SUPPORT REACTIONS

3.1 Introduction
A beam is a structural member or element, which is in equilibrium under the action of a non-
concurrent force system. The force system is developed due to the loads or forces acting on the
beam and also due to the support reactions developed at the supports for the beam. For the
beam to be in equilibrium, the reactions developed at the supports the should be equal and
opposite to the loads. In a beam, one dimension (length) is considerably larger than the other two
dimensions (breath & depth). The smaller dimensions are usually neglected and as such a beam is
represented as a line for theoretical purposes or for analysis.
When the beams are subjected to different types of loads, supports will offer reactions to attain
equilibrium. such reactions are called as support reactions. support reactions for statically
determinate beams are calculated using basic conditions of equilibrium.
3.2 Types of Supports for beams:
Supports are structures which prevent the beam or the body from moving and help to maintain
equilibrium. A beam can have different types of supports as follows. The support reactions
developed at each support are represented as follows.
1) Simple support: This is a support where a beam rests freely on a support. The beam is free to
move only horizontally and also can rotate about the support. In such a support one reaction,
which is perpendicular to the plane of support, is developed.
2) Roller support: This is a support in which a beam rests on rollers, which are frictionless. At such
a support, the beam is free to move horizontally and as well rotate about the support. Here one
reaction which is perpendicular to the plane of rollers is developed.
3) Hinged support
This support is also called as pinned support. The beam is not free to move in any direction
but can rotate about the support. In such a support a horizontal reaction and a vertical
reaction will develop.

4) Fixed support: This is a support which prevents the beam from moving in any direction
and also prevents rotation of the beam. In such a support a horizontal reaction, vertical
reaction and a Fixed End Moment are developed to keep the beam in equilibrium.

6.3 Types of beams

Depending upon the supports over which a beam can rest (at its two ends), beams can be
classified as follows.
1) Simply supported beam.
A beam is said to be simply supported when both ends of the beam rest on simple supports. Such
a beam can carry or resist vertical loads only.

2) Beam with one end hinged & other on rollers. It is a beam where one end of the beam is
hinged to a support and the other end rests on a roller support. Such a beam can carry any type
of loads.

3) Over hanging beam : It is a beam which projects beyond the supports. A beam can have
over hanging portions on one side or on both sides
4) Cantilever Beams: It is a beam, with one end fixed and other and free. Such a beam can
carry loads in any directions.

5) Propped cantilever: It is a beam which has a fixed support at one end and a simple support
at the other end.
6) Continuous beam: It is a beam which rests over a series of supports at more than two
points.

Note: The support reactions in case of simply supported beams, beam with one end hinged and
other on rollers, over hanging beams, and cantilever beams, can be determined by conditions
of equilibrium only (Σ Fx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0). As such, such beams are known as Statically
Determinate Beams. In beams such as Hinged Beams, Propped Cantilever and Continuous
Beams the support reactions cannot be determined using conditions of equilibrium only. They
need additional special conditions for analysis and as such, such beams are known as Statically
Indeterminate Beams

3.4 Types of loads:

The various types of loads that can act over a beam can e listed as follows.
1) Point load or Concentrated load: If a load acts over a very small length of the beam, it is
assumed to act at the midpoint of the loaded length and such a loading is termed as Point
load or Concentrated load.
2) Uniformly distributed load (UDL): If a beam is loaded in such a manner that each unit
length of the beam carries the same intensity of loading, then such a loading is called UDL. A
UDL cannot be considered in the same manner for applying conditions of equilibrium on the
beam. The UDL should be replaced by an equivalent point load or total load acting through
the midpoint of the loaded length. The magnitude of the point load or total load is equal to
the product of the intensity of loading and the loaded length (distance).
3) Uniformly varying load (UVL): If a beam is loaded in such a manner, that the intensity of
loading varies linearly or uniformly over each unit distance of the beam, then such a load is
termed as UVL.
In applying conditions of equilibrium, a given UVL should be replaced by an equivalent point
load or total load acting through the centroid of the loading diagram (right angle triangle).
The magnitude of the equivalent point load or total load is equal to the area of the loading
diagram.

4) External moment: A beam can also be subjected to external moments at certain points as
shown in figure. These moments should be considered while calculating the algebraic sum of
moments of forces about a point on the beam
Note : A beam can also be subject to a load as shown in figure below.

In such a case, the UVL can be split into a UDL with a uniform intensity of w 1/unit length
another UVL with a maximum intensity of (w2-w1) /unit length.
3.5 STEPS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
1.Beam subjected to loading is a coplanar non-concurrent force system. Here three conditions of
equilibrium can be applied, namely : ∑Fx = 0, ∑F y = 0 and ∑M = 0
2. Draw the free body diagram of the given beam by showing all the forces and reactions acting
on the beam.
3. Apply the three conditions of equilibrium to calculate the unknown reactions at the supports.
3.6 PROBLEMS:
1. A simply supported beam of 6 m span is loaded as shown in Figure below. Find the reactions
at A and B.

Writing FBD of the beam, converting the UDL of 3 kN/m over a span of 3 m into a point load

∑MB = 0
( Clockwise moment +ve)
- RA x 6 + 2 x 1.5 + 9 x 3 + 5 x 4.5 = 0
=> RA = 52.5/ 6 = + 8.75 kN
∑F y = 0
(↑+ve)
+RA + RB – 5 – 9 – 2 = 0
+8.75+RB -16 =0
=> RB = +7.25 kN

2. Determine the reactions at A and E for the beam shown below

Converting the UDL of 20 kN/m over a span of 3 m into a point load, and applying the laws of
equilibrium we can write FBD as below.

