Lingaya’s Vidyapeeth

Name-Dharmendra Kumar Maurya

Roll Number-20CS41CL
Semester-Seven
Unit-One
Subject- Pattern Recognition
Branch-Computer Science & Engineering

Q.1:- What do you understand by the term image processing & feature extraction?
Ans:- Image Processing:
Image processing involves the manipulation of an image to enhance or extract information from it. The
primary goal is to improve the visual appearance of the image or to prepare it for further analysis. Image
processing can be broadly categorized into two types:

Digital Image Processing: This involves applying algorithms and techniques to manipulate digital images
using a computer. It can include tasks like noise reduction, image enhancement, image restoration, color
correction, and more.
Analog Image Processing: This deals with processing images that are in analog form, such as
photographs or other physical images. This is less common in today's digital age.

The key operations in image processing include filtering, transformation, compression, and more. Image
processing finds applications in various fields, including medical imaging, surveillance, computer vision,
and remote sensing.

2. Feature Extraction:
Feature extraction is a critical step in image processing and computer vision. It involves selecting and
identifying important features or patterns from the raw image data that are relevant for a specific task or
analysis. These features are typically represented in a more efficient and meaningful way compared to
the raw pixel values.

Features can be of various types, including edges, textures, shapes, color histograms, keypoints, etc. The
process of feature extraction can be manual, where domain experts define specific features based on
their knowledge, or automatic, where algorithms identify features based on specific criteria.

The extracted features are used as inputs for various applications, such as object recognition, image
classification, image retrieval, and more. Effective feature extraction is crucial for building accurate and
efficient machine learning models in image-related tasks.

Q.2:- Distinguish between Overfitting & Occlusion.

Ans:- Overfitting:
Definition: Overfitting occurs when a machine learning model learns the specific patterns and noise in
the training data to the extent that it negatively impacts its performance on unseen or new data.
Cause: Overfitting often happens when the model is overly complex or flexible, capturing noise and
irrelevant patterns present in the training data.
Effect: The model fits the training data too closely, making it perform well on the training data but poorly
on unseen data, as it has not learned the true underlying patterns but rather the noise and peculiarities
of the training set.
Solution: Techniques to mitigate overfitting include using validation sets, early stopping, regularization
(e.g., L1 or L2 regularization), reducing model complexity, or using techniques like cross-validation.

Occlusion:
Definition: Occlusion refers to the situation where a part of an object or image is blocked, obscured, or
covered, making it partially or entirely invisible or inaccessible for analysis or recognition.
Cause: Occlusion can occur naturally or artificially, such as when an object is partially hidden by another
object, or in computer vision tasks where part of an image is deliberately obscured to test the model's
ability to handle occluded data.
Effect: Occlusion can complicate object recognition, detection, or tracking tasks for machine learning
models, as they might not have complete information about the object due to the occluded regions.
Handling: Techniques to handle occlusion include designing models that can robustly recognize or infer
objects even with partial information, using occlusion-robust features, or employing advanced
algorithms like occlusion-aware deep learning architectures.

In summary, overfitting is related to the model's ability to generalize to new, unseen data, whereas
occlusion refers to the partial or complete obscuring of an object or image, which can present challenges
for models in various computer vision tasks.

Q.3: Define Segmentation

Ans:- Segmentation in the context of image processing and computer vision refers to the process of
partitioning an image into multiple segments or regions, each of which corresponds to meaningful
structures or objects within the image. The goal of segmentation is to simplify the representation of an
image, making it more meaningful and easier to analyze.

Here are the key aspects of image segmentation:

Partitioning: Segmentation involves dividing an image into non-overlapping, distinct regions or

segments. Each segment is a group of pixels that share similar characteristics, such as color, intensity,
texture, or other visual properties.

Homogeneity: The segments are created based on the principle of homogeneity, where pixels within the
same segment are similar with respect to certain predefined properties, and they are distinct from pixels
in other segments.

Q.4:- What are the Costs & Risks associated while doing classification?
Ans:- Costs & Risks associated with Classification:
Costs: Costs associated with classification include the resources needed for training and implementing
the classification model, data collection and labeling costs, computational costs, and potential costs of
misclassification (e.g., financial losses, reputation damage).
Risks: Risks in classification include the risk of misclassification (false positives or false negatives),
model overfitting, biased training data leading to biased predictions, and the risk of using inaccurate or
outdated models.

