DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The Digestive System Functions opening

 Ingestion—taking in food o Cheeks—form the lateral walls
 Digestion—breaking food into nutrient o Hard palate—forms the anterior
molecules roof
 Absorption—movement of nutrients into o Soft palate—forms the posterior
the bloodstream roof
 Defecation—elimination of indigestible o Uvula—fleshy projection of the
waste soft palate

Organs of the Digestive System Mouth (Oral Cavity)

 Two main groups of organs  Anatomy of the mouth (continued)
o Alimentary canal o Vestibule—space between lips
(gastrointestinal or GI tract)— externally and teeth and gums
continuous, coiled, hollow tube internally
 These organs ingest, o Oral cavity proper—area
digest, absorb, defecate contained by the teeth
o Accessory digestive organs o Tongue—attached at hyoid
 Includes teeth, tongue, bone and styloid processes of
and other large digestive the skull, and by the lingual
organs frenulum to the floor of the
mouth

Organs of the Alimentary Canal  Anatomy of the mouth (continued)

 The alimentary canal is a continuous, o Tonsils
coiled, hollow tube that runs through  Palatine—located at
the ventral cavity from stomach to posterior end of oral
anus: cavity
o Mouth  Lingual—located at the
o Pharynx base of the tongue
o Esophagus
o Stomach  Functions of the mouth
o Small intestine o Mastication (chewing) of food
o Large intestine o Tongue mixes masticated food
o Anus with saliva
o Tongue initiates swallowing
o Taste buds on the tongue allow
Mouth (Oral Cavity) for taste
 Anatomy of the mouth
o The mouth (oral cavity)—
mucous membrane–lined cavity
o Lips (labia)—protect the anterior
Pharynx
 Food passes from the mouth posteriorly
into the:
o Oropharynx—posterior to oral
cavity
o Laryngopharynx—below the
oropharynx and continuous with
the esophagus
 The pharynx serves as a passageway for
food, fluids, and air
 Food is propelled to the esophagus by
two skeletal muscle layers in the pharynx
o Longitudinal inner layer Innermost, moist membrane consisting of:
o Circular outer layer
 Alternating contractions of the muscle  Surface epithelium that is mostly
layers (peristalsis) propel the food simple columnar tissue (except for
esophagus)

Esophagus (Gullet)  Small amount of connective tissue

 Anatomy (lamina propria)
o About 10 inches long  Small smooth muscle layer
o Runs from pharynx to stomach
through the diaphragm  Lines the cavity (known as the
 Physiology lumen)
o Conducts food by peristalsis
(slow rhythmic squeezing) to the 2. Submucosa
stomach  Just beneath the mucosa
o Passageway for food only
(respiratory system branches off  Soft connective tissue with blood
after the pharynx) vessels, nerve endings, mucosa-
associated lymphoid tissue, and
lymphatics
Layers of Tissue in the
Alimentary Canal Organs 3. Muscularis externa—smooth muscle
 Summary of the four layers from
 Inner circular layer
innermost to outermost (detailed next):
1. Mucosa  Outer longitudinal layer
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis externa 4. Serosa—outermost layer of the
4. Serosa wall contains fluid-producing cells

 Visceral peritoneum—innermost
Layers of Tissue in the layer that is continuous with the
Alimentary Canal Organ outermost layer

