I

University and IB Stramre

In the previous unit, we discussed the important role of universities in society. We also
discussed the various kinds of existing universities. In a vast system, like the one that we
have, there is bbund to be diversity. Higher education in India is the joint responsibility
of both the federal and state governments. It has often been argued that the growth of the
higher education system has been uneven. The structure reflects "patterns of political
economic development in the pre-colonial, colonial and, currently neo-colonial that are
uneven and often contradictory. Each major phase of development called forth an
institutional expression in higher education and these disparities have never been resolved"
(Chitnis, 1980 : 140). However, without going into details ofthese disparities, we different
statutory bodies, and their functions in academic, non-academic and para-academic
responsibilities. We shall also discuss two impArtant issues, namely autonomy and
accountability, in the university context.

Learning outcomes
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
identify the structural components of universities in India in relation to their statutory
bodies and functions;
explain the role of the university's functionaries for its smooth management;
e' describe the functions of universities as an autonomous system; and
identify the indicators of accountability in a university system for better managerial
strategy.

The organisationalstructure of universities

The university system as it now operates in India was mostly inherited from the British.
It dates back to 1857, when the first three universities were set up in the port towns of
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay by the colonial rules as institutions for ~ u r o ~ e a n ' h i ~ h e r
learning in India.
Though the three universities were supposed to be modelled on the University of London,
they were not designed to be major centres of research or of advanced post-graduate
level education. Rather, they were conceived to be centres of undergraduate studies, and
 as peripheral adjuncts to the centres of advanced university education at Oxford, University and Its
'
. , Structure
Cambridge, London or elsewhere in Europe (Gilbert, 1972; Basu, 1978).
With tlie attainment of Independence and also to fulfil the aspiration for higher education
of the lndian population, the Government of India under the leadership of Jawaharlal
Neliru took immediate measures to expand higher education facilities. Initially it served
the interests of the elite sections of the Indian society who had the means to suppofi their
education. Nowhere has it been made evident that university system started by the
colonial rulers experienced any discontinuity in tlie system even after Independence. In
'
the process of its expansion, a few new universities were established, and aconsiderable
number of diversified courses were added, both in the professional fields which included
kducation, law, engineering, management, socia>science/humanities, physical and life
sciences, etc. were iiicluded. No doubt this has made a significant contribution in the
area of student enrolment and expansion of the system, but no significant changes were
observed in the organisational structure of these universities.
As mentioned in the previous unit, except for a few teaching universities, most of the .
Indian universities were organised on the affiliating principle. The main function of
such universities is to provideable governance for their constituentand affiliated colleges.
Hence, the admi~iistrativebodies, otherwise known as statutory bodies, have also been
constituted on similar principles. In the following sub-sections, we will discuss the
constitution and functions of each of these statutory bodies.

Statutory bodies of the universities

Each Indian university is governed by its statutory bodies such gs the Court or Senate,
the Executive Council/Syndicate/Board of Management, the Academic Council, Board
of Studies etc. Nominees of the Central governinent in the case of Central Universities
and tho,se from the State Government in the case of State Universities are represented in
the governing bodies of these universities. The following are the important decision-
making bodies, which govern the Indian universities:
. Court/Senate
Executive ~ & n c i l / ~ ~ n d i c a t e / ~ of
o aManagement
rd
Academic Council
Board of Studies
Finance Committee
Boards or Committees
We will now discuss each of these bodies, their constitution and functions, as well as the
powers they enjoy for tlie effective functioning ofthe university system.

i) The University CourtISenate

The CourtISenate is the supreme governing body of Universities. i n the case of Central
universities it is known as the Court, while in State universities it is called the Senate.

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However, in tlie case of lndira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) such body
does not exist. Generally, each of the CourtISenate of the universities has about 100
members and often more. It has some ex-officio members, and representativesof various
-professions/industries,principals of the affiliated colleges, students, non-teaching staff
alumni and some teachers, nominated members.
This highest statutory body involves itself in all the major decision making process in the
univ&sity. It controls the budget of a university, considers the annual report and passes
resolutions thereon. It reviews the Acts ofthe university and examines the role of major
bodies oftlie university. It also modifies and repeals statues, whenever necessary, and
passes ordinance in establishing new colleges, and maintaining both new and old oneSf;
Planning and Management It also supervises the establishment of teaching and administrative posts, and has the
of Higher Education: responsibility of conferring degrees. The Court/Senate can delegate its power, to the
A Macro-Perspective
authority or any of the bodies of the university as it deems fit.

