CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES

• To describe the basic organization of computer systems

• To provide a grand tour of the major components of
operating systems
• To give an overview of the many types of computing
environments
• To explore several open-source operating systems
 WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM?

• A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware
• Operating system goals:
• Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
• Make the computer system convenient to use
• Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
 COMPUTER SYSTEM STRUCTURE

• Computer system can be divided into four components:

• Hardware – provides basic computing resources
• CPU, memory, I/O devices
• Operating system
• Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and
users
• Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used
to solve the computing problems of the users
• Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games
• Users
• People, machines, other computers
FOUR COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
 WHAT OPERATING SYSTEMS DO
• The operating system controls the hardware and coordinates its
use among the various application programs for the various users.
• The operating system provides the means for proper use of
these resources in the operation of the computer system.
• An operating system is similar to a government. Like a
government, it performs no useful function by itself. It simply
provides an environment within which other programs can do
useful work.
• To understand more fully the operating system's role, we explore
operating systems from two viewpoints:
• The user
• The system.
 USER VIEW
The user's view of the computer varies according to the
interface being used
• Single user computers (e.g., PC, workstations). Such
systems are designed for one user to monopolize its
resources. The goal is to maximize the work (or play) that
the user is performing. the operating system is designed
mostly for ease of use and good performance.
• Multi user computers (e.g., mainframes, computing
servers). These users share resources and may exchange
information. The operating system in such cases is designed
to maximize resource utilization -- to assure that all
available CPU time, memory, and I/O are used efficiently and
that no individual users takes more than their air share.
 USER VIEW (CONT.)

• Handheld computers (e.g., smartphones and tablets). The

user interface for mobile computers generally features a
touch screen. The systems are resource poor, optimized for
usability and battery life.
• Embedded computers (e.g., computers in home devices and
automobiles) The user interface may have numeric keypads and
may turn indicator lights on or off to show status. The
operating systems are designed primarily to run without user
intervention.
 SYSTEM VIEW

From the computer's point of view, the operating system is

the program most intimately involved with the hardware.
There are two different views:
• The operating system is a resource allocator
• Manages all resources
• Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource
use

• The operating systems is a control program

• Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use
of the computer
 SYSTEM VIEW

From the computer's point of view, the operating system is

the program most intimately involved with the hardware.
There are two different views:
• The operating system is a resource allocator
• Manages all resources
• Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource
use

• The operating systems is a control program

• Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use
of the computer
 DEFINING OPERATING SYSTEM

No universally accepted definition of what an OS:

• Operating systems exist to offer a reasonable way to solve
the problem of creating a usable computing system.
• The fundamental goal of computer systems is to execute user
programs and to make solving user problems easier.
• Since bare hardware alone is not particularly easy to use,
application programs are developed.
• These programs require certain common operations, such as those
controlling the I/O devices.
• The common functions of controlling and allocating resources are brought
together into one piece of software: the operating system.
DEFINING OPERATING SYSTEM (CONT.)

No universally accepted definition of what is part of the OS:

• A simple viewpoint is that it includes everything a vendor ships when
you order the operating system. The features that are included vary
greatly across systems:
• Some systems take up less than a megabyte of space and lack
even a full-screen editor,
• Some systems require gigabytes of space and are based entirely
on graphical windowing systems.
DEFINING OPERATING SYSTEM (CONT.)
No universally accepted definition of what is part of the OS:
• A more common definition, and the one that we usually follow, is that
the operating system is the one program running at all times on the
computer -- usually called the kernel.
• Along with the kernel, there are two other types of programs:
• System programs, which are associated with the operating system
but are not necessarily part of the kernel.
• Application programs, which include all programs not associated
with the operation of the system.
DEFINING OPERATING SYSTEM (CONT.)
• The emergence of mobile devices, have resulted in an
increase in the number of features that constituting the
operating system.
• Mobile operating systems often include not only a core
kernel but also middleware -- a set of software
frameworks that provide additional services to application
developers.
• For example, each of the two most prominent mobile
operating systems -- Apple's iOS and Google's Android --
feature a core kernel along with middleware that supports
databases, multimedia, and graphics (to name only a few).
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Users

