Power System Operation and Control ((18EE81)

MODULE 1: Introduction
Structure
v

1.1 Operating States of Power System

1.2 Objectives of Control
1.3 Key Concepts of Reliable Operation, Preventive and Emergency Controls
1.4 Energy Management Centers.
1.5 Supervisory Control and Data acquisition (SCADA): Introduction to SCADA and its
Components, Standard SCADA Configurations
1.6 Users of Power Systems SCADA, Remote Terminal Unit for Power System SCADA
1.7 Common Communication Channels for SCADA in Power Systems
1.8 Challenges for Implementation of SCADA
1.9 Unit Commitment: Introduction
1.10 Simple Enumeration Constraints
1.11 Priority List Method
1.12 Dynamic Programming Method for Unit Commitment

Objectives

1. To describe various levels of controls in power systems and the vulnerability of the system.
2. To explain components, architecture and configuration of SCADA.
3. To define unit commitment and explain various constraints in unit commitment an the
solution methods.
Introduction

In modern power systems, the grids are interconnected and vary widely in size and structure.
However, they comprise three phase systems, at both generation and transmission. Synchronous
generators (alternators) are used for generation. The prime movers (primarily turbines) act to convert
mechanical energy into electric energy. Thermal plants use coal as the primary fuel and hydel plants use
water to run the turbine. The generated power is transmitted over a wide geographical area, at voltage
levels higher than the generated voltage. At the consumer end, the voltage is again stepped down and
distributed to various consumers. Consumers of different types need voltages of different levels.

Most of the industrial loads are also of three phases. Single-phase commercial and residential loads are
distributed equally between the three phases so as to form a balanced system. The structure of the
power system is shown in Fig. 1.1. The transmission system interconnects all major generating
stations. Normally, the generated voltage is 11 kV or 22 kV. The transmission voltages are 220 kV and
above. The voltage level is stepped down at the distribution substations and transferred to the industrial
consumers at voltages between 4 and 35 kV. The secondary distribution feeders supply to the
residential and commercial suppliers at 230 V. Thus, the network is really large, consisting of a number
of generating stations, several transmission interconnections and the distribution network.

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1.2 Operating States of Power System

The objective of the control strategy is to generate and distribute power in an interconnected
system as economically and reliably as possible while maintaining the frequency and voltage
within permissible limits.

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The system operation is governed by equality and inequality constraints. The equality
constraints are nothing but the power balance between generation and load.
The inequality constraints set the limits on different operating parameters, such as voltage,
generation limits, currents, etc. The system states are classified as follows:
1. Normal State
2. Alert State
3. Emergency State
4. In Extremis State
5. Restorative State
1.2.1 Normal operating state: In this state, the equality constraints (E) and inequality
constraints (I) are both satisfied. The generation is adequate to meet the demand, without any
equipment being overloaded. Further, the reserve margins are sufficient to provide security
for normal stresses.
1.2.2. Alert state: In this state also, the equality and inequality constraints are satisfied.
However, the reserve margins are reduced. Therefore, there is a possibility that some
inequality constraints (limits on equipment) may be violated in the event of disturbances.
Preventive control will lead the system from the alert state to the normal state.
1.2.3. Emergency state: Due to severe disturbances, the system may enter an emergency
state. This could be because of imbalance between generation and loads, either at the system
level or at the local level. This could also be because of instability due to energy built-up in
the system after a fault. Some strong control measures, such as direct or indirect load
shedding, generation shedding, shunt capacitor or reactor switching, network splitting, called
emergency control measures are to be taken. If these measures are not taken on time, the
system stability may be under threat and the system may eventually break down and go to the
In Extremis state.
1.2.4. In extremis state: In this state, both the equality and the inequality constraints are
violated. The violation of the equality constraints implies that the generation and the load
demand do not match. This means that some part of the system load is lost. Emergency
measures must be taken to prevent a total grid collapse.
1.2.5. Restorative state: This is a transitional state, where the inequality constraints are
satisfied by the emergency control actions taken, but the system has still not come to
normalcy in terms of the equality constraints. We can have a transition either to the alert state
or to the normal state.