ii) Executive Council/Syndicate/Board of Management

In the Central Universities, the principal governing body is known as the Executive
1
Council; in the State universities it is called the SyndicateIExecutive Council or Board
of Management. All the main functionaries of the university are ex-officio members of
this body. It has representatives from both alumni's principals and the faculty, as also
government representatives. Few prominent persons from the field of education are also
nominated the council.
The Executive CouncilISyndicatelBoardof Management manages and regulates finances,
accounts, investments, property, business of the university and all other related
administrative affairs. It passes ordinance for the constituent colleges, and monitors the
effective management of these colleges. It also regulates and maintains the publication
department and the university press. It enjoys the power to entertain, adjudicate and
redress grievai~cesof the staff of the university. It has also the power to delegate authority
in certain matters of the university or to the committee, as it deems to be fit, for the
effective and efficient management of the university

iii) Academic Council

All the senior afficials of the university including Deans and Heads of departments of
studieslschools are ex-officio members of an Academic Council. The representation for
the ex-officio membership is normally based on the principle of rotation. Students also
get representation on this body in some universities. If a university has its constituent
affiliated colleges, the Principals of these colleges are also represented of this body.
The prime responsibility of the Academic Council of a university is to take important
decisions on programmes and courses to be offered for students. It has also the
respoilsibility for the maintenance of the standards in instruction, examination, evaluation,
etc. The Academic Council works as an adviser to the Executive Council/Syndicate/
Board of Management on all academic matters, including the control and management
of libraries, laboratories, workshops, etc. It makes proposals to the Executive Council1
SyndicateIBoard of Management for the establishment of new departments, colleges,
special centres, etc.
The Academic Council has the responsibility of considering proposals submitted by the
faculty, to promote research activities within and outside the university, to recognise
diplomas and degrees of the other universities, and to appoint committees for admission
to various courses. It also takes interest in promoting the welfare of students. The
Council exercises such other powers and responsibilities as are conferred on or imposed
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on it by, or under, the provisions of the University Act.

iv) Board of Studies

Universities have Boards of Studies in different subject disciplines. It usually consists
of the Head of the University Departments, representatives of heads ofdepartments in
a
affiliated colleges and of teachers and co-opted members. In certain universities stuhnts
are also nominated as members of the Board of Studies of FacultyIScl~ools.
The Board of Studies coordinates teaching and research work in the departments, appoints
committees to organise the teaching and research work in the subjects1areas;approves
the courses of studies, and takes active part in the examinations and evaluation process.
It promotes research work of the faculty/schools and forwards thesereports on research
to the Academic Council. It also acts on the matters referred to it by the Vice-Chancellor,
Executive CouncilISyndicate or the Academic Council from time to time.
v) Finance Committee University and Its
Structure
The Vice-Chancellor of the university is the 'ex-officio chairman of this committee.
Normally, members include nominees of the VisitorIChancellor, Government and
Executive CouncilISy~~dicatelBoards of Management as members of this Committee.
The Finance Officer of the university is normally the member Secretary of the Finance
Committee.

I got it done, sir. The idea, I understant, is to give a cheerful new look to the whole place!
Courtesy : R.K. Laxman

Subject to the control ofthe Executive Council/Syndicate, the Finance Officer holds and
manages the property and looks into investments, including trusts and endowed property
for furthering any of the objects of the university. The Officer also sees to it that the
limits fixed by the Finance Committee on the recurring and non-recurring expenditure 1
/
for a year are not exceeded and that all the money is spent on the purposes for whichthey
were originally granted or allocated.

vi) Boards or Committees

The above-mehtionedstatutory bodies ofthe university can appoint Boards or Committees
to deliberate upon certain specific issues. These Boards or Committees can have members
from the respective statutory bodies or from outside. The main function of such a PI
Planning and Management Committee is to deliberate and make recommendations on issue assigned to it, subject to
of Higher Education: subsequent confirmation by the body, which appoints it. From the above discussion it is
A ~acro-perspective
evident that a broad spectrum of responsibilities are assigned to statutory bodies of the
university for its smooth functioning. But there are certain instances, where these bodies
cross the limits ofthe authority assigned to them and took action in respect of issues not
falling within their purview. However, we do not intend to discuss the issues involved
here as it is beyond the context of our present discussion. In the next section, we will
confine the discussion to the different functionaries of the university.