1. Mucosa  Parietal peritoneum—outermost

 layer that lines the abdominopelvic body wall
cavity by way of the mesentery  Embedded fat insulates,
cushions, and protects
abdominal organs
Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses  Lymph follicles contain
 Two important nerve plexuses serve the macrophages
alimentary canal  Muscularis externa has a third layer
 Both are part of the autonomic nervous o Oblique layer helps to churn,
system mix, and pummel the food.
o Submucosal nerve plexus  Functions of the stomach
o Myenteric nerve plexus o Temporary storage tank for food
 Function is to regulate mobility and o Site of food breakdown
secretory activity of the GI tract organs o Chemical breakdown of protein
begins
o Delivers chyme (processed food)
Stomach to the small intestine
 The stomach is a C-shaped organ located  Structure of the stomach mucosa:
on the left side of the abdominal cavity o Simple columnar epithelium
 Food enters at the cardioesophageal dotted by gastric pits that lead to
sphincter from the esophagus
gastric glands
 Food empties into the small intestine at
o Mucous cells produce
the pyloric sphincter (valve)
bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus
o Gastric glands—situated in
 Regions of the stomach gastric pits and secrete gastric
o Cardial part (cardia)—near the juice, including:
heart  Intrinsic factor, which
o Fundus—expanded portion is needed for vitamin
lateral to the cardiac region B12 absorption in the
o Body—midportion small intestine
o Pylorus—funnel-shaped terminal
end.  Structure of the stomach mucosa
 Stomach can stretch and hold 4 L (1 (continued)
gallon) of food when full o Chief cells—produce protein-
o Rugae—internal folds of the digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)
mucosa present when the o Parietal cells—produce
stomach is empty hydrochloric acid
 External regions  Mucous neck cells
o Lesser curvature—concave —produce thin
medial surface acidic mucus
o Greater curvature—convex (different from
lateral surface the mucus
 Layers of peritoneum attached to the produced by
stomach cells of the
o Lesser omentum—attaches the mucosa)
liver to the lesser curvature o Enteroendocrine cells—produce
o Greater omentum—attaches the a hormone called gastrin
greater curvature to the posterior
Small Intestine lacteal
 The body’s major digestive organ 3. Circular folds (plicae circulares)
 Longest portion of the alimentary tube —deep folds of mucosa and
(2–4 m or 7–13 feet in a living person) submucosa
 Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
 Muscular tube extending from the
pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve Large Intestine
 Suspended from the posterior abdominal  Larger in diameter, but shorter in length
wall by the mesentery at 1.5 m, than the small intestine
 Extends from the ileocecal valve to the
anus
Small Intestine  Subdivisions:
 Subdivisions o Cecum
o Duodenum o Appendix
 Attached to the stomach o Colon
 Curves around the head o Rectum
of the pancreas o Anal canal
o Jejunum
 Attaches anteriorly to the  Cecum—saclike first part of the large
duodenum intestine
o Ileum  Appendix
 Extends from jejunum to o Accumulation of
large intestine lymphoid tissue that
 Meets the large intestine sometimes becomes
at the ileocecal valve inflamed
(appendicitis)
Small Intestine o Hangs from the cecum
 Chemical digestion begins in the small
intestine
 Colon
o Enzymes are produced by:
 Intestinal cells o Ascending—travels up right side
 Pancreas of abdomen
o Pancreatic ducts carry enzymes o Transverse—travels across the
to the duodenum abdominal cavity
o Descending—travels down the
o Bile, formed by the liver, enters
left side
the duodenum via the bile duct
o Sigmoid—S-shaped region;
enters the pelvis
Small Intestine  Sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal
 Three structural modifications that are located in the pelvis
increase surface area for food absorption
1. Microvilli—tiny projections  Anal canal ends at the anus
of the plasma membrane  Anus—opening of the large intestine
(create a brush border o External anal sphincter—
appearance) formed by skeletal
2. Villi—fingerlike projections muscle and under
voluntary control
formed by the mucosa
o Internal anal sphincter—formed
 House a capillary bed and
 by smooth muscle and  Incisors—cutting
involuntarily controlled  Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or piercing
o These sphincters are normally  Premolars (bicuspids)—grinding
closed except during defecation  Molars—grinding
 The large intestine delivers undigestible
food residues to the body’s exterior
Regions of a Tooth
 Two major regions of a tooth
Large Intestine 1. Crown
 Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus to 2. Root
lubricate the passage of feces
 Muscularis externa layer is reduced to
three bands of muscle called teniae coli Regions of a Tooth
 These bands of muscle cause the wall to 1. Crown—exposed part of tooth above the
pucker into haustra (pocketlike sacs) gingiva (gum)
o Enamel—covers the crown
o Dentin—found deep to the
Accessory Digestive Organs enamel and forms the bulk of
 Teeth the tooth, surrounds the pulp
 Salivary glands cavity
 Pancreas o Pulp cavity—contains connective
 Liver tissue, blood vessels, and nerve
 Gallbladder fibers (pulp)
o Root canal—where the pulp
cavity extends into the root
Teeth  Note: The neck is a connector between
 Teeth masticate (chew) food into smaller the crown and root.
fragments o Region in contact with the gum
 Humans have two sets of teeth during a o Connects crown to root
lifetime: 2. Root
1. Deciduous (baby or “milk”) teeth o Cement—covers outer
 A baby has 20 teeth by surface and attaches the
age 2 tooth to the periodontal
 First teeth to appear are membrane (ligament)
the lower central incisors o Periodontal membrane holds
tooth in place in the bony jaw
2. Permanent teeth
o Replace deciduous teeth between Salivary
the ages of 6 and 12 Glands
o A full set is 32 teeth, but some
people do not have wisdom teeth
(third molars)  Three pairs of salivary glands empty
secretions into the mouth
o If they do emerge, the wisdom 1. Parotid glands
teeth appear between ages of 17  Found anterior to the ears
and 25 2. Submandibular glands

