Chapter 2: Operating-System

Structures

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition, Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures

 Operating System Services

 User Operating System Interface
 System Calls
 Types of System Calls
 System Programs
 Operating System Design and Implementation
 Operating System Structure
 Virtual Machines
 Operating System Debugging
 Operating System Generation
 System Boot

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Objectives
 To describe the services an operating system provides to users,
processes, and other systems
 To discuss the various ways of structuring an operating system
 To explain how operating systems are installed and customized and
how they boot

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 Operating System Services

 One set of operating-system services provides functions that are

helpful to the user:
 User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI)
 Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface
(GUI), Batch
 Program execution - The system must be able to load a program
into memory and to run that program, end execution, either normally
or abnormally (indicating error)
 I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may
involve a file or an I/O device
 File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.
Obviously, programs need to read and write files and directories,
create and delete them, search them, list file Information,
permission management.

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 A View of Operating System Services

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 Operating System Services (Cont)

 One set of operating-system services provides functions that are

helpful to the user (Cont):
 Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the
same computer or between computers over a network
 Communications may be via shared memory or through
message passing (packets moved by the OS)
 Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible
errors
 May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in
user program
 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action
to ensure correct and consistent computing
 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating System Services (Cont)
 Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing
 Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
 Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main
memory, and file storage) may have special allocation code, others
(such as I/O devices) may have general request and release code
 Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what
kinds of computer resources
 Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser
or networked computer system may want to control use of that information,
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled
 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access
attempts
 If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be
instituted throughout it. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 User Operating System Interface - CLI

Command Line Interface (CLI) or command interpreter allows direct

command entry
 Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by systems
program
 Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells
 Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it
– Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of
programs
» If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require shell
modification

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 User Operating System Interface - GUI
 User-friendly desktop metaphor interface
 Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
 Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
 Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various
actions (provide information, options, execute function, open directory
(known as a folder)
 Invented at Xerox PARC
 Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
 Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
 Apple Mac OS X as “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel underneath
and shells available
 Solaris is CLI with optional GUI interfaces (Java Desktop, KDE)

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Bourne Shell Command Interpreter

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 The Mac OS X GUI

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 System Calls
 Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
 Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
 Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application Program
Interface (API) rather than direct system call use
 Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API for
POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux,
and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)
 Why use APIs rather than system calls?

(Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are generic)

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Example of System Calls
 System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

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 API – System Call – OS Relationship

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 Standard C Library Example
 C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call

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 System Call Parameter Passing
 Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired system
call

Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS and call
 Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
 Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
 In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
 Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of
block passed as a parameter in a register
 This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
 Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and
popped off the stack by the operating system
 Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of
parameters being passed

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Parameter Passing via Table

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 Types of System Calls
 Process control
 File management
 Device management
 Information maintenance
 Communications
 Protection

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 System Calls: Process Control
Process control:
 end, abort
 load, execute
 create process, terminate process
 get process attributes, set process attributes
 wait for time
 wait event, signal event
 allocate and free memory

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 System Calls: File Management
File management:
• create file, delete file
• open, close
• read, write, reposition
• get file attributes, set file attributes

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 System Calls: Device Management
Device management:
• request device, release device
• read, write, reposition
• get device attributes, set device attributes
• logically attach or detach devices

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 System Calls: Information Maintenance
Information maintenance:
• get time or date, set time or date
• get system data, set system data
• get process, file, or device attributes
• set process, file, or device attributes

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 System Calls: Communications
Communications
• create, delete communication connection
• send, receive messages
• transfer status information
• attach or detach remote devices

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 Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

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 MS-DOS execution

(a) At system startup (b) running a program

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 FreeBSD Running Multiple Programs

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 System Programs (1/2)
 System programs provide a convenient environment for
program development and execution
 Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls
 Others are considerably more complex

 The can be divided into:

 File manipulation
 Status information
 File modification
 Programming language support
 Program loading and execution
 Communications
 Application programs
 Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by system
programs, not the actual system calls
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 System Programs (2/2)

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 System Programs
 File management - create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list, and generally
manipulate files and directories

 Status information
 Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available memory, disk
space, number of users
 Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging information
 Typically, these programs format and print the output to the terminal or other
output devices
 Some systems implement a registry - used to store and retrieve
configuration information

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 System Programs (cont’d)
 File modification
 Text editors to create and modify files
 Special commands to search contents of files or perform
transformations of the text

 Programming-language support –
 Compilers,
 assemblers,
 debuggers and
 interpreters sometimes provided

 Program loading and execution-

 Absolute loaders,
 relocatable loaders,
 linkage editors,
 and overlay-loaders,
 debugging systems for higher-level and machine language
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 System Programs (cont’d)

Communications –

 Provide the mechanism for creating virtual connections among

processes, users, and computer systems
 Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens,
 browse web pages,
 send electronic-mail messages,
 log in remotely
 transfer files from one machine to another

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 Application/Additional Programs

Most operating system are supplied with programs to solve common

problems.
 Example:

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 Operating System Design and Implementation

 Design and Implementation of OS not “solvable”, but some

approaches have proven successful

 Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary widely

 Start by defining goals and specifications

 Affected by choice of hardware, type of system

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 Operating System Design and Implementation

 User goals – operating system should be

 convenient to use,
 easy to learn,
 reliable,
 safe, and
 fast

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 Operating System Design and Implementation

 System goals – operating system should be

 easy to design,
 implement,
 and maintain,
 as well as flexible,
 reliable,
 error-free,
 and efficient