∑Fx = 0
(→+ve )
=> RAX – 200 cos 45° = 0
=> RAX = + 141.421 kN
∑MB = 0
( Clockwise moment +ve)
–RE x 12 + 200 sin 45° x 9 + 60 x 4.5 + 100 x 3 + 100 = 0
=> RE = + 161.899 kN
∑F y = 0
(↑+ve)
RE + RAY – 100 – 60 – 200 x sin 45° = 0
=> RE + RAY = 301.421
=> 161.899 + RAY = 301.421
=> RAY = + 139.522 kN
RA = √( RAX2 + RAY2)
= √( 141.4222 + 139.5222)
=> RA =198.662 kN
a = tan--( RAY/ RAX)
= tan--(139.522/ 141.422)
a = 44.61 ˚

3. Determine the distance x such that RA and RB are equal, for the beam shown
Applying the conditions of equilibrium to calculate the value of x, we will get,
∑F y = 0
(↑+ve)
+RA + RB – 30 – 20 – 10 – 20 = 0
2RA – 80 = 0
Since RA= RB,
RA = RB = 40 kN
∑MA = 0
( Clockwise moment +ve)
+20 X 1 + 30 X 2 + 20 X 3 – 40 X 7 + 10(7 + x) = 0
=> x = 7 m.
4. For the beam with loading shown in below figure, determine the reactions at the supports A
and D.

Inclination of plane of support to horizontal, tan Q = 1/ 2

=> Q = 26.56 ˚
Free body diagram of the beam can be written as below.

∑Fx = 0
(→+ve )
RAX + 100 x cos 45° – RD x sin 26.56° = 0
RAX – 0.477 RD = 70.71 --------------------------------------(1)
∑F y = 0
(↑+ve)
RAY + RD x cos 26.56° – 100 x sin 45° – 150 = 0
RAY + 0.894 RD = 220.71 -----------------------------------(2)
∑MA = 0
( Clockwise moment +ve)
–5RD x cos 26.56° + 150 x 3.5 + 100sin 45° x 1 = 0
=> RD = +133.199 kN
Substituting in eqn (1);
RAX = –11.15 kN
Substituting in Eqn (2); we get,
RAY = 101.63 kN
RA = √( RAX2 + RAY2)
= √( 133.199 2 + (-11.15)2)
=> RA =133.66 kN
a = tan--( 11.15/ 133.199)
a = 4.785 ˚

5. Find the reactions at supports A and B for the beam loaded as shown below.

Converting UDL to equivalent point load at center, FBD of the beam is as given below.

∑Fx = 0
(→+ve )
+ RAX – 3 = 0
=> RAX = + 3 kN
∑F y = 0
(↑+ve)
+RAY + RB – 5 – 6 = 0
=> RAY + RB = 11 -----------------------------------------------------------(1)
Also, we have,
∑MA = 0
( Clockwise moment +ve)
-RB x 6 + 5 x 1 + 6 x 4.5 – 3 x 0.5 – 10 =0
=> RB = +3.417 kN
Substituting value of RB in Eqn (1)
RAY + 3.417 = 11
=> RAY = +7.583 kN.
RA = √( RAX2 + RAY2)
= √( 3 2 + 7.5832)
=> RA = 8.155 kN
a = tan--( 7.583/ 3)
a = 68.41 ˚
6. Find the reactions for the cantilever beam loaded as shown.

Converting UDL and UVL to respective point loads and writing FBD we get,
Point load due to UDL= 4 x 3 = 12 kN
Point load due to UVL= Area of the triangle= 0.5 X 2 x 2 = 2 kN.
∑Fx = 0
(→+ve )
+RAX- 80 cos 30° = 0
=> RAX = +69.282 kN
∑F y = 0
(↑+ve)
+RAY – 80 sin 30° – 2 – 12 – 30 = 0
=> RAY = + 84 kN
∑MA = 0
( Clockwise moment +ve)
+80 sin 30° x 3 + ((2 x 2/3)+ 5) + 12 x 8.5 + 30 x 12 + MA = 0
=> MA = -594.667 kN-m.

7. Find the reactions for the beam loaded as shown.

Converting trapezoidal load into UDL of 20kN/m and UVL of 0 intensity at left end and 40kN/m at
right end, FBD of beam can be written as follows.

∑Fx = 0
(→+ve )
40 x cos 45° – RAX = 0
=> RAX = +28.284 kN
∑F y = 0
(↑+ve)
=> RAY + RB – 40 sin 45° – 60 – 60 = 0
=> RAY + RB = 148.284---------------------(1)
Applying ∑MA = 0 ,
( Clockwise moment +ve)
–RB x 3 + 60 x 1.5 + 60 x 2 + 50 – 40 sin 45 x 1 = 0
=> RB = +77.238 kN
Substituting value of RB in (1)
RAY = +71.046 kN
RA = √( RAX2 + RAY2)
= √( 28.284 2 + 71.0462)
=> RA = 78.469 kN
a = tan--( 71.046/ 28.284)
a = 68.292 ˚
 Unit III
Friction

Introduction

Whatever we have studied so far, we have always taken the force applied by one
surface on an object to be normal to the surface. In doing so, we have been making an
approximation i.e., we have been neglecting a very important force viz., the frictional
force. In this chapter we look at the frictional force in various situations.

Even when a smooth surface is observed under a microscope, it will be seen that the
surface has undulations with troughs and crests as illustrated in Figure. 3.1

Figure 3.1 Two bodies moving over each other

In this chapter when we talk about friction, we would mean frictional force between
two dry surfaces. This is known as Coulomb friction. Frictional forces also exist when
there is a thin film of liquid between two surfaces or within a liquid itself. This is
known as the viscous force. We will not be talking about such forces and will focus
our attention on Coulomb friction i.e., frictional forces between two dry surfaces only.
Frictional force always opposes the motion or tendency of an object to move against
another object or against a surface. We distinguish between two kinds of frictional
forces - static and kinetic - because it is observed that kinetic frictional force is
slightly less than maximum static frictional force.
Let us now perform the following experiment. Put a block on a rough surface and pull
it by a force F (see figure 1). Since the force F has a tendency to move the block, the
frictional force acts in the opposite direction and opposes the applied force F. All the
forces acting on the block are shown in figure 1. Note that we have shown the weight
and the normal reaction acting at two different points on the block. I leave it for you
to think why should the weight and the normal reaction not act along the same
vertical line?