3. Sublingual glands
Classification of Teeth  Both submandibular and
 sublingual glands  Connected to the gallbladder via the
empty saliva into the common hepatic duct
floor of the mouth
through small ducts  Bile is produced by cells in the liver
 Bile leaves the liver through the
common hepatic duct and enters
Salivary Glands duodenum through the bile duct
 Saliva  Bile is a yellow-green, watery solution
o Mixture of mucus and serous containing:
fluids o Bile salts and bile
o Helps to moisten and bind food pigments (mostly
together into a mass called a bilirubin from the
bolus breakdown of
o Contains salivary amylase to hemoglobin)
begin starch digestion o Cholesterol, phospholipids, and
o Dissolves chemicals so they can electrolytes
be tasted  Function of bile
o Emulsify fats by physically
breaking large fat globules into
Pancreas smaller ones
 Found posterior to the parietal Gallbladder
peritoneum  Sac found in shallow fossa of liver
o Mostly retroperitoneal  When no digestion is occurring,
 Extends across the abdomen from spleen bile backs up the cystic duct
to duodenum for storage in the gallbladder
 During digestion of fatty
food, bile is introduced into
Pancreas the duodenum from the
 Produces a wide spectrum of gallbladder
digestive enzymes that break down  Gallstones are crystallized cholesterol,
all categories of food which can cause blockages
 Secretes enzymes into the duodenum
 Alkaline fluid introduced with
enzymes neutralizes acidic Functions of the Digestive
chyme coming from stomach System
 Hormones produced by the pancreas
 Major functions of the digestive system
o Insulin are summarized as:
o Glucagon o Digestion
o Absorption
Liver
 Largest gland in the body 1. Ingestion—placing of food into the
mouth
 Located on the right side of the body
under the diaphragm 2. Propulsion—movement of foods from
 Consists of four lobes suspended one region of the digestive system to
from the diaphragm and another
abdominal wall by the falciform o Peristalsis—alternating
ligament waves of contraction and
relaxation that squeezes
 food along the GI tract  Mixed with
o Segmentation—movement of saliva, which is
materials back and forth to released in
foster mixing in the small response to
intestine mechanical
pressure and
3. Food breakdown: mechanical breakdown psychic stimuli
o Examples:  Salivary amylase begins
 Mixing of food in the starch digestion
mouth by the tongue o Essentially, no food absorption
 Churning of food in the occurs in the mouth.
stomach  Food propulsion—swallowing and
 Segmentation in the small peristalsis
intestine o Pharynx and esophagus have no
o Mechanical digestion prepares digestive function
food for further degradation by  Serve as passageways to
enzymes the stomach
4. Food breakdown: digestion o Pharynx functions in swallowing
o Digestion occurs when (deglutition)
enzymes chemically break  Two phases of
down large molecules into swallowing:
their building blocks 1. Buccal phase
o Each major food group uses 2. Pharyngeal-
different enzymes esophgeal phase
 Carbohydrates are broken 1. Buccal phase
to monosaccharides  Voluntary
(simple sugars)  Occurs in the mouth
 Proteins are broken to  Food is formed into a
amino acids bolus
 Fats are broken to fatty  The bolus is forced into
acids and glycerol the pharynx by the tongue
5. Absorption
o End products of digestion are
2. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
absorbed in the blood or lymph  Involuntary transport of