Self-assessment
I. Discuss the functions of the Board of Management andAcademic Council in the context
o f a university you arefamiliar with. .
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n

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2. Fill up the blank after selecting the most appropriate words(s) given within the
brackets. __

a) In the context of central universities ......................... is the supreme governing

body.
(Court, Executive Council, Board of Management)
b) ........................ is the ex-officio Chairman of the Board of Studies of Faculty/
School.
(Vice-Chancellor,Dean ofthe Faculty/School,Senior most Professor ofthe Faculty/
School)
c) In the capaclty ofthe members secretaty ofthe finance committee .........................
prepares the annual accounts andfinancial estimates ofthe university.
(the Registrar, the Pro-Vice-Chancellor, the Finance Oficer)
4 ......................... coordinates and monitors the teaching and research work with
the faculty/schools of the university.
(Board of Studies, Executive Council/Syndicate, Academic Council)

The universityfinctionaries
The responsibility for the smooth functioning of any instituti& rests upon its staff. They
are the pivotal links between the public and the institute's authorities. In the context of
a university, the hierarchy maintained by these functionaries is all the more interesting to
observe. In the following sections, we shall briefly describe the functions which constitute
the formal pyramid of power structure within a university system.

i) Chancellor
'."
orm mall^ each university in India has a Chancellor. By and large, the State universities
incorporated by an Act ofthe Legislature have Governors as the Chancellors. But in the
case of Central universities it is the President of India, who is known as Visitor of the
University, appoints the Chancellor of such universities. The Chancellors of the Central
am universities, whether elected or nominated by the Central Government, are usually men
of repute or persons of academic distinction. By and large, the Chancellors of the Central O
universities have not evoked any controversy so far. On the contrary, the Governors who
are usually Chancellors of State universities have come across severe criticism, when University and Its
Structure
they have tried to act authoritatively or as mouthpieces of the political party in power.
The functions of tlie Chancellors are generally oftwo types - statutory and non-statutory.
The statutory functions are normally laid down in the Act ofthe university. Non-statutory
functions evolve more or less from custom and convention. One ofthe statutory functions
of the Chancellor is to preside over the court/senate meetings ofthe university. Helshe
has been vested with the power of appointing the Vice-Chancellor of the university, to
nominate a few members to the courtJsenate, executive council, and academic council,
selection committee of teachers and senior officers ofthe university. In the form of non-
statutory functions, the Chancellor has the power to intervene in the matters of general
administration of universities and also in academic matters like the priority in offering
the courses, assessment procedures, vacations1 holidays, and'other matter related to -
academic supervision.
I