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Fig.1.2: Operating states of a power system

1.3 Objectives of Power system Control

The fundamental requirements of a power system irrespective of its size are the following:

1. The system must be able to meet the changing demand in active and reactive power. The
spinning reserve maintained should be sufficient to take care of sudden variations in the
demand.
2. The power quality (read voltage quality!!) should meet certain standards with regard to
frequency, amplitude and wave shape.
3. The energy should be supplied at a minimum cost.

To achieve the above objectives, we have several levels of controls that are integrated in a
complex way. The controls are shown in Fig. 1.3. Some of the controls act exclusively on
individual components as described below:
1. The generators are provided essentially with excitation control, to keep the voltage at the
desired levels, and with prime mover control, to maintain the frequency at the desired
level.
2. The prime mover control is concerned with regulation of the speed, and the controls are
for the associated parameters such as water discharge quantity, boiler pressure,
temperature, flows, etc.
3. Power system stabilizers are used to damp oscillations of the generator following a
disturbance. A stabilizing signal is injected into the exciter system to damp the
oscillations. Some of the commonly used feedback signals are frequency and real power\
4. The system generation control maintains the required active power balance in the system.
The Automatic Generation Control (AGC) is responsible for maintaining this balance,
which in turn is required to hold the frequency around the nominal value. The AGC also
maintains the scheduled power flows in tie-lines, which are responsible for power transfer
between different control areas.
5. The transmission controls include power and voltage control devices, which help maintain
the voltage levels within limits, maintain system stability, protect the system and result in

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reliable operation of the system. The control devices are tap changing transformers,
Flexible AC Transmission (FACTS) controllers, shunt reactors, shunt capacitors, phase-
shifting transformers and HVDC controls.
6. Distribution level controls such as capacitors, wave shaping circuits, etc., are used to
provide quality power to the consumer. These devices maintain the system voltage at the
correct frequency and amplitude, and also help in removing harmonics injected into the
load or the system.
`The control objectives need to be defined properly. They are different under normal conditions
and disturbances. Under normal operating conditions, we just need to keep tracking the load to
match with the required generation, to maintain the frequency around the nominal value and
regulate the voltage. However, under a disturbance, we need to take suitable control actions to
prevent catastrophic collapse of the system. The control action depends on the state of the system.
The operation and control of the system should ultimately maintain the following:

1. Stability: Continued intact operation of the system, following a disturbance. This depends on
the operating condition and the nature of the disturbance.
2. Security: It is the degree of risk in the power system’s ability to survive contingencies without
interruption to the customer. It is related to the robustness of the system.
3. Reliability: It is the probability of satisfactory operation over a long period. It denotes the
ability of the system to supply adequate service on a nearly continuous basis, with a few
intermittent interruptions over an extended time period.

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1.4 Key Concepts for Reliable Operation, Preventive and Emergency Controls

The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC)[3] has proposed seven key
concepts for reliable operation of the power system. These are discussed in this section.

1. Balance the generation and the load: The load on the power system is dynamic and changing
all the time. The production by the generators must be scheduled to meet this constantly
changing load. The AGCs are used to match the generation with the demand. The demand,
though dynamic, is predictable and a load prediction is done, to keep the appropriate generation
and reserve on hand. Failure to match the generation with the demand will cause frequency
deviation from the nominal value. The frequency increases if the generation exceeds the demand
and drops if the demand exceeds the generation. Large deviations in frequency are detrimental to
the life of the equipment. Over-frequency and underfrequency relays operate when the frequency
deviations cross the preset values.
2. Balance reactive power generation and demand: This balance is required to maintain the
scheduled voltages. Reactive power sources are generators and capacitor banks. They must be
constantly adjusted to maintain the voltages at all levels, within permissible range, to protect the
equipment. The generator automatic voltage regulators control the voltage level of the
generators. Today, FACTS controllers are commonly used for reactive power control.
3. Ensure thermal limits are not exceeded: The heating limits of the overhead lines must not be
exceeded; otherwise, the lines will sag into the objects given below. There are many critical
blackouts which have resulted due to sagging of lines, leading to short circuits, relay tripping and
ultimately grid collapse[4].
4. Maintain system stability: The IEEE/CIGRE task force has defined stability as follows:
“Power system stability is the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial operating
condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical
disturbance, with most system variables bounded so that practically the entire system remains
intact”. If a system loses stability, the grid may face a total collapse. Stability limits will specify
the maximum power that can be transferred over the lines. Angle stability is the ability of the
generators connected to the grid to remain in synchronism. Voltage stability is the ability of the
system to maintain steady acceptable voltages at all buses in the system under normal operating
conditions and also after a disturbance. Both are vital for the health of the system.
5. Meet N−1 reliability criteria: This means that the system should remain operational and
secure even after the loss of the largest generator in the system. (N is the number of generators,
N−1 indicates loss of one generator!). Further, after a contingency, the operators must assess the
health of the system in the eventuality of another contingency, and take suitable control actions to
maintain system security, if it were to occur.
6. Plan, design and maintain to operate reliably: The planning, design and maintenance should
be such that the system should be operated reliably and within safe limits at all times. Planning
involves both short-term and long-term planning.
7. Prepare for emergencies: In spite of thorough planning and good design, emergencies such as