It is observed that the block does not move until the applied force F reaches a
maximum value Fmax. Thus from F = 0 up to F = Fmax, the frictional force adjusts itself
so that it is just sufficient to stop the motion. It was observed by Coulombs that F
max is proportional to the normal reaction of the surface on the object. You can
observe all this while trying to push a table across the room; heavier the table, larger
the push required to move it. Thus we can write
Where µs is known as the coefficient of static friction. It should be emphasized again
that is the maximum possible value of frictional force, applicable when the object is
about to stop, otherwise frictional force could be less than, just sufficient to prevent
motion. We also note that frictional force is independent of the area of contact and
depends only on N.

As the applied force F goes beyond Fmax , the body starts moving now experience
slightly less force. This force is seem to be when is known as the coefficient of kinetic
friction. At low velocities it is a constant but decrease slightly at high velocities. A
schematic plot of frictional force F as a function of the applied force is as shown in
figure 2.

Values of frictional coefficients for different materials vary from almost zero (ice on
ice) to as large as 0.9 (rubber tire on cemented road) always remaining less than 1.

A quick way of estimating the value of static friction is to look at the motion an object
on an inclined plane. Its free-body diagram is given in figure 3.
Since the block has a tendency to slide down, the frictional force points up the
inclined plane. As long as the block is in equilibrium

As θ is increased, mgsinθ increases and when it goes past the maximum possible
value of friction fmax the block starts sliding down. Thus at the angle at which it slides
down we have

LIMITING FRICTION

The self-adjusting opposing and resisting friction F which opposes the sliding
motion of one body over another, has a limiting value and if the applied force
 exceeds this value, the body begins to move. This limiting value of the force is
called the limiting friction and at this stage the body is in limiting equilibrium
and just on the verge of motion.

Coefficient of Friction (µ)

It is the constant ratio which the limiting friction F bears to the normal reaction
N, i.e. as shown in Figure 3.2, where a body of weight W is in equilibrium
under the applied force P and the frictional force F,

Figure 3.2 Coefficient of Friction (µ)

F
µ=
N

µ= 0, for smooth surfaces

TYPES OF FRICTION

Depending on the state of rest or motion, we can categorize friction into:

(i) Static friction

And
 (ii) Dynamic friction

Sliding friction Rolling friction

(i)Static friction: It is the friction experienced between two bodies when both
bodies are at rest.

(ii) Dynamic friction: It is the friction experienced between two bodies when
one body moves over the other body. It is of two types –

(a) Sliding friction: It is the resisting force which opposes the sliding motion of
one body over another body. This force acts in a direction opposite to the
direction of impending motion.

(b) Rolling friction: It is the friction between the two bodies when one body
rolls over the other body.

Based on the surface of contact, there are two types of friction, namely:

Dry friction: If the contact surfaces between the two bodies is dry, then the
friction between such bodies is known as Dry friction.

Fluid friction: The friction between two fluid layers or the friction between a
solid and a fluid layer.

Angle of friction (f)

Let us again consider a body of weight W which is placed over a rough surface
and is subjected to an external force P as shown in figure. The following forces
are acting on the body:

(i) Self-weight, W
(ii) External force, P
(iii) Frictional force, F
 (iv) Normal reaction, N

Figure Angle of friction (f)

The angle of friction for two contacting surfaces is the angle between the
resultant R (of friction force F and the normal reaction N) and the normal reaction
N. It is denoted by f.

In triangle ABD,

AD F
tanϕ= = =μ
AB N

Angle of Repose (u)

When a plane is inclined to the horizontal by a certain angle, the body placed on it
will remain at rest up to a certain angle of inclination, beyond which the body
just begins to move. This maximum angle made by the inclined plane with the
horizontal, when the body placed on that plane is just at the point of sliding
down the plane, is known as the angle of repose. Repose means sleep which is
disturbed at that particular angle of inclination.

Let us consider a body of weight W which is placed on an inclined plane as shown

in Figure 8.4. The body is just at the point of sliding down the plane when the
 angle of inclination is u. The various forces acting on the body are self-weight,
normal reaction, and frictional force.

Figure Angle of Repose (u)

Applying the conditions of equilibrium,

ΣFx=0, ΣFy=0

Resolving forces along the x-axis,

-F +W sin u = 0,

Or F = W sin u

Resolving the forces along the y-axis,

N – W cos u = 0

Or N = W cos u

F
We know that, μ=
N

W sin θ
μ= =tan θ
W cos θ

Or tan f = tan u
Or f=u

Angle of friction = Angle of repose

LAWS OF FRICTION

The laws of static friction are:

(i) The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which
the body tends to move.
(ii) The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the applied force
which just moves the body.
(iii) The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between the two surfaces in contact, i.e.

F
=constant
N

Where F is the limiting friction and N is the normal reaction.

(iv) The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two
surfaces.
(v) The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces in
contact.

The laws of dynamic friction are:

(i) The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which
the body is moving.
(ii) The magnitude of the kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between the two surfaces in contact. But this ratio is slightly less
than that in the case of limiting friction.
(iii) The friction force remains constant for moderate speeds but decreases
slightly with the increase in speed.
 Tips to Solve the Problems

1) Draw a free body diagram.

2) Draw the reference axes. We have to choose the reference axes in such a way that
one of the axis must be along the direction of motion.
3) The following forces should be considered while drawing the free body diagram.
a) Self-weight always acts vertically downwards.
b) External or internal forces.
4) In a rough surface (with a non-zero coefficient of friction), two forces must be
present.
a) Frictional force (tangential force) which is always opposite to the direction
of motion at the contact surface and is parallel to the contact surface.
b) Normal reaction, which is always perpendicular to the contact surface.
5) Write the algebraic sum of the forces along the x-axis, i.e. ΣFx = 0
6) Write the algebraic sum of the forces along the y-axis, i.e. ΣFy = 0
7) Write the limiting friction equation, i.e. µ = F/N.
8) Solve for the three unknowns from the three equations.