ii) Vice-Chancellor
'The Vice-Chancel lor is the lynch pin of a university. Helshe is the keeper ofthe university's
conscience, as mentioned in the University Education Commission Report 1948-49. And
as stated by the Kothari Commission (1964-68), helshe should be committed to the
university's piirsuit of scholarship and of truth. Helshe is the key person in the whole
university system. On him depends, to a great extent, the success with which a university
is able to fi~nctioneffectively and efficiently to fulfil its objectives. We shall now list the
main functions of a Vice-Chancellor of a university.
a) The Vice-Chancellor is the chairman of important statutory bodies ofthe university
such as the SenateICourt, the Executive CouiiciI/Syndicate/Boardof Management,
the Academic Council, the Planning Board, the Finance Committee, the Selection
Committee, etc. As Chairman, helshe presides over meetings, controls proceedings
and keeps constant vigil on the discussions in the meetings.
b) As the executive head of a university, the Vice-Chancellor is responsible for the
implementation ofthe decisuans taken by various statutory bodies. In this context,
the Vice-Cliancellor's capacity to run the university efficiently and effectively is
trr~iyreflected.
c) It is the duty of tlie Vice-Chancellor to see to it that the provisions of the Act,
statutes, ordinances, regulations are, and that the decisions taken by university
authorities, are implemented.
d) The Vice-Chancellor has to convene meetings of the statutory bodies. Helshe can
also be present and address any meetings of auniversity body or committee, without
being a m e ~ nber.
e) As Chairman of the research and Ph.D. cornhittee, helshe has to ensure standard
and the priority areas of the research effort undertaken by the university. '
f) He presides over the committee constituted to select teachers and nominates the ,
members of the expert committees for selecting other academic and administration
personnel of tlie university.
The task of a Vice-Chancellor, as one can really imagine, is not an easy one. Helshe is
the principal executive officer and the prime academic head of a university. Helshe, to
perform tlie role efficiently Iielshe has to take constant advice and guidance not only
from i~niversityauthorities but also from teachers, officers of the university, and other
relevant agencies outside the university.
The term of office of Vice-Chancellor is normally of five years in the case ofventral
Planning and Management iii) Pro-Vice-Chancellor/Rector
of Higher Education:
A Macro-Perspective The Pro-Vice-Chancellor/Rector is the second executive and administrative officer in a
university. In Central universities, the P.V.C./Rector is appointed by the Executive Council
on the recommendations of the Vice-Chancellor and is selected from amongst the senior
Professors ofthe.University. He exercises such powers and performs such duties as may
be prescribed by the statutes of the university. In State universities, the PVC is appointed
by the Chancellor from a panel 6f'games recommended by the Vice-Chancellor. The
terms ofoffice ofthe ~ . ~ . ~ . l R e cist generally
zr
. co-terrninui with the Vice-Chancellor. It
should, however, not exceed five
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The P..V.C./Rector is expected to share the responsibilities ofthe Vice-Chancellor in the
areas where the latter deems it proper. Helshe also officiates for the Vice-Chancellor
when the latter is either away-from the headquarters on official business nor on leave.
Hence, the prime functions of the P.V.C./Rector is a sort of partnership with the Vice-
Chancellor tomake the whole-operation of university system more effective.

iv) Registrar
The next in the hierarchy of the university system is the Registrar, who traditionally has
been the permanent administrative head of a university. The very aspect of permanency
gives the Registrar an advantage over the Vice-Chancellor who has a fixed tenure.
Therefore, the Acts of many universities have been modified and the Registrar's tenure
fixed at five years.
The Registrar of a university is the ex-oficio secretary ofthe CourtlSenate and Executive
Council/Syndicate. Helshe is the custodian of records, the university seal and all the-
other propetties oftlie university that the Executive Council/Syndicate entrusts to his1
her care. Helshe must sign all contracts and agreements made on behalf of the university.
The Registrar is supposed to maintain correspondence with other statutory bodies. He/
she convenes the meetings of all the bodies as per advice of the Vice-Chancellor. The
Registrar is also responsible for the preparation of the Annual Report on the activities of
the university and other sundry matters.
The functions and powers ofthe Registrar discussed above are by no means exhaustive.
It has been observed that the more the Vice-Chancellor and Registrar pull together, the
greater the strength ofthe university system.

V) Dean of Faculty/School
The Dean is the head of the schoollfaculty of studies. In most ofthe universities in India,
the Dean is appointed by the Vice-Chancellor from amongst the Professors of a faculty1
school for two years, on rotation on the basis of seniority.
The Dean is responsible for the conduct and standards of teaching and research in his/
her facultylschools. Helshe coordi~ratesand generally supervises these through heads of
departments. Hisher responsibility is to arrange for the examination of the university in
respect of the students of hislher faculty/school in accordance with such directions as
may be given by the Academic Council., Helshe performs other academic duties as may
be assigned to himlher by the Vice-Chancellor, Executive CouncilISyndicate or by the
Academic Council, form time to time.

vi) Head of the Department

\
The Head of a Department otherwise known as Chairman of a Department or Centre, is
appointed by the Vice-Chancellor, for a period specified in the statutes, on a rotation
The Head convenes and presides over the meetings of the department under the general University and Its
Structure
supervision oftlie Dean. Helshe organises teaching and research work in the department,
and is incharge of maintaining discipline in the classroom, laboratories, etc. Helshe
assigns to the teachers of the department, such duties as may be necessary, for the proper
functioning ofthe department. The major activities which helshe undertakes, are to plan,
execute and monitor the working of hisher department in the fields ofteaching, research
and extension activities.

vii) ~ther'hnctionaries
In thiscategory, we have included all other functionaries of the university who are
responsible both for administiative and academic matters. Among such functionaries,
the'most important ones are the Controller of Examinations. Finance Officer, Deputy
Registrars and also Assistant Registrars. As examination is an important and aconfidential
matter connected with university administration, the position of the Controller of
Examinations is of immense value to the system. The credibility of the university largely
rests on the successful holding of examinations and, therefore, the role of the Controller
of Examination is of utmost importance.