Q.5:- Distinguish between Univariate Density & Multivariate Density.

Ans:- Univariate and multivariate densities are fundamental concepts in probability theory and statistics.
Let's distinguish between them:

Univariate Density:
Definition: Univariate density refers to the probability density function (PDF) of a single random
variable. It describes the likelihood of different outcomes or values that a single variable can take.
Example: If you have a dataset of heights of individuals and you're interested in modeling the
distribution of heights, you would be dealing with a univariate density. The PDF will describe the
likelihood of any specific height occurring within that dataset.
Multivariate Density:
Definition: Multivariate density refers to the joint probability density function (joint PDF) of two or more
random variables. It describes the likelihood of combinations of outcomes for these variables.
Example: If you're considering the heights and weights of individuals and you want to model the joint
distribution of heights and weights, you would be dealing with a bivariate (or multivariate) density. The
joint PDF will describe the likelihood of specific combinations of heights and weights occurring.

Q.6:- Define Mahalanobis distance

Ans:- The Mahalanobis distance is a measure of the distance between a point and a distribution, often
used in statistics and machine learning, particularly in the context of multivariate analysis.

Interpretation:
 The Mahalanobis distance takes into account the correlation between variables through the
covariance matrix. It accounts for the shape and orientation of the data distribution.
 It can be viewed as a normalized distance, where each dimension is scaled according to the
variability in that dimension (captured by the covariance matrix).
 Mahalanobis distance is often used in clustering, classification, outlier detection, and other
applications where understanding the relative distances between points in a multivariate space
is important.

In summary, Mahalanobis distance quantifies the distance between a point and a distribution,
considering both the mean and covariance structure of the multivariate data.

Long Question-

Q.1:- Explain the term Invariances in brief

Ans:- Invariances, in the context of pattern recognition and data analysis, refer to properties or
characteristics of a system, model, or representation that remain unchanged or unaffected under certain
transformations or operations. These transformations could be changes in input, viewpoint, scale,
orientation, or other relevant parameters.

Here's a brief explanation:

 1. Invariance Concept:

 Invariance is the ability of a system or model to produce consistent results or representations

regardless of specific transformations applied to the input data. These transformations could be
translations, rotations, scaling, or other modifications.
2. Example:
 Translation Invariance: A pattern recognition system is translation invariant if it can recognize
an object regardless of where it is located in the image. For example, a face recognition system
should recognize a face regardless of its position within the image.
 Rotation Invariance: A system that identifies an object regardless of its orientation or rotation is
rotation invariant. For instance, a shape recognition system should recognize a circle whether it's
upright or rotated.

3. Importance:
 Invariances are crucial in pattern recognition, image processing, and machine learning as they
enhance the robustness and generalizability of models. Systems that are invariant to certain
transformations can handle real-world variability more effectively.

4. Applications:

 In computer vision, achieving invariance to transformations like scaling, rotation, and translation
is essential for tasks such as object recognition, image classification, and feature extraction.
 In natural language processing, invariance to synonymy (different words with similar meanings)
is important for tasks like sentiment analysis or document classification.

5. Invariance vs. Equivariance:

 Invariance implies that the output remains constant despite transformations in the input, while
equivariance suggests a consistent transformation in the output corresponding to
transformations in the input.

In summary, invariances ensure that the underlying properties of data or patterns are preserved
regardless of certain changes, contributing to the robustness and effectiveness of models and systems in
various domains.

Q.2:- Explain the importance of Computational Complexity while using algorithms

Ans:- Computational complexity is a crucial consideration when choosing and designing algorithms for
solving problems. It assesses the efficiency and scalability of an algorithm in terms of the computational
resources it requires, such as time and memory, as the input size grows. Here's why it's important:

1. Efficiency and Speed:

 Algorithms with lower computational complexity often run faster and provide quicker solutions,
which is vital for real-time applications like financial transactions, traffic monitoring, or video
processing.

2. Scalability:
 Algorithms with lower complexity scale well with larger input sizes. As the dataset or problem
size grows, efficient algorithms can handle the increased workload without a significant
degradation in performance.

3. Resource Utilization:
 Efficient algorithms make better use of computational resources, such as processor speed and
memory, ensuring optimal utilization and reducing unnecessary wastage.

4. Cost-Effectiveness:
 Less computationally complex algorithms typically require fewer computing resources, which
 can translate to cost savings, especially in cloud computing or on devices with limited
computational power.