Let us now solve a couple of simple standard examples involving static

friction/kinetic friction.

Example 1: A 50kg block is on an inclined plane of 30°. The coefficient of static

friction between the block and the plane is 0.3. We wish to determine the
range of m under the block will be in equilibrium (see figure 5).

The very first question that we address first is: why is there a range of m ? It is
because of the friction. If friction were absent, there is only one value
of m , , that will balance the 50kg mass. On the other hand, friction
can adjust itself according to the kind of motion; it can even change direction
depending upon which way is the 50kg block slipping. Thus when friction is
present, there is range of m , starting from when the 50kg block has a
tendency to slide down the ramp to when m pulls it up the ramp. Let us
calculate these values. We first take the case when the 50kg block is about to
slide down the ramp. At that point, the friction will be pointing up with its
 magnitude at its maximum value. In that case the free body diagram
of 50kg block is as follows.

A reminder here that a free body diagram is the one where we isolate a body and
replace all other elements in contact with it by the forces they apply on the
body. Thus the ramp surface is replaced by its normal reaction N, and the
frictional force (max) µN, and the string attached with m is replaced by the
corresponding tension T in it. We reiterate that we have taken the direction of
up the ramp because we have assumed the block to be sliding down and we
have taken the friction at its maximum possible value. This gives us the
smallest possible mass m .

Taking directions along the ramp to be the x-direction and that perpendicular to

it to be the y-direction gives

50g sin30 = T + µ N

Similarly gives
 N = 50g sin30

To get T, we apply the force balance equation to mass m to get

T = mg

Solving these equations with g = 10ms -2 gives

m = 7.68kg.

Now as we start increasing m, the frictional force would become smaller and
smaller than its maximum value µN , eventually changing direction and
increasing up to in the µN in the opposite direction. The free body diagram
of 50 kg block will then look like (note that the direction of friction is opposite
to that in figure 5) figure 6.

Then (taking the x-axis along the ramp) implies that

T = 50g sin30 + µN
The other two equations remain the same as in the previous case. Solution of
these equations gives

m = 42.32kg

Thus we see that due to friction, there is a range of mass m from 7.68 kg to
42.32 kg that can balance the 50 kg weight on the ramp; for all the values of
m between the values determined above, the frictional force will be less than
its maximum value. I leave this example by asking you: at what value of m will
the frictional force be zero?

We now take certain specific example of friction viz. rotation of a solid cylinder
against a dry surface; this is known as dry thrust waving. We then discuss the
case of belt friction and finally the square screw thread and the screw jack. In
these discussions we closely follow the book by Shames on Engineering
Mechanics.

Example 2: Let us first take the case of a cylinder of radiation R and mass m kept
vertically on a rough surface. It is to be rotated about the vertical by applying
a torque T. We wish to calculate Twhen the cylinder is about to rotate. Or in
other words what is value of maximum T so that the cylinder does not rotate
see figure 7). The coefficient of friction between the cylinder and the surface
is µ.
In this example, we will have to consider the torque generated by friction. To do
this, let us consider a ring of radius r and thickness 'dr' and see how much
frictional force does this experience (see figure 8)?
If we assume the normal reaction to be evenly distributed, then normal reaction
on the ring is

The frictional force on it at radius r is therefore

And the torque due to this friction is therefore

That is the maximum torque that can be tolerated against friction. Of course we
have assumed in this derivation that the weight of the cylinder is evenly
distributed. If the weight is concentrated more towards the centre, T would
be less and it would be more if the weight is more towards the periphery. The
next example that we take is that of a block on a ramp again.
Example 3: A block of mass 100 kg is on a ramp of angle 30°. We wish to
determine the magnitude and direction of the frictional force for the applied
force F = 600N, F = 500N and F = 100N . This is a problem
where we do not know a priori whether the block will be moving up or down
the plane or whether it will have a tendency to move up or down the plane. So
while solving we have to keep it mind :

1. Whether the block will remain stationary or move.

2. Which way does the block have tendency to move or which way does it move?

That will determine the direction of friction.

To get the answer, we see that if the maximum possible static friction is
not able to stop the block, it will move and in that case the friction will be
kinetic. We will check that as we solve the problem. To understand which way
will be the friction act, let us first assume that there is no friction and
calculate the corresponding Fo for equilibrium. If applied F is greater Fo than
the block will have a tendency to move up, otherwise it will have a tendency
to move down the plane. Free-body diagram of the block looks (friction = 0)
as follows.
Taking x-axis along the plane and y-axis perpendicular to it (see figure) we get
from the equilibrium conditions

Let us see what happens if we increase F beyond 558.6N. In that case the
component of F up the slope will increase and the block will have a tendency
to move up. Let us now answer the second question whether at 600N

( Fcos30° - 100gsin 30° )> Max. Friction OR ( Fcos30° - 100gsin θ ) < Max Friction

From
N=100gcos30° +Fsin30°

we get

N=981

=490

=848.68+300=1148.68N

Thus maximum value of frictional force is

On the other hand,

Thus only 29.6N of frictional force is required to keep the block in equilibrium.
This is well below the maximum possible frictional force. So under 600N, the
block will be in equilibrium and the direction of friction will be down the
plane. The free body diagram will look as follows in this case.
Now we consider the case when the horizontal push is changed to 500N.
At F = 500N ( Fcos30° - 100gsin30°) will be negative so the block will have a
tendency to slide down. Let us again calculate the maximum possible
frictional force µsN and ( 100gsin30º - Fcos30º) for F = 500N .