I want to avoid trouble. If I catch anyone copying, it always leads to rioting

Courtesy : R.K. Laxman

Another important officer, usually appointed on deputation from the Government, is the
Finance Officer of the university. Helshe generally has a training in accounts and advises
the university authority regarding all financial matters. Helshe has the responsibility of
preparing annual budget estimates and gives it a final shape. Helshe is the custodian of
the university's finance.
The Deputy Registrar and the Assistant Registrars contribute immensely to the upkeep
of the university system by playing a significant role in implementing major decisions
\
and policies of the university. This decentralisation process helps the university .
administration to function smoothly and effectively. In this section we attempted to identi6 %

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certain major roles of the important university functionaries. In the next sections, we
shall discuss two important issues i.e. university autonomy for efficient management,
and its accountability towards the achievement of broader national goals.

Report of the U G C Committee on University Management

A UGC Committee on Alternate Models of Management with Prof. A. Jnanam as -
chairman, submitted in January 1990 a report tilled "Towards new Educational
Management" which made important recommendations on various aspects of universit?
governance. Some of the recorninendationsregarding Authorities,Bodies and Committees
are as follows:
Planhing and Management 1. The university senate or court should be a deliberative and consultative body.and
of Hlgher Education:
not a decision-making authority. It should have representation from various sections
A Macro-Perspective
of society etc. size should be a maximum of 100 members in affiliating universities
and smaller in central universities.
2. The Syndicate/Executive Council/Board of Management should be the principal
executive body. It should not normally over-rule the decisions in academic matters
of the academic council.
3. The Academic Council should be the principal authority as far academic affairs are
concerned the membership should predominantly be academic persons.
P

4. Every academic discipline should.havea Board of Studies. The membership should

comprise 60% faculty members 20% external experts and 20% representative of
user agencies.
5. Every university should have a Finance Committee , Manning and Monitoring
Board, Board of Research, Board of Evaluation/Examination/Boardof Extension
work and Grievance Rehearsal Committee.
As regards officers, the Committee has recommended:
1. The President of India should be the Visitor of Control universities the Governor
the chancellor of State universities. I

2. The Chancellor should be a' person eminence in public life or one who has
distinguished himself in science, social science, literature or the arts.
3. The Vice-Chancellor should be a senior and distinguished academic possessing the
highest level of competence and integrity. He should be the administration and
academic head with powers and duties commensurate with these duties.
4. Every university should have one or more posts of the level of the Vice-Chancellor.
5. There should be different Registrars for governance, administration, Finance and
Evaluation/Examination with terms of 5 years.
6. Automatic or mandatory rotation of headship of departments should be abolished.
The head should be appointed for 5 years without any bar on reappointment. The
department should be administered with the help of committees.

Self-assessment
3. what are the non-statutoryfinnetions of the Chancellor?
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4. What are thefirnctions vfthe Vice-Chancelloras the ex-officio Chairman ofthe university
statutory bodies?
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' I

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,\

University: an autonomous system

For any organisation or institution, an important factor contributing to its growth, both
ifiternally and externally, is the extent of autonomy it enjoys. The university as an
unique institution of higher learning, cannot be placed beyond this requirement. This is
not only a necessary condition for the smooth running of the institute, but it also contributes
to the qualitative development of the university system. A university has to be invested University and Its
Structure
with autonomy basically at three levels, (i) In selection of students, (ii) In the appointment
of teachers and adoption of their promotion criteria, and (iii) formulation of courses of
study, teaching techniques, research programmes and extension activities.
While ensuring autonomy, it is very important for the university, to accept the idea and
practice of accountability. It has to show a commitment to truth in all fields of activities.
The ideal of commitment has to be inculcated in all the members of the university
community, and this principle must dominate all its sphere. Only in such a situation is
there a likelihood of the university getting not only self-respect, but also the respect of
society.
The concept of autonomy of universities is based on the acceptance that without it the
university cannot discharge its duties effectively. It has been observed that only an
autonomous institution, which is free from regimentation of ideas and outside pressures,
can transact its activities fearlessly, and thus build creative thinking and a spirit of enquiry
among its members. Such institutions stand unaffected by the limitations or prejudices
of society and this is obviously very essential for the development of a free society.
The university autonomy functions at two levels, which are as follows:
i) Autonomy within a university which includes the autonomy of the departments,
colleges, teachers and students in relation to the internal hnctioning ofthe university
as a whole.
ii) Autonomy of the university system as a whole, in relation to outside agencies and
influences emanating from outside the system, such as from State or Central
governments.
We will discuss briefly, the operational implications of such autonomy at each level.
,