5. Usability and User Experience:

 Efficient algorithms lead to faster responses and more responsive user interfaces, enhancing the
overall user experience and usability of applications and systems.
6. Feasibility:
 In some cases, the difference in computational complexity can determine whether a problem is
feasible to solve within a reasonable time frame. Problems with high complexity may be
practically unsolvable for large inputs.

7. Algorithm Selection:
 Understanding computational complexity helps in choosing the right algorithm for a specific
task, considering the constraints of the problem, hardware, and desired efficiency.

8. Algorithmic Trade-offs:
 Knowledge of complexity enables trade-offs between time and space. Some algorithms might be
faster but consume more memory, while others might be slower but use less memory.
9. Algorithm Comparison:
 Computational complexity allows for a quantitative comparison of different algorithms solving
the same problem, aiding in selecting the most suitable one for a given scenario.
10. Theoretical Foundation:
 Understanding computational complexity helps in analyzing and proving fundamental properties
of algorithms, which is essential for theoretical computer science and algorithmic research.

In summary, considering computational complexity is essential for ensuring the efficiency, effectiveness,
and practicality of algorithms in various applications, ultimately impacting the usability and
performance of software and systems.

Q.3:- Distinguish between Supervised learning & Unsupervised learning with suitable example
Ans:- Supervised Learning:
1. Definition:
 Supervised learning is a type of machine learning where the model is trained on a labeled
dataset, meaning each training example consists of both input data and its corresponding correct
output. The algorithm learns to map the input data to the correct output based on this labeled
training data.

2. Objective:
 The goal of supervised learning is to learn a mapping or function that can predict the correct
output for new, unseen input data.

3. Examples:
 Example 1 - Image Classification: Given a dataset of images of fruits labeled with their respective
names (e.g., apple, banana, orange), a supervised learning model is trained to classify new images
of fruits into the correct categories based on the features extracted from the images.
 Example 2 - Spam Email Detection: In this case, the model is trained on a dataset of emails
labeled as spam or not spam. The algorithm learns to identify patterns in the text and other
features to classify future emails as spam or not.
4. Feedback:
 The algorithm receives explicit feedback during training, enabling it to adjust and improve its
predictions based on the labeled data.

Unsupervised Learning:

1. Definition:
  Unsupervised learning involves training a model on an unlabeled dataset, where the algorithm
has no prior knowledge of correct outputs. The system learns to identify patterns, structures, or
relationships within the data without any specific guidance.
2. Objective:
 The objective of unsupervised learning is to find inherent patterns or groupings in the data, often
through clustering, association, or dimensionality reduction.

3. Examples:
 Example 1 - Clustering Customer Segmentation: Given a dataset of customer purchase history
(without labels), an unsupervised learning algorithm can cluster customers based on similar
purchasing behavior, allowing businesses to target specific customer groups more effectively.
 Example 2 - Topic Modeling in Text Data: Algorithms like Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) can
identify topics in a collection of documents without any predefined categories or labels,
providing insights into the main themes of the text.

4. Feedback:
 Unsupervised learning algorithms work based on patterns and inherent structures in the data,
without relying on labeled examples. They do not receive explicit feedback during training.

In summary, supervised learning uses labeled data with known outputs to train the model to make
predictions, while unsupervised learning uses unlabeled data to find patterns and structures within the
data without predefined outputs.

Q.4:- Consider minimax criterion for the zero-one loss function, i.e., λ11 = λ22 = 0 and λ12 = λ21 = 1. (a)
Prove that in this case the decision regions will satisfy ʃ R2 p(x|ω1)dx = ʃ R1 p(x|ω2)dx (b) Is this
solution always unique? If not, construct a simple counterexample.
Ans:-
Q.5:- Consider the Neyman-Pearson criterion for two univariate normal distributions: p(x|ωi) ∼N(μi, σi
2 and P(ωi) = 1/2 for i = 1, 2. Assume a zero-one error loss, and for convenience μ2 > μ1.
(a) Suppose the maximum acceptable error rate for classifying a pattern that is 1 actually in ω1 as if it
were in ω2 is E1. Determine the decision boundary in terms of the variables given.
(b) For this boundary, what is the error rate for classifying ω2 as ω1? (c) What is the overall error rate
under zero-one loss?
Ans:-
Q.6:- Derive the formula for the volume V of a hyperellipsoid of constant Mahalanobis distance r for a
Gaussian distribution having covariance Σ.
Ans:-