N= 100gcos30° - Fsin30°

=848.68+250=1098.68

and

Further

100gsin30° -Fcos30° =490 - 250 × 1.732

=57N

which is again well below the maximum frictional force of 219.7N. So the block
will remain in equilibrium with its free-body diagram a follows.
Next we consider the case of the force pushing the block to be 100N. At F = 100N
obviously the block as a tendency to slide down since it does so for F = 500N.
For 100N case

N = 100gcos30° +Fsin30°

=848.68+50

=898.68 N

and

Further
This force is larger than the maximum frictional (static) force. Thus the block will
start sliding down, However when the block slides down, the friction will no
more be given by µsN but by µkN. Thus the frictional force is = .17x 898.68N =
152.8N. Thus the free body diagram of the block will look as given below.

Another way of doing this problem would be to apply the external force F and
calculate the frictional force required to keep the body in equilibrium by
assuming a direction for the frictional force. This would give both the
direction and magnitude of the frictional force required for equilibrium of the
block. If this force is below µ sN, the body will remain in equilibrium; if it
exceeds µsN, it will move.

Next we consider friction on a belt or a rope going around an object. For

simplicity, we consider the rope to be going around a pulley and making
contact with it over an angle .Let T1 >T2 so that the rope has a tendency to
slide to the right and therefore experiences a frictional force to the left.
Let us now consider a small section of angular width so and see how it gets
balanced. Let the normal to this section be shown by the dotted line.
Normal reaction in this direction balances the components of T and in
the opposite direction so that.

The frictional force is balanced by so that

Solving this equation, we get

Thus tension in the rope increases exponentially with the contact angle. Notice
that the relationshipT1 =T2 does not depend on the radius of the pulley but
only on the contact angle. Thus, even if the shape of the contact is not perfectly
circular, the same derivation applies and the relationship between T 1 and
T2 remains the same, depending only on the contact angle.

Because of the relationship , if we take a cylindrical object - say a pencil

-and let a string pass over it, then . If we wrap the string once

more, then , and so on. This is nicely demonstrated by balancing a

heavy object like a bottle filled with water by a light object like a bunch of
keys tied on two ends of a string and the string itself going many times over a
rough stick. More you wrap the string, a bigger filled bottle would you be able
to balance with the same bunch of keys. If you measure the weights of the
objects carefully, you should be able to check the relationship derived above
and also get the value of the coefficient of friction (see figure 15).
We unknowingly use the effect discussed above when we wrap a clothes-string
over the nail on which it is tied many times to make it tight. Similarly boats
are tied with the ropes holding them going over a pole many times. We now
solve an example where the surface over which the rope passes is not
cylindrical.

Example: A 70kg load is being lifted by tying a rope to it and passing the rope
over a tree-trunk. The persons lifting it have to apply a force of 1800N just
when the load starts moving up. What is the coefficient of static friction
between the tree-trunk and the rope if the contact angle between the trunk
and the rope is 120°? (see figure 16).
Since the rope is in contact with the rope over an angle of , the
relationship between T on the slide of the persons pulling the rope and To on
the side of the load is (friction is towards the load since rope is about to move
towards the persons pulling it)

Notice that we are not worrying about the shape of the tree-trunk but rather only
about the contact angle. It is given that T = 1800N and T0 =70 x 9.8 = 688N .
Therefore we have
Finally, we take the example of a square screw thread and a screw jack. In this
case a screw with square threads passes through a nut and we wish to
consider the action of the nut on the screw. You have seen this in a jack where
a load (say a car) is lifted by rotating a screw. So a load W is lifted by applying
a torque T on the screw (figure 17).

The threads on the screw make an angle α with the horizontal so that

where p is the pitch and r is the mean radius of the screw. We wish to find the
torque T (minimum) that is needed to lift the load W. When the screw is being
 lifted up the nut applies a normal reaction and a frictional force on the screw
shown in figure 16. Keep in mind that the normal reaction and the friction act
on the periphery of the screw. Thus they also apply a couple about the vertical
axis on the screw. The figure also shows the load W . Balancing the force in
the vertical direction and the torque about the vertical axis gives

Solving these equations gives

This is the torque needed to lift the load W .

Let us now say that we raise the load and then release the torque. Will the jack
self-lock i.e., would it hold the load where it is and would not unwind. We
want to find the condition for this. When the screw self-locks, it will have a
tendency to move down. Thus the free body diagram of the screw in this
condition looks as follows.
Balancing the vertical force now gives

and if the screw is not to unwind, the torque due to the friction should be large
than that due N . Thus for self-locking we require that

Thus is the condition for self-locking. Under this condition the screw will not
unwind by itself as torque due to the frictional force would be sufficient to
prevent the unwinding due to the torque arising from N .
Example: Let us now solve a household example of this. Sometimes you see that
experimental tables or refrigerators at home have screw-like contraption at
their legs to adjust their heights. Let the radius of such a screw be 2mm. We
wish to know what should be minimum number of thread per cm so that the
screw self-locks for µS =0.15.

For self locking we know that

This gives on substitution

If the number threads per cm is N then

This gives

Thus there should be a minimum of 6 threads per centimeter in order that the
screw self-locks itself.