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weather fluctuations, operator error, software failure, equipment failure, etc., can occur.
Operators must be trained to prepare for such emergencies.

1.5 Major Threats to System:

Some of the major threats to the system security are as follows:
1. Transient instability: This is the inability of the system to maintain stability when subjected
to large disturbances. It depends on the initial operating point, the duration of the disturbance and
also the nature of disturbance.
2. Small-signal instability: This is the inability of the system to maintain stability when
subjected to minor disturbances. It depends on the operating point. A wrong choice of controller
parameters such as integral gains, regulation of speed governor, gain of exciter, etc., can also lead
to small signal instability.
3. Frequency instability: This is the inability of the system to maintain the frequency within the
prescribed limits. It arises due to an inability to match the generation and the demand. 4. Voltage
instability: This arises when disturbances or increase in load demand can cause uncontrollable
voltage collapse.
5. Cascading effects of outages and overloads.

1.6 Preventive and Emergency controls

Preventive control is meant to keep the system in the normal state or bring it back to the normal
state from the alert state. Automatic controls are provided for frequency and voltage control.
Preventive control measures commonly used are as follows:
1. Rescheduling of active power generated by various units, to match the changing load.
2. Start-up of generation units and providing adequate spinning reserve.
3. Switching of shunt elements for reactive power control. This will help maintain the voltage
within desired limits.
4. Change of reference points of controllable devices such as FACTs controllers, phase-shifting
trans formers, etc.
5. Change in the voltage reference points of generators and voltage control devices.
6. Change of substation configuration, like bus-bar splitting, etc.

Emergency control measures are taken to stop worsening of the situation, prevent degradation of
the system and cascading failure effects and to bring back the system to the alert state. Under-
frequency and under-voltage load shedding schemes are used. Some of the common emergency
control measures are as follows:
1. Tripping of generators.
2. Load shedding.
3. Fast valving or fast water diversion which leads to a fast reduction in generation.
4. Controlled disconnection of interconnected systems, to prevent spreading of frequency
problems.
5. Controlled is landing to create local generation-load balance.
6. Blocking of tap changers of transformers.
7. Fast HVDC power transfer control.

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8. Application of braking resistors.