Autonomy within a University

Autonomy within a university system is normally confined to the following levels:
i) Universities are institutions meant for teaching and learning, and their main
functionaries are the teaching community. The non-academic staff in a university
perform the supporting roles. It has been observed that within auniversity system,
it is the administration which plays a bigger role most ofthe time even in academic
matters. A situation sometimes exists, where in the administration tries to acquire
a dominating and controlling position in various university bodies. This is
contrary to the principles of the university autonomy. Hence, conventions should
be built, if they do not already exist, to allow the academic staff to face decisions,
particularly in the teaching and research functions. In this respect, it is necessary
that the Academic Council of the university be the final authority in all academic
matters.
ii) In academic matters, a democratic approach must be followed. There is always a
tendency to give more importance to the ideas and proposals given by an influential
individual as, in most of the cases, it has come from persons who hold important
positions. This would be an unhealthy practice in an institution. Hence, a healthy
atmosphere has to be developed in a university where proposals and ideas are to be
Planning and Management iv) Universities, ifthey have affiliated colleges, must be liberal enough to grant freedom
o f Hlgl~erEducation: for colleges so that their can hnction effectively. The role of a university in relation
A Macro-Perspective
to colleges, is to guide them in the implementation of decisions rather than control
them at every level.
v) A university is the community of academics consisting ofboth teachers and students.
It is always necessary to keep these twoZommunities together in a common bond
rather than polarise them on different issues. In order to create a sense of confidence
between teachers and students, it might be desirable to constitute a joint coordination
committee in each department and faculty. This committee could serve as a forum
for discussion and evolving solution for common problems.
vi) In order to encourage students to take part in the management process of a university,
and to make them realise their responsibilities in the healthy functioning of the
university, students must be given representation in various university bodies, if
this has not already been done.
Another important dimension of university autonomy relates to academic freedom. There
must be a clear distinction between autonomy of a university, and the academic freedom
that teachers enjoy. This freedom implies that a teacher must not be pressurised to teach
something that is against his conscience. This refers to the freedom to express their
views within and outside the classroom. At the same time such freedom should not allow
indulgence in propaganda and pressurising students to subscribe to the ideology that a
teacher holds as correct.
A teacher must be free to pursue and publish his research studies and speak, write and
participate in debates on significant national and international issues. Helshe should
receive all facilities and encouragement in this regard.

Autonomy in relation to outside agencies

Universities in India, being a sub-system of the social system, have certain obligations
and responsibilities towards tlie society. While a university is expected to be autonomous
in its activities, it is always desirable that it does not allow any outside agency to interfere
in its functioning. Sometime, it is obligatory on the part of the university to share its
decisions with such agencies outside the system, like the UGC or AIU, which are integral
parts of the university system. Some of the important aspects of university autonomy
which have led to controversy since their establishment, are discussed below:
a One ofthe important areas in which university autonomy always come under attack
is its power to select and admit students. Of course, while making decisions in this
regard, it is obligatory that universitiesconsider the larger interests of society such
as reservation of seats for the backward sections of the population.
a The universities have been expected t meet all national requirementsfor creation of
trained manpower. However, in a situation where national needs do not remain
static, universitiesfind it difficult to fulfil their commitments. It is, therefore, generally
felt that higher education system itself has become irrelevant to fulfil the requirements
of adeveloping country like India.
a As far as research at the macro-level is concerned, a university always has little to
say. The policy is decided often outside tlie purview of the university system, and
the responsibility of undertaking such research in which it has no say, is mostly
thrust upon the university. The faculty involved in it, may not identify themselves
with such research and hence the seriousness in conducting studies is, more often
than not, lost.
One must not forget another aspect of university autonomy which is important for its
day-to-day functioning. A university can normally enjoy only that must autonomy as the
law permits, since it is an institution established in accordance with a law. The real
 custodian of university autonomy is, therefore, public opinion arising through its own University and Its
Structure
dedication to the pursuit of knowledge and service oftruth.