Example A block shown in Figure 8.6 is just moved by a force of 200 N. The
weight of the block is 600 N. Determine the coefficient of static friction
between the block and the floor.
Solution: Considering the conditions of equilibrium,

ΣFx = 0

200 cos 20° – μN = 0

μN = 187.938

ΣFy = 0

N – 600 + 200 sin 20° = 0

N = 531.596 N

Substituting the value of N in Eq. (i), we get

μ = 0.35

Example A small block of weight 1000 N as shown in Figure 8.10, is placed on a 30°
inclined plane with = 0.25. Determine the horizontal force to be applied for:

1) Impending motion down the plane

2) Impending motion up the plane.
Solution (i) The value of P for impending motion down the plane

Consider the free body diagram of block

ΣFy = 0
Or 20 × 9.81 × cos 30° – N = 0
Or N = 20 × 9.81 cos 30° = 169.914 N

Also, ΣFx = 0
or –P – 0.24 × 169.914 + 20 × 9.81 sin 30°
∴ P = 57.320 N

(ii) The value of P for impending motion up the plane

Consider the free body diagram of block
ΣFy = 0
Or N = 20 × 9.81 cos 30°
Or N = 169.914 N

Also, ∑Fx = 0
Or –20 × 9.81 sin 30° + P – N = 0
Or P = 20 × 9.81 sin 30° + 0.24 × 169.914
P = 138.879 N

Example 8.8 A block weighing 4500 N resting on horizontal surface supports

another block of
3000 N as shown in Figure 8.22. Find the horizore
ntal force P required to just move the block to the left. Take the coefficient of
friction for all contact surfaces as 0.3.
Solution When one body is placed over the other body, equal and opposite reactions
and also equal and opposite frictional forces will come into existence between the
contact surfaces of the two bodies as shown in Figure 8.23.

From Fig
For ΣFy = 0, we get
–3000 + N2 + T sin 30° = 0
N2 = 3000 – 0.5T
For ΣFx = 0, we get
T cos 30° – 0.3(3000 – 0.5T ) = 0
Or T cos 30° – 900 + 0.15T = 0
Or 1.016T = 900
Or T = 885.827 N
N2 = 3000 – 0.5T = 2557.086 N
From Figure
For ΣFy = 0, we get
N1 = 4500 + 2557.086 = 7057.086 N

And for ΣFx = 0,

P – 0.3 × 7057.086 – 0.3 × 2557.086 = 0
P = 2884.252 N

WEDGE FRICTION

A wedge is usually a triangular or trapezoidal body in action. It is used either for

lifting heavy loads or for slight adjustments in the position of a body, i.e. tightening
fits or keys for a shaft.
When lifting a heavy load, the wedge is placed below the load and a horizontal force P
is applied as shown in Figure 8.51.
The load will be resting against the wedge as shown in the above figure. As can be
seen, the wedge moves from right to left lifting the block upwards, Hence the friction
force reaction always opposes the impending motion and therefore the friction
reaction Rw between the block and the wall is downwards, and that between the
ground and the wedge Rg is acting towards left to right.
The analysis of block and wedge depends on the relative motion. In case of block, it is
moving from left to right relative to the motion of wedge (right to left) and hence the
friction reaction is right to left, whereas for the wedge, the friction reaction is acting
from left to right.
Further, the analysis of forces is easier with the Lami’s theorem. It can be seen that
the forces acting on both the block and wedge are a convergent system of forces and
also there are three forces acting at each point O and O′ respectively. As the system is
in equilibrium, the Lami’s theorem can be applied in succession at both the points
respectively.
Consider the block first, as the number of forces acting on it is minimum (Figure
8.52). Out of the three forces, the weight of the block acts vertically downwards. The
friction reaction with the wall will be acting at w from the normal to the contact
surface of wall and block, i.e normal to the vertical surface. Finally, the third force is
the friction reaction between the block and the wedge acting at b from the normal to
the contact surface, which in turn is inclined at θ (wedge angle) with the vertical.
Hence, the friction reaction from the wedge is inclined at an angle from the
vertical. Following is the free body diagram at point O’

The given problem can be solved by Lami’s theorem.

Example: Determine the value of P just sufficient to start the 10° wedge under
the 40-kN block. The angle of friction is 20° for all contact surfaces.
Example: What force P must be applied to the wedges shown in Figure to start
them under the block? The angle of friction for all contact surfaces is 10°.
LADDER FRICTION

A ladder is a device used for climbing the roofs or walls. It consists of two long
uprights of wood, steel or iron pipes connected by a number of cross pieces. The
friction developed between the contact surfaces of ladder and floor and also between
the ladder and the wall is known as ladder friction.

Consider a ladder AB resting on ground and leaning against a wall as shown in Figure

As the upper end of ladder tends to slip downwards, the force of friction between the
ladder and the wall will be Fw upwards. Similarly as the lower end of the ladder
tends to slip away from the wall, the force Fg should be towards the wall.
Since the system is in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of the components of forces
must be zero.
1.Determine the support reactions for the compound beam shown in Figure

Solution
The radius of the roller is negligible.
Consider the beam BE
ΣFy = 0
RB + RE = 9 kN
ΣMB = 0
5 x1 + 4 x 2 – RE x 3 = 0
3RE = 13
RE =4.33 kN
RB = 9 kN – 4.333 kN = 4.667 kN
Consider the beam AC
ΣFx = 0
RAX = 0
ΣFy = 0
RAY + RC = 15 + 4.667 = 19.667 kN
ΣMA = 0
15 x 1.5 + 4.667 x 3 – RC x4 = 0
4RC = 36.501
RC = 9.125 kN
RAY = 19.667 – 9.125 = 10.542 kN
RA = RAY = 10.542 kN (since RAX = 0)
For beam DF
ΣFx = 0
RFX = 0
ΣFy = 0
RD + RFY = 15 + 4.333 = 19.333 kN

ΣMF = 0
–15x1.5 – 4.333x3 + RDx 4 = 0
RD = 8.875 kN
RF = RFY = 19.333 – 8.875 = 10.458 kN

2.Determine the reactions developed in the double overhanging beam shown in

figure
Solution
ΣFx = 0
RBX – 60 cos 30° = 0
RBX = 51.962 kN
ΣFy = 0
RBY + RC – 25 – 120 – 60 – 80 – 60 sin 30° = 0
RBY + RC = 315
ΣMB = 0
–RCx 6 + 60 sin 30°x 12 + 80x(1.333 + 6) + 60x 4 + 120x 3 –
25x 3 = 0
RC = 245.273 kN
RBY = 315 – 245.273 = 69.727 kN
RB =(51.952)2x (69.727)2
RB = 86.727 kN