1.7 Energy Management Centers

The four major components of the energy management centres (or Systems as they are
sometimes referred to) are as follows:
1. SCADA: The SCADA system consists of two subsystems – the supervisory control and the
data acquisition. The supervisory subsystem is responsible for: (a) display at the central location,
the status of circuit breakers and other devices such as tap changers, capacitor switching,
generator voltage regulators and (b) facilitating remote tripping of breakers, tap changing of
transformers, etc. The dispatcher at the control centre will initiate actions to switch circuit
breakers, change taps, etc. The data acquisition subsystem consists of the Remote Terminal Units
(RTUs) to interface the power system instrumentation with the control devices and interface
communication channels and control centre. Modern communication systems use wireless
communication systems. Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) was also used. SCADA
equipment is available from different manufacturers. However, all of them collect common
system data: Circuit breaker status, transformer taps, real and reactive power flow measurements,
voltage magnitude and phase measurements. These data are processed, analysed to assess the
health and take necessary control actions which could be preventive or emergency control.
2. Computers: Modern computers are having immense capabilities in terms of memory and
speed. The structure of energy management centres has changed with advent of fast computing
facilities. Since the applications are cruicial, redundancy is built in the hardware. Different
schemes are available for backup. The main functions of the computing facilities at the control
center are as follows:
• Real-time monitoring and control
• User interface
• Operating studies
• Maintenance and testing
• Simulation studies.
The response time is vital in the choice of the topology, hardware systems, etc.
User interface (with extensive GUI and display facilities): The user interface consists of consoles,
data loggers, display units and screen projections to alert operators. Since there is extensive
interacion with human beings, modern interfaces use techniques of animation and extensive
graphics to make it more user friendly. 4. Applications software: This section is to implement
the various functions discussed, namely, UC, economic dispatch, state estimation, optimal
power flow, contingency analysis, etc. As mentioned earlier, some of the control actions are
automated and some are manual. The level of automation is primarily driven by technology
and is also dependent on the expertise available on hand.

1.4.1 Primary Objectives:

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1. Maintaining the power system in a secure and stable operating state by continuously
monitoring the power flowing in the lines and voltage magnitudes at the buses.
2. Maintaining the frequency within allowable limits.
3. Maintaining the tie-line power close to the scheduled values.

1.4.2Secondary Objectives:
1. Economic Operation of the power systems through real time dispatch and Control.
2. Optimal control of the power system using both preventive and corrective control actions.
3. Real time Economic Dispatch through real power and reactive power control

1.4.3Tertiary Objectives:
1. Optimization of the power system for normal and abnormal operating scenarios.
2. Optimal control of the power system by appropriate using both preventive and corrective
control actions
3. Maintenance scheduling of generation and transmission systems.

1.6 Supervisory Control and Data acquisition (SCADA): Introduction to SCADA

and its Components, Standard SCADA Configurations

1.5.1 Introduction

SCADA is an acronym that stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.
SCADA refers to a system that collects data from various sensors at a factory, plant or in other
remote locations and then sends this data to a central computer which then manages and
controls the data. SCADA systems are used not only in industrial processes: e.g. steel making,
power generation (conventional and nuclear) and distribution, chemistry, but also in some
experimental facilities such as nuclear fusion.

The size of such plants range from a few 1000 to several 10 thousands input/output (I/O)
channels.

Definition of SCADA: A collection of equipment that will provide an operator at remote

location with enough information to determine the status of a particular piece of a equipment or
entire substation and cause actions to take place regarding the equipment or network.

• What is SCADA? How : By collecting Information from plant / Load center bend
reducing it to the EMS
• Where : Control Centre. Both at Plant and Load
• Why : To gather Information as here (voltage, current, frequency, power, circuit breaker
status) and To perform online actions

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Fig.1.4.: Functional Units

The figure shown above is a simple SCADA system with a single computer, which
represents the simplest configuration of SCADA with a single computer. The computer receives
data from remote terminal units through the communication interface. One or more CRT
terminals for display is controlled by operators. With this system, it is possible to execute
supervisory control commands and request the display of data in alphanumerical formats.

The I/O SCADA programming is used to change the supervisory software. In the basic SCADA
system, all the data and programs are stored in the main memory. The more complicated version
of SCADA has additional secondary memories in the form of magnetic disc units.

1.7 Users of Power Systems SCADA, Remote Terminal Unit for Power System SCADA

1.6.1 Users of Power Systems SCADA

SCADA can be used to manage any kind of equipment. Typically, SCADA systems are used to
automate complex industrial processes where human control is difficult. For example in systems
where there are more control factors unable to be managed by operators in a control center.
SCADA systems are widely used for control in the following domains.

1. Electric power generation, transmission and distribution: Electric utilities useSCADA

systems to detect current flow and line voltage, to monitor the operation of circuit breakers,
and to take sections of the power grid online or offline.
2. Water and sewage: State and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and regulate
water flow, reservoir levels, pipe pressure and other factors.
3. Buildings, facilities and environments: Facility managers use SCADA to control HVAC,

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refrigeration units, lighting and entry systems.