Self-assessment
5. Distinguish the internal autonomy of a university fiom its external autonomy at the
conceptual level?
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Accountability: the managementperspective

Institutions of higher learning face the charge that they have failed to discharge their
responsibilities. Not only has this allegation come from outside the institutions, but also
the demand for greater accountability has been heard within the institutions themselves,
particularly with respect to the management of internal affairs and the reform of
institutional governance. In the previous unit we discussed some issues related to
accountability. In this section we shall discuss the development of accountability for a
better management perspective.

I
In the basic sense, accountability means "to be answerable legally or morally for the
discharge of duties efJiciently ". Thus, in any institution or organization, accountability
, may be considered as a process which involves the discharge of duties by both individual
and various bodies of which they are a part.
ii As far as universities are concerned, accountability is a necessary and important pre-
condition of their 'autonomy'. These concepts imply that universities have the power of
I
self-governance and decision-making with regard to academic programmes as well as in
respect of administrative and financial matters: so as to enable them to dynamically
exercise their options and implement them to achieve the objectives of higher education
in the broader framework of national development.
Accountability is therefore, a condition that morally and legally forces various
functionaries of a university - including teachers, students and non-academic staff- to
work seriously for the effective management of the system in order to achieve the goals
I
set for the institution. From the management point of view, this is not only desirable, but
also a necessary condition for overall development of the institution.
I
A university must be accountable internally to students who are the direct beneficiaries
of the system, and externally to the society which gets the benefits both directly and
indirectly through knowledge, skills and values that are imparted to students. It is said
that most of the universities in India, demand greater autonomy, but are not concerned
I with their accountability to the society.
As we have seen the process of accountability operates at two levels i.e., the external
L
i
level and the internal level. The indicators for external accountability of a university are
grouped as contents of its courses and the norms of its links to the societal needs; the
I flexibility and options in courses; the co-curricular and extra-curricular activities and
their relation to personality development; performance of students; employment pattern
19
Planning and ~ a n a g e m e n t ' of students passcng specific courses; or programmes and the extension programme
of Higher Education: conducted and teachers' contributions to it; etc.
A Macro-Perspective
The indicators included under the internal accountability are the gap between planning
and implementation of an activity; time gap in decisions with regard to financial and
academic support for various activities; the difference between prescribed m d actual
teaching days and the average workload of a teacher; professional development ofieachers
including seminars, conferences, workshops attended, and refresher courses and training
received by them; the utilization pattern of the library; the teaching aids used; etc.
If one considers seriously hislher obligations in relation to these norms and applies them
to the university system, helshe can assess the level of accountability of the staff of a
university. For students, the average attendance, average number of tasks assigned to
them and the number completed, and the rate of participation in extra-curricular and co-
curricular activities, etc., may be the indicators of accountability.
Teachers have to carry out self-assessment to determine their contribution to teaching,
research, extension and other activities. These also include information such as the number
of classes taken per week, the number of research paperslarticles published, projects
undertaken and completed, and their contributions towards the academic and social
interests.
If accountability in universities is to be viewed positively,one must consider the following
points: /

Efforts must be made to ensure that the requisite conditions of accountability are
maintained and, wherever necessary, reinstated.
Economic conditions are generally such that universities will have to develop more
efficient models of management and governance. Efficiency and lack of genuine
accountability at this level are an open invitation to those who would tamper with
institutional autonomy.
Universities need to reappraise their mission and role as well as their type and level
of programmes, in keeping with the probable levels of funding.
In order to resolve problems of accountability, it is desirable that universities on the one
hand, and the Government and its agencies like the UGC on the other, should boldly face
each other and discuss the problems that adversely affect accountability. More effective
and efficient relationships at this point are, therefore, mandatory.