3.Determine the support reactions for the beam shown in Figure

Solution

Using the conditions of equilibrium, we have

ΣFx = 0
–RDX = 0
ΣFy = 0
RBY + RDY – 60 – 50 – 50 = 0
RBY + RDY = 160
ΣMB = 0
RDY = 73.958 kN
RBY = 160 – 73.958 = 86.042 kN
RD = 73.958 kN

4.Find the support reaction at A and B in the beam as shown in fig

Sol.: First draw the FBD of the beam as shown in
6KN is the point load of UDL
WMNQB = Weight of MNQB
= UDL × Distance(MB)
=1×2 = 2KN, act at a point 1m vertically from point B
WNPQ = Weight of Triangle NPQ
= 1/2 × MB × (BP – BQ)
= 1/2 × 2 × (3 – 1)
= 2KN and will act at MB/3 = 2/3m from point B
Since hinged at point A and Roller at point B. let at point A RHA and RVA and at
point B RVB is the support reaction, Also beam is in equilibrium under action
of coplanar non concurrent force system, therefore:
∑H = 0
 RAH –WMNQB – WNPQ = 0
RAH – 2 – 2 = 0
RAH = 4KN .......ANS
∑V = 0
RAV + RBV – 5 – 6 = 0
RAV + RBV = 11KN ...(i)
Taking moment about point A:
MA = 5 × 1 – 10 + 6 × 4.5 – RBV × 6 – WNPQ × (2 – 4/3) – WMNQB × 1 =
0
5 × 1 – 10 + 6 × 4.5 – RBV × 6 – 2 × (2 – 4/3) – 2 × 1 = 0
RBV = 3.11KN .......ANS
Putting the value of RBV in equation (i)
RAV = 7.99KN

5.Find out reactions at the grouted end of the cantilever beam shown in fig
 Solution:
Draw F.B.D. of the beam as shown in figure First change UDL in to point load.
Since Point A is
fixed point i.e., there is three reaction are developed, RAH, RAV, MA. Let ∑H & ∑V
is the sum of horizontal and vertical component of the forces, The supported
beam is in equilibrium, hence
R = 0,
∑H = ?V =0
∑H = 0;
RAH = 0 .......ANS
∑V = 0;
RAV – 50 + 15 = 0, RAV = 35KN .......ANS
Now taking moment about point ‘A’
–MA + 50 × 2.5 + 100 – 15 × 14.5 = 0
MA = 7.5 KN–m .......ANS
6.Determine the support reactions for the beam supported and loaded as shown
in Figure
[Ans.: RB = 32 kN, RA = 58.85 kN]

7. Determine the support reactions for a beam loaded as shown in Figure

[Ans.: RA = 55.83 kN, RE = 79.17 kN]
8.A horizontal beam 6 m long is supported on a knife edge at its end B and the
end A, rests on a roller support placed on an inclined plane, having an
inclination of 300 as shown in
Figure 6.51. Find the reactions at the supports A and B.
[Ans.: RA = 1667.44 N, RB = 1696.17 N]

9.Find the support reactions for a beam loaded and supported as shown in Figure
[Ans.: RAX = 5 kN, RAY = 1.17 kN, RB = 16.83 kN]

10.Calculate the support reactions for the cantilever beam shown in Figure
1.Determine the force P required to start the wedge shown in Fig. . The angle of
friction for all surfaces in contact is 15°.

From the FBD of the block to the right

ΣFV=0
R1cos15∘=R2sin15∘+200
R1cos15∘ =R2sin⁡15∘+200
R1=0.2679R2+207.0

ΣFH=0
R2cos15∘=R1sin15∘+50
R2cos⁡15∘=R1sin⁡15∘+50
R2cos15∘=(0.2679R2+207.06)sin15∘+50
0.8966R2=103.590.8966R2=103.59
R2=115.54 kN
From the FBD of the wedge to the left
ΣFH=0
R3cos30∘=R2cos15∘
R3cos30∘=115.54cos15∘
R3=128.87 kN

ΣFV=0
P=R2sin15∘+R3sin30∘
P=115.54sin15∘+128.87sin30∘
P=94.34 kNP=94.34 kN answer

2.To adjust the vertical position of a column supporting 200-kN load, two 5°
wedges are used as shown in Fig.Determine the force P necessary to start the
wedges is the angle of friction at all contact surfaces is 25°. Neglect friction at
the rollers.
From the FBD of the upper wedge
ΣFV=0
R2cos30∘=200
R2=230.94 kN

From the FBD of the lower wedge

ΣFV=0
R3cos25∘=R2cos30∘
R3cos25∘=230.94cos30∘
R3=220.68 kN

ΣFH=0
P=R2sin30∘+R3sin25∘
P=230.94sin30∘+220.68sin25∘
P=208.73 kN answer

3.The block A in Fig. supports a load W and is to be raised by forcing the wedge B
under it. If the angle of friction is 10° at all surfaces in contact, determine the
maximum wedge angle α that will give the wedge a mechanical advantage; i.e.,
 make P less than the weight W of the block.

