that this clause is functioning like
a noun because the noun clause is a part of the independent clause.

87
C. More Explanation on Clauses
Remember that there are two types of clauses, they are:
1) An independent (main) clause
An independent clause can stand alone as a complete sentence.
For example: I love reading the book that I bought yesterday.
This sentence consists of two clauses, they are:
➢ I love reading the book. (An independent clause)
➢ that I bought yesterday. (A dependent clause)

2) A dependent (subordinate) clause

A dependent clause is a supporting part of a sentence.
For example: They live in the house which has blue colour.
This sentence consists of two clauses, they are:
➢ They live in the house. (An independent clause)
➢ which has blue colour. (A dependent clause)

Dependent clauses can play a variety of roles in sentences. Therefore, a

dependent clause can function as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.

(a) Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause is a multi-word adjective that includes a subject and a verb.
For example: My friend who lives in London looks like Homer Simpson.
The dependent clause of this sentence is: ‘who lives in London’ because this
clause functions like an adjective. It could be replaced by an adjective, e.g., ‘my
London-best friend’. Notice that the dependent clause is placed within (inside)
the independent clause.

The Components of an Adjective Clause

An adjective clause (also called a relative clause) has the following three traits:
➢ Trait 1
An adjective clause is started with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose,
that, or which) or a relative adverb (when, where, or why).
The relative pronoun or relative adverb links adjective clause to the noun it is
modifying.
88
 Note: Quite often, the relative pronoun can be omitted. However, with an
adjective clause, it is always possible to put one in.

➢ Trait 2
An adjective clause has a subject and a predicate (a verb).
The subject and predicate make it a clause.

➢ Trait 3
An adjective clause will tell us something about the noun it is modifying. This
is why an adjective clause is a kind of adjective.

Look at the three traits in the following table:

Quite often, the relative pronoun is the subject of the adjective clause. Look at
the three traits in the following table:

89
(b) Adverbial Clauses
An adverbial clause is a group of words that plays the role of an adverb. Like all
clauses, an adverbial clause contains a subject and a verb.
For example: He lost his double chin after he gave up chocolate.
The dependent clause of this sentence is: ‘after he gave up chocolate’ because
this clause functions like an adverb. It could be replaced with an adverb, e.g.,
recently.

Properties of an Adverbial Clause

Here are the properties of an adverbial clause:
➢ An adverbial clause is a dependent clause.
This means it cannot stand alone as meaningful sentence on its own right.
➢ An adverbial clause usually starts with a subordinating conjunction, e.g.,
although, because, if, until, when, etc.
➢ An adverbial clause contains a subject (a noun) and a predicate (a verb).
This is what makes it a clause as opposed to a phrase.

Let’s look at the way on how to use an adverbial clause in a sentence in the
following table:

90
(c) Noun Clauses
A noun clause is a clause that plays the role of a noun.
For examples:
(i) I like what I see.
Like all clauses, a noun clause has a subject and a predicate (a verb).
In this example, the subject of the clause is: ‘I’, and the verb is: ‘see’.
(ii) I know that patience has its limits.
In this example, the subject of the clause is: ‘patience’, and the verb is: ‘has’.
Compare the two examples above to these two sentences:
➢ I like innovation.
➢ I know people.
The words in bold are all nouns. This proves that the two clauses in italic in the
first two examples [(i) and (ii)] are functioning as nouns.

The Composition of a Noun Clause

Let's look quickly at the definition of a clause.
A clause has a subject and a verb and functions as one part of speech.
Therefore, a noun clause functions as a noun in a sentence.
Lots of noun clauses start with: that, how, or a wh-word (i.e., what, who,
which, when, where, or why.
For examples: - I know how it happened.
- I know where it happened.
- I know why it happened.
Let’s look at the way on how to use a noun clause in a sentence in the table below:

Noun Clause
A noun clause is a clause (with a subject and a verb) which functions as a noun.
Example 1:
subject (of the clause) verb (of the clause)

Whatever you wish is my command.

Noun clause
Example 2:
subject (of the clause) verb (of the clause)

I know where the treasure is.

Noun clause

91
D. Clauses vs Phrases
A clause contrasts with a phrase because a phrase does not contain a subject and
a predicate (a verb).
The clear distinction between a clause and a phrase can be seen side by side in
the following table:
Anna sings ... when she wakes up.
This is a clause. It has a subject (‘she’) and a verb (‘wakes up’).
Anna sings ... in the morning.
This is a phrase. There is no subject and no predicate or verb.

Here is another example:

They lived ... where the factories are.
This is a clause. It has a subject (‘the factories’) and a verb (‘are’).
They lived ... in the area of the new factories.
This is a phrase. There is no predicate or verb.

92