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating System Design and Implementation (Cont)

 Important principle to separate

Policy: What will be done?
Mechanism: How to do it?
 Mechanisms determine how to do something, policies decide what will be
done
 The separation of policy from mechanism is a very important principle, it
allows maximum flexibility if policy decisions are to be changed later

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 OS Implementation
 Once an operating system is designed, it must be implemented

 Traditionally, operating systems have been written in assembly

language

 Now, however, they are the most commonly written in higher-level

language such as C or C++

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Advantages of written in high level
languages (1/2)

 The code can be written faster

 It is more compact

 It is easier to understand and debug

 It is easier to port

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 Advantages of written in high level
languages (2/2)
E.g.
 MS-DOS was written in Intel 8088 assembly language.
 Consequently, it is available on only Intel family of CPUs

The Linux OS, in contrast,

 is written mostly in C and is available on a number of different
CPUs,
 including Intel 80X86, Motorola 680X0, SPARC, and MIPS RX000

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Structure of OS

 OS is a large and a complex system

 It has to be engineered carefully so that
 It will function properly
 It can be modified easily

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Simple Structure
 MS-DOS – written to provide the most functionality in the least space
 Not divided into modules
 MS-DOS was written on the Intel 8088
 Intel 8088 does not provide dual mode or any hardware
protection

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 Simple:MS-DOS Layer Structure
 The interfaces and level of
functionality are not well
separated
 It looks like layered
structure, but not, because
all these layers have access
to the base hardware
 This freedom leaves the
MS-DOS vulnerable to
errant and malicious
programs
 Causing the entire system to
crush when user programs
fail
 It is not well protected
 It is not well defined
 It is not well structure

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Simple: Monolithic (Earlier UNIX System
Structure)

 Everything is packed in one level i.e., why it is called monolithic structure

 Too many functionality in one level, therefore, it is very difficult to
manage and implement
 Changes in one thing, it needs to change all in the level

Hardware
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Layered Approach
 The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each built
on top of lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the
highest (layer N) is the user interface.
 With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses functions
(operations) and services of only lower-level layers

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 Layered Operating System
 Advantages
 It is easy to implement
 Hardware is protected from
the layers above
 When one layer has problem,
debug this

 Disadvantages:
 A layer can use only those
layers which are below that
layer
 One layer needs to access
below the layer, it needs
create system call and go
through all the layer
 Once the system call is
guaranteed, then possible to
use input/output ,i.e. not
efficient

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Microkernel System Structure (1/2)
 Instead of big kernel with so many functionalities, removing non-essential
components from the kernel
 And implement them into user and system level programs
 Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space
 Communication takes place between user modules using message passing
 Benefits:
 Easier to extend a microkernel
 Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
 More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
 More secure
 Detriments:
 Performance overhead of user space to kernel space communication

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 Microkernel System Structure (2/2)

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 Modules
 It is the best structure
 Most modern operating systems implement kernel modules
 Uses object-oriented approach
 Each core component is separate
 Each talks to the others over known interfaces
 Each is loadable as needed within the kernel (boot-time/run-time)
 It is something like layered approach and microkernel approach
 Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible because any module can
call any other modules
 It has protected interface
 Though it looks like microkernel approach, but does not needs to
message passing

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 Solaris Modular Approach

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 Mac OS X Structure

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 Virtual Machines

 A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical

conclusion. It treats hardware and the operating system
kernel as though they were all hardware
 A virtual machine provides an interface identical to the
underlying bare hardware
 The operating system host creates the illusion that a
process has its own processor and (virtual memory)
 Each guest provided with a (virtual) copy of underlying
computer

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 Virtual Machines History and Benefits
 First appeared commercially in IBM mainframes in 1972
 Fundamentally, multiple execution environments (different operating
systems) can share the same hardware
 Protect from each other
 Some sharing of file can be permitted, controlled
 Commutate with each other, other physical systems via networking
 Useful for development, testing
 Consolidation of many low-resource use systems onto fewer busier systems
 “Open Virtual Machine Format”, standard format of virtual machines, allows
a VM to run within many different virtual machine (host) platforms

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Virtual Machines (Cont)

Non-virtual Machine Virtual Machine

(a) Nonvirtual machine (b) virtual machine

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 VMware Architecture

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 The Java Virtual Machine

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 Operating System Generation (1/2)
 Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of machines;
the system must be configured for each specific computer site

 SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specific configuration

of the hardware system

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 Operating System Generation (2/2)
The following kinds of information must be determined by SYSGEN:
 What CPU is to be used?

 How will the boot disk be formatted? How many sections, or “partitions, ”will
it be separated into, and what will go into each partition?

 How much memory is available?

 What devices are available? The system will need to know how to address
each device (the device number), the device interrupt number, etc.

 What operating-system options are desired, or what parameter values are

to be used? These options or values might include how many buffers of
which sizes should be used, what type of CPU-scheduling algorithm is
desired, what the maximum number of processes to be supported is, and
so on.
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 System Boot
 Booting – starting a computer by loading the kernel
 Bootstrap program – code stored in ROM that is able to locate the kernel,
load it into memory, and start its execution
 Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware can
start it
 Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, locates the kernel, loads it into
memory, and starts it
 Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed location loads
bootstrap loader
 When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed memory
location
 Firmware used to hold initial boot code

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 2.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 End of Chapter 2

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition, Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009