β=180∘−100∘−(10∘+α)
β=70∘−α

R2sin100∘=WsinβR2sin⁡100∘=Wsin⁡β
R2sin100∘=Wsin(70∘−α)R2sin⁡100∘=Wsin⁡(70∘−α)
R2=Wsin100∘sin(70∘−α)R2=Wsin⁡100∘sin⁡(70∘−α)
θ=180∘−80∘−(80∘−α)
θ=20∘+α

R2sin80∘=Psinθ
R2=Psin80∘sinθ
Wsin100∘sin(70∘−α)=Wsin80∘sin(20∘+α)
sin100∘sin(70∘−α)=sin80∘sin(20∘+α)
sin100∘sin(20∘+α)=sin80∘sin(70∘−α)
sin100∘(sin20∘cosα+cos20∘sinα)=sin80∘(sin70∘cosα−cos70∘sinα)
sin100∘sin20∘cosα+sin100∘cos20∘sinα=sin80∘sin70∘cosα−sin80∘cos70∘sinα
sin100∘cos20∘sinα+sin80∘cos70∘sinα=sin80∘sin70∘cosα−sin100∘sin20∘cosα
(sin100∘cos20∘+sin80∘cos70∘)sinα=(sin80∘sin70∘−sin100∘sin20∘)cosα
sinαcosα=sin80∘sin70∘−sin100∘sin20∘sin100∘cos20∘+sin80∘cos70∘
tanα=sin80∘sin70∘−sin100∘sin20∘sin100∘cos20∘+sin80∘cos70∘
tanα=0.4663076582

α=25∘ answer

4.A uniform bar AB, weighing 424 N, is fastened by a frictionless pin to a block
weighing 200 N as shown in Fig. P-533. At the vertical wall, μ = 0.268 while
under the block, μ = 0.20. Determine the force P needed to start motion to the
right.

ΣMA=0
NB(2x)=424x+fB(2x)
2NB=424+2fB
2NB=424+2(0.268NB)

1.464NB=424
NB=289.62 N

fB=0.268(289.62)
fB=77.62 N

ΣFV=0
NA=fB+200+424
NA=77.62+200+424
NA=701.62 N

fA=0.20(701.62)
fA=140.32 N

ΣFH=0
P=fA+NB
P=140.32+289.62
P=429.94 N answer

5.In Fig, two blocks each weighing 1.5 kN are connected by a uniform horizontal
bar which weighs 1.0 kN. If the angle of friction is 15° under each block, find P
directed parallel to the 45° incline that will cause impending motion to the
left.

μ=tanϕ
μ=tan15∘
Summation of forces on block A normal to the 30° incline
NA=2cos30∘+Ccos60∘
NA=2cos30∘+0.5C

Amount of friction under block A

fA=μNA=tan15∘(2cos30∘+0.5C)
fA=2cos30∘tan15∘+0.5Ctan15∘

Summation of forces on block A parallel to the 30° incline

fA+2sin30∘=Csin60∘
(2cos30∘tan15∘+0.5Ctan15∘)+1=Csin60∘
2cos30∘tan15∘+1=Csin60∘−0.5Ctan15∘
(sin60∘−0.5tan15∘)C=2cos30∘tan15∘+1
C=2cos30∘tan15∘+1sin60∘−0.5tan15∘
C=2 kN

Summation of forces on block B normal to the 45° incline

NB=2cos45∘+Ccos45∘
NB=2cos45∘+2cos45∘
NB=2.8284 kN

Amount of friction under block B

fB=μNB=tan15∘(2.8284)
fB=0.7578 kN

Summation of forces on block B parallel to the 45° incline

P+2sin45∘=fB+Csin45∘
P+2sin45∘=0.7578+2sin45∘
P=0.7578 kN answer

6.As shown in Fig. P-529, a homogeneous cylinder 2 m in diameter and weighing

12 kN is acted upon by a vertical force P. Determine the magnitude of P
necessary to start the cylinder turning. Assume that μ = 0.30.
When the cylinder starts to turn due to P, the normal force under horizontal
surface is zero. See the free body diagram below.

x=(1)(sin60∘)
x=123√ m

ΣMA=0
(1+x)P=12x
(1+123√)P=12(123√)
1.866P=10.392
P=5.569 kN answer

7.A ladder 6 m long has a mass of 18 kg and its center of gravity is 2.4 m from the
bottom. The ladder is placed against a vertical wall so that it makes an angle
of 60° with the ground. How far up the ladder can a 72-kg man climb before
the ladder is on the verge of slipping? The angle of friction at all contact
surfaces is 15°.
Coefficient of friction
μ=tanϕ
μ=tan15∘

Amount of friction at contact surfaces

fA=μNA=NAtan15∘
fB=μNB=NBtan15∘

ΣFV=0
NA+fB=18+72
NA=90−fB
NA=90−NBtan15∘

ΣFH=0
fA=NB
NAtan15∘=NB
(90−NBtan15∘)tan15∘=NB
90tan15∘−NBtan215∘=NB
90tan15∘=NB+NBtan215∘
NB(1+tan215∘)=90tan15∘
NB=90tan15∘1+tan215∘
NB=22.5 kg

fB=22.5tan15∘
fB=6.03 kg

ΣMA=0
NB(6sin60∘)+fB(6cos60∘)=18(2.4cos60∘)+72(xcos60∘)
NB(6tan60∘)+6fB=18(2.4)+72x
6(22.5)tan60∘+6(6.03)=43.2+72x
72x=226.81
x=3.15 m answer

8.A ladder weighing 200 N and 4 m long is placed on the ground at an angle of 60°
and the top of the ladder rests against the wall, as shown in Figure 8.84. A
man weighing 1000 N stands at the top of the ladder. The coefficient of
friction between the wall and the ladder is 0.30 and that between the ground
and the ladder is 0.35. If the ladder is not to slip, find the horizontal force P
required to be applied to the ladder at its end on the floor. [Ans.: P = 178.174
N]

9.Determine the force P required to start the movement of the wedge as shown in
Figure 8.82. The angle of friction at all contact surfaces is 15º. [Ans.: 35.27 N]
10.Two blocks P and Q are connected by a rigid bar as shown in Figure 8.79. If the
weight of the block P is 2800 N, determine the minimum weight of block Q to
prevent sliding. [Ans.: WQ = 7577.8 N]

11.A 200 N block is in contact with a plane inclined at 30° to the horizontal. A
force P parallel to and acting up the plane is applied to the body. If s = 0.2 (a)
find the value of P to just cause motion impend up the plane, (b) to just
prevent motion down the plane.
[Ans.: (a) P = 134.64 N, (b) P = 65.35N]