4. Manufacturing: SCADA systems manage parts inventories for just-in-time
manufacturing, regulate industrial automation and robots, and monitor process and
quality control.
5. Mass transit: Transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trams and
trolley buses; to automate traffic signals for rail systems; to track and locate trains and
buses; and to control railroad crossing gates.
6. Traffic signals: SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out-of-
order signals.

1.6.2 Remote Terminal Unit for Power System SCADA

A remote terminal unit (RTU) is a microprocessor-controlled electronic device that

interfaces objects in the physical world to a distributed control system or SCADA (supervisory
control and data acquisition) system by transmitting telemetry data to a master system, and by
using messages from the master supervisory system to control connected objects.[1] Other terms
that may be used for RTU are remote telemetry unit and remote telecontrol unit.
1.6.2.1 Architecture

An RTU monitors the field digital and analog parameters and transmits data to the Central
Monitoring Station. It contains setup software to connect data input streams to data output
streams, define communication protocols, and troubleshoot installation problems.
An RTU may consist of one complex circuit card consisting of various sections needed to do a
custom fitted function or may consist of many circuit cards including CPU or processing with
communications interface(s), and one or more of the following: (AI) analog input, (DI) digital
(status) input, (DO/CO) digital (or control relay) output, or (AO) analog output card(s).
a) Power supply
A form of power supply will be included for operation from the AC mains for various CPU,
status wetting voltages and other interface cards. This may consist of AC to DC converters where
operated from a station battery system.
RTUs may include a battery and charger circuitry to continue operation in event of AC power
failure for critical applications where a station battery is not available.
b) Digital (status) inputs
Most RTUs incorporate an input section or input status cards to acquire two state real world
information. This is usually accomplished by using an isolated voltage or current source to sense
the position of a remote contact (open or closed) at the RTU site. This contact position may
represent many different devices, including electrical breakers, liquid valve positions, alarm
conditions, and mechanical positions of devices. Counter inputs are optional.

c) Analog inputs
A RTU can monitor analog inputs of different types including 0-1 mA, 4–20 mA current
loop, 0–10 V., ±2.5 V, ±5.0 V etc. Many RTU inputs buffer larger quantities via transducers to
convert and isolate real world quantities from sensitive RTU input levels. An RTU can also
receive analog data via a communication system from a master or IED (intelligent electronic
device) sending data values to it.

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The RTU or host system translates and scales this raw data into the appropriate units such as
quantity of water left, temperature degrees, or Megawatts, before presenting the data to the user
via the human–machine interface.

d) Digital (control relay) outputs

RTUs may drive high current capacity relays to a digital output (or "DO") board to switch
power on and off to devices in the field. The DO board switches voltage to the coil in the relay,
which closes the high current contacts, which completes the power circuit to the device.

RTU outputs may also consist of driving a sensitive logic input on an electronic PLC, or other
electronic device using a sensitive 5 V input.

e) Analog outputs
While not as commonly used, analog outputs may be included to control devices that require
varying quantities, such as graphic recording instruments (strip charts). Summed or processed
data quantities may be generated in a master SCADA system and output for display locally or
remotely, wherever needed.

f) Software and logic control

Modern RTUs are usually capable of executing simple programs autonomously without
involving the host computers of the DCS or SCADA system to simplify deployment and to
provide redundancy for safety reasons. An RTU in a modern water management system will
typically have code to modify its behavior when physical override switches on the RTU are
toggled during maintenance-by-maintenance personnel. This is done for safety reasons; a
miscommunication between the system operators and the maintenance personnel could cause
system operators to mistakenly enable power to a water pump when it is being replaced, for
example. Maintenance personnel should have any equipment they are working on disconnected
from power and locked to prevent damage and/or injury.

g) Communications :A RTU may be interfaced to multiple master stations and IEDs (Intelligent
Electronic Device) with different communication media (usually serial (RS232, RS485, RS422)
or Ethernet).

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