Applications

Database System
Operating System
Hardware
 COMPUTER-SYSTEM ORGANIZATION

• A modern general-purpose computer system consists of one or

more CPUs and a number of device controllers connected
through a common bus that provides access to shared memory.
• Each device controller is in charge of a specific type of device (for
example, disk drives, audio devices, or video displays). Each device
controller has a local buffer.
• CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers.
• The CPU and the device controllers can execute in parallel,
competing for memory cycles. To ensure orderly access to the
shared memory, a memory controller synchronizes access to the
memory.
MODERN COMPUTER SYSTEM
 COMPUTER STARTUP

• Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

• Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
• Initializes all aspects of system
• Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
 COMPUTER-SYSTEM OPERATION

• Once the kernel is loaded and executing, it can start providing

services to the system and its users.
• Some services are provided outside of the kernel, by system
programs that are loaded into memory at boot time to
become system processes, or system daemons that run
the entire time the kernel is running.
• On UNIX, the first system process is init and it starts many
other daemons. Once this phase is complete, the system is
fully booted, and the system waits for some event to occur.
• The occurrence of an event is usually signaled by an
interrupt.
 INTERRUPTS

• There are two types of interrupts:

• Hardware -- a device may trigger an interrupt by sending a
signal to the CPU, usually by way of the system bus.
• Software -- a program may trigger an interrupt by executing a
special operation called a system call.

• A software-generated interrupt (sometimes called

trap or exception) is caused either by an error (e.g.,
divide by zero) or a user request (e.g., an I/O request).
• An operating system is interrupt driven.
COMMON FUNCTIONS OF INTERRUPTS

• When an interrupt occurs, the operating system preserves

the state of the CPU by storing the registers and the
program counter
• Determines which type of interrupt has occurred and
transfers control to the interrupt-service routine.
• An interrupt-service routine is a collection of routines
(modules), each of which is responsible for handling one
particular interrupt (e.g., from a printer, from a disk)
• The transfer is generally through the interrupt vector,
which contains the addresses of all the service routines
• Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction.
INTERRUPT TIMELINE
Interrupt-driven I/O cycle.
 STORAGE STRUCTURE
• Main memory – the only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
• Random access
• Typically volatile
• Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile
storage capacity
• Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording
material
• Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
• The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer
• Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
• Various technologies
• Becoming more popular
• Tertiary storage – Magnetic tape, optical disc, and optical tapes
 STORAGE DEFINITION

• The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of
two values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on
collections of bits.

• A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient

chunk of storage.

• A less common term is word, which is a given computer architecture’s

native unit of data. A word is made up of one or more bytes.
 STORAGE DEFINITION (CONT.)
• Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is
generally measured and manipulated in bytes and collections
of bytes.
• A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
• a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
• a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
• a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
• a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes
• exabyte, zettabyte, yottabyte

• Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and

say that a megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1
billion bytes. Networking measurements are an exception to
this general rule; they are given in bits (because networks
move data a bit at a time).
 STORAGE HIERARCHY

• Storage systems organized in hierarchy

• Speed
• Cost
• Volatility

• Caching – copying information from “slow” storage into

faster storage system;
• Main memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage

• Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O

• Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel
Storage-device Hierarchy
 I/O STRUCTURE
• A general-purpose computer system consists of CPUs and
multiple device controllers that are connected through a
common bus.
• Each device controller is in charge of a specific type of device.
More than one device may be attached. For instance, seven or
more devices can be attached to the small computer-
systems interface (SCSI) controller.
• A device controller maintains some local buffer storage and a
set of special-purpose registers.
• The device controller is responsible for moving the data
between the peripheral devices that it controls and its local
buffer storage.
• Typically, operating systems have a device driver for each
device controller. This device driver understands the device
controller and provides the rest of the operating system with
a uniform interface to the device.
 I/O STRUCTURE (CONT.)
• To start an I/O operation, the device driver loads the
appropriate registers within the device controller.
• The device controller, in turn, examines the contents of these
registers to determine what action to take (such as “read” a
character from the keyboard).
• The controller starts the transfer of data from the device to
its local buffer. Once the transfer of data is complete, the
device controller informs the device driver via an interrupt
that it has finished its operation.
• The device driver then returns control to the operating
system, possibly returning the data or a pointer to the data if
the operation was a read.
• For other operations, the device driver returns status
information.
DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS STRUCTURE
• Interrupt-driven I/O is fine for moving small amounts of data
but can produce high overhead when used for bulk data
movement such as disk I/O.
• To solve this problem, direct memory access (DMA) is used.
• After setting up buffers, pointers, and counters for the I/O device, the
device controller transfers an entire block of data directly to or from its
own buffer storage to memory, with no intervention by the CPU.
• Only one interrupt is generated per block, to tell the device driver that
the operation has completed. While the device controller s performing
these operations, the CPU is available to accomplish other work.
• Some high-end systems use switch rather than bus architecture.
On these systems, multiple components can talk to other
components concurrently, rather than competing for cycles on a
shared bus. In this case, DMA is even more effective. The figure
in next slide shows the interplay of all components of a
computer system.
HOW A MODERN COMPUTER WORKS
A von Neumann architecture and a depiction of the interplay of
all components of a computer system.
COMPUTER-SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

• Single general-purpose processor

• Most systems have special-purpose processors as well

• Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance

• Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
• Advantages include:
• Increased throughput
• Economy of scale
• Increased reliability – graceful-degradation/fault-tolerance
• Two types:
• Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all
tasks
• Asymmetric Multiprocessing – (master-slave concept) each
processor is assigned a specific task.
SYMMETRIC MULTIPROCESSING ARCHITECTURE
 MULTICORE SYSTEMS
• Most CPU design now includes multiple computing cores
on a single chip. Such multiprocessor systems are termed
multicore.
• Multicore systems can be more efficient than multiple
chips with single cores because:
• On-chip communication is faster than between-chip
communication.
• One chip with multiple cores uses significantly less power than
multiple single-core chips, an important issue for laptops as well as
mobile devices.
• Note -- while multicore systems are multiprocessor
systems, not all multiprocessor systems are multicore.
A dual-core with two cores placed on the same chip
 CLUSTERED SYSTEMS
Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working
together

• Usually sharing storage via a Storage-Area Network (SAN)

• Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
• Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
• Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other

• Some clusters are for High-Performance Computing (HPC)

• Applications must be written to use parallelization

• Some have Distributed Lock Manager (DLM) to avoid

conflicting operations
CLUSTERED SYSTEMS
 MULTI-PROGRAMMED SYSTEM

• Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all
times
• Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU
always has one to execute
• A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
• Batch systems:
• One job selected and run via job scheduling
• When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another
job

• Timesharing systems:
• Logical extension of batch systems -- CPU switches jobs so
frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running,
creating interactive computing
 TIMESHARING SYSTEMS
• Timesharing is also referred to as multitasking.
• Response time should be < 1 second
• Each user has at least one program executing in memory.
Such a program is referred to as a process
• If several processes are ready to run at the same time, we
need to have CPU scheduling.
• If processes do not fit in memory, swapping moves them in
and out to run
• Virtual memory allows execution of processes not
completely in memory
MEMORY LAYOUT FOR MULTI-PROGRAMMED SYSTEM
 MODES OF OPERATION

• A mechanism that allows the OS to protect itself and other

system components
• Two modes:
• User mode
• Kernel mode
• Mode bit (0 or 1) provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or
kernel code
• Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
• Systems call by a user asking the OS to perform some function
changes from user mode to kernel mode.
• Return from a system call resets the mode to user mode.
TRANSITION FROM USER TO KERNEL MODE
 TIMER

To prevent process to be in infinite loop (process hogging

resources), a timer is used, which is a hardware device.

• Timer is a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.

• Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
• Operating system sets the counter (privileged instruction)
• When counter reaches the value zero, and interrupt is
generated.
• The OS sets up the value of the counter before scheduling a
process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds
allotted time
 PROCESS MANAGEMENT
• A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
• Process needs resources to accomplish its task
• CPU, memory, I/O, files, etc.
• Initialization data
• Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
• A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization within a process.
 Single-threaded process. Instructions are executed sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
• Process has one program counter specifying location of next instruction to
execute
• Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
• Typically, a system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
• Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the threads
PROCESS MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:

• Creating and deleting both user and system processes

• Suspending and resuming processes
• Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
• Providing mechanisms for process communication
• Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
 MEMORY MANAGEMENT
• To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be
in memory
• All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must
be in memory.
• Memory management determines what is in memory and when
• Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

• Memory management activities

• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by
whom
• Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and
out of memory
• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
 STORAGE MANAGEMENT

• OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

• Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
• Files are stored in a number of different storage medium.
• Disk
• Flash Memory
• Tape
• Each medium is controlled by device drivers (i.e., disk drive,
tape drive)
• Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate,
access method (sequential or random)
 FILE SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
• Files usually organized into directories
• Access control on most systems to determine who can
access what
• OS activities include
• Creating and deleting files and directories
• Primitives to manipulate files and directories
• Mapping files onto secondary storage
• Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
SECONDARY-STORAGE MANAGEMENT

• Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
• Proper management is of central importance
• Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem
and its algorithms
• OS activities
• Free-space management
• Storage allocation
• Disk scheduling

• Some storage need not be fast

• Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
• Still must be managed – by OS or applications
 CACHING
• Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer
(in hardware, operating system, software)
• Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
• Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
• If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
• If not, data copied to cache and used there

• Cache are smaller (size-wise) than storage being cached

• Cache management important design problem
• Cache size and replacement policy
PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS LEVELS OF STORAGE

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

MIGRATION OF DATA “A” FROM DISK TO REGISTER

• Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

• Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
• Distributed environment situation even more complex
• Several copies of a datum can exist
• Various solutions covered in Chapter 17
 I/O SUBSYSTEM

• One purpose of an operating system is to hide peculiarities of

hardware devices from the user
• I/O subsystem responsible for
• Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data temporarily
while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of data in faster
storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of output of one job
with input of other jobs)
• General device-driver interface
• Drivers for specific hardware devices
 PROTECTION AND SECURITY
• Protection – A mechanism for controlling access of processes
(or users) to resources defined by the OS
• Security – A defense of the system against internal and
external attacks
• Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft
of service
• Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine
who can do what
• User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
• User ID is associated with all files and processes of that user to
determine access control
• Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
• Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more
rights
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS - TRADITIONAL

• Stand-alone general purpose machines

• But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e.,
the Internet)
• Portals provide web access to internal systems
• Network computers (thin clients) are like Web
terminals
• Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks
• Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems use
firewalls to protect home computers from Internet
attacks
 COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS - MOBILE

• Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc

• What is the functional difference between them and a
“traditional” laptop?
• Extra features – more OS features (GPS -- Waze)
• Allows new types of apps like augmented reality
• Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for
connectivity
• Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS – DISTRIBUTED

• Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems

networked together
• Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Personal Area Network (PAN)

• Network Operating System provides features to allow

sharing of data between systems across a network.
• Communication scheme allows systems to exchange messages
• Illusion of a single system
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS – CLIENT-SERVER

• Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs

• Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated
by clients
• Compute-server system provides an interface to client to request
services (i.e., database)
• File-server system provides interface for clients to store and retrieve
files
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS - PEER-TO-PEER

• Another model of distributed system. P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
• Instead all nodes are considered peers
• Each node may act as client, server, or both
• Node must join P2P network
• Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or
• Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service via
discovery protocol
• Examples include Napster and Gnutella, Voice over IP (VoIP) such as
Skype
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS – CLOUD COMPUTING

• Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network

• Many types
• Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
• Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
• Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
• Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via the
Internet (i.e., word processor)
• Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application use via the
Internet (i.e., a database server)
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over Internet
(i.e., storage available for backup use)
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS – REAL-TIME SYSTEMS

• Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers

• Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS, real-time OS
• Use expanding

• Many other special computing environments as well

• Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS

• Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints

• Processing must be done within constraint
• Correct operation only if constraints met
END OF CHAPTER 1