Atri Sengupta

IIM Sambalpur
 Definition of Learning
• Learning is usually defined as a change in an individual
caused by experience not by reflexes (Slavin, 2003)
• “A persisting change in human performance or performance
potential . . . (brought) about as a result of the learner’s
interaction with the environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9)
• “The relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge
or behavior due to experience” (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040)
• “An enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to
behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or
other forms of experience” (Shuell, 1986, p. 412)
 Principles of Learning
• Learning involves change
• The change must be relatively permanent
• Learning doesn’t refer to changes resulting from maturation
• Learning is concerned with behaviour
• Learning can result from experiences
• Learning is intangible, only can be observed
• Learning can result from motivation
• Reinforcement can result in learning
• Schedules of learning
• Whole vs. part learning
• Meaningfulness of material
• Transfer of learning
 Theories of Learning
• Behavioural Theory
§ Classical Conditioning – Pavlov
§ Operant Conditioning - Skinner

• Cognitive Theory
§ Edward Tolman

• Social Learning Theory

§ Learning From Models - Albert Bandura
 Classical Conditioning Theory – Ivan Pavlov
– A type of learning in which:
• an organism learns to connect, or associate stimuli.
• naturally occurring involuntary response becomes associated with a
previously neutral stimulus
– Focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional or physiological
responses. (fear, increased heartbeat, salivation, or sweating