o Food must enter mucosal cells the bolus by peristalsis
and then into blood or lymph  Nasal and respiratory
capillaries passageways are blocked
6. Defecation
o Elimination of indigestible Activities in the Stomach
substances from the GI tract in  Food breakdown
the form of feces o Gastric juice is regulated by
o neural and hormonal factors
Activities Occurring in the o Presence of food or rising pH
Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus causes the release of the hormone
 Food ingestion and breakdown gastrin
o Food is placed into the mouth o Gastrin causes stomach glands to
 Physically broken down produce:
by chewing  Protein-digesting
 enzymes fats, proteins, and
 Mucus carbohydrates
 Hydrochloric acid o Alkaline content
o Hydrochloric acid makes the neutralizes acidic
stomach contents very acidic chyme and
o Acidic pH provides the
 Activates pepsinogen to proper
pepsin for protein environment for
digestion the pancreatic
enzymes to
 Provides a hostile
operate
environment for
o Release of pancreatic juice from
microorganisms the pancreas into the duodenum
o Protein digestion enzymes is stimulated by:
 Pepsin—an active  Vagus nerves
protein-digesting enzyme  Local hormones
 Rennin—works on that travel via the
digesting milk protein in blood to influence
infants, not adults the release of
o Alcohol and aspirin are virtually pancreatic juice
the only items absorbed in the (and bile):
stomach o Secretin
 Food propulsion o Cholecystokinin
1. Peristalsis: Waves of (CCK)
peristalsis occur from the
o Hormones (secretin and CCK)
fundus to the pylorus, forcing also target the liver and
food past the pyloric sphincter gallbladder to release bile
2. Grinding: The pylorus  Bile
meters out chyme into the o Acts as a fat
small intestine (3 ml at a
emulsifier
time)
o Needed for fat
3. Retropulsion: Peristaltic absorption and
waves close the pyloric absorption of
sphincter, forcing content fat-soluble
back into the stomach. The vitamins (K, D,
stomach empties in 4–6 E, and A)
hours
 Food breakdown and absorption o Water is absorbed along the
o Intestinal enzymes from the length of the small intestine
brush border function to: o End products of digestion
 Break double sugars into  Most
simple sugars substances are
 Complete some protein absorbed by
digestion active
Intestinal enzymes and pancreatic transport
enzymes help to complete through cell
digestion of all food groups membranes
o Pancreatic enzymes play the  Lipids are absorbed by
major role in the digestion of diffusion
 o Substances are transported to the o Haustral contractions are most
liver by the hepatic portal vein or seen in the large intestine
lymph o Mass movements are slow,
powerful movements that
 Food breakdown and absorption occur 3 to 4 times per day
o Peristalsis is the major means of
moving food o Presence of feces in the rectum
o Segmental movements causes a defecation reflex
 Mix chyme with digestive  Internal anal sphincter is
juices relaxed
 Aid in propelling food  Defecation
occurs with
relaxation of the
Activities of the Large Intestine voluntary
 Food breakdown and absorption (external) anal
o No digestive enzymes are sphincter
produced
o Resident bacteria digest
remaining nutrients
 Produce some vitamin K
and B
 Release gases
o Water and vitamins K and B are
absorbed
o Remaining materials are
eliminated via feces
o Feces contains:
 Undigested food residues
 Mucus
 Bacteria
 Water
 Propulsion of the residue and defecation
o Sluggish peristalsis begins when
food residue arrives