Self-assessment
6. State at least three indicators each that cover the purview of internal and external
accountability.
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1 when universities in India were established for the first time.during pre-independence
period, they were modelled on pattern of the University of London, U.K. Since then, I
L
L similar structural patterns have been followed although the University of London has University and ~ t s
modified its structure significantly. Keeping this background in mind, we have made an Structure
attempt to present an overview ofthe structural systems ofthe Indian universities. Every
Indian university, be it a federal or an affiliated one, has certain statutory bodies and
these have occupied important position in its administrative system. These statutory
bodies are - the CourseISenate, Executive Council/Syndicate/Board of Management,
Academic Council, Board of Studies of Faculty/School, Finance Committee, Boards of
Committees, etc. Each of these bodies has a unique role to play in the planning and
policy-making of university. The internal management of a university rests with its
functionaries organized in a hierarchical way such as -the Chancellor, the Vice-Chancellor,
t the Pro-Vice-Chancellor/Rector,the Registrar, Dean of Faculty/School, Head of the
Department, Finance Ofice, Deputy Registrar, Assistant Registrar, etc. We have discussed
the important roles that each of these officials play in the shaping of the both academic
and the~administrativematters ofthe university.
yliile discussing issues related to autonomy of a university, we have examined the
operatio~ialbeliaviour of such autonomy at two levels i.e., autonomy within the university
related to teaching-learning situations, and the autonomy of the university in relation to
its outside ,agencies in achieving the broad national goals. Lastly, to focus on a better
managerial perspective, we have examined the issues related to accountability and have
identified certain indicators for accountability in the larger interest of the institution.

Unit-end activities
1. Prepare a case study of an issue, that you are familiar with, which had required a
collective-decision of the staff members of your institution. Examine each of the
steps that you and your colleges had undertaken to resolve the issue. Explain the
specific role that you have undertaken in resolving the problem.

Pointsfor discussion
1. Critically examine the present administrative structure of the college or university
- that you are familiai with. Do you find any inadequacies in the style of functioning
of any statutory body(ies) and functionary(ies)? If your answer is 'yes' what
measures would you like to suggest to improve the style of functioning of such
body(ies) and/or functionary(ies)?If 'no' justify your answer giving suitable reasons.

Suggested readings
Basu, Aparna, (1978) "Policy and Conflict in India: The Reality and Perception of
Education" in Philip G. Altbach and G. Kelly, (eds.) Education andColonialism, New
1I
York: Longmans, pp.539.
Beteille, Andre (1 988) "The Pursuit of Equality and the Indian University" in Amrik
Singh and G.D. Sharma (eds.) Higher Education in India: The Social Context, Delhi:

-
Konark.
Bhalla, V, Rai Negi, U and Panda, S. (eds.) (1998) Accountability'and Autonomy in
Higher Education, New Delhi: Association of Indian Universities (AIU).
Chitnis, Suma (1980) "The Indian Academic: An Elite in the Midst of Scarcity" in The
ANNALS of the American Academy AAPSS, No. 448, March.
Chitnis, Suma and Philip G. Attbach (Ed.) (1979) Indian Academic Profession: Crisis
and Change in the Teaching Community, New Delhi, Macmillan.
Planning and Management Gilbert, Irene (1972) "Autonomy and Consensus Under the Raj: in S. Rudolph and L.
of Higher Education: ,Rudolph, (eds.), Education and Politics in India, Cambridge : Harvard University Press,
A Macro-Perspective
pp. 172-206.
Govt. of India, (1962) University Education Commission 1948-49, New Delhi: Ministry
of Education.
Govt. of India, (1986) Nutianal Policy on Education 1986. New Delhi: Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Deptt. of Education.
Hommadi, A.H. (1984) University Administration in Developing Countries, Delhi: Indian
Bibliographies Bureau.
Narain, Iqbal(1989) "Power Structure in India's University System: Reflections of an
Insider" in Amrik Singh and G.D. Sharma, (eds.), Higher Education in India: The
Institutional Context, Delhi: Konark Publishing Pvt. Ltd., Pp. 235-258.
Powar, K.P., (ed.), (1995) Accountability in Higher Education,New Delhi: Association
of Indian Universites.
Singh, Amrik (1984) Asking for Trouble: What it means to be a Vice-Chancellor today,
New Delhi: Vikas.
Singh, Amrik and G.D. Sharma (1983) University and College Finances, New Delhi:
Association of Indian Universities.
Singh, Amrik and G.D. Sharma (ed.) (1989) Higher Education in India: The Institutional
Context, New Delhi : Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
University.Grants Commission (1981) Report of the Review Committee on UGC
Programmes, New Delhi: UGC.
University Grants Commission (1 990), Towards New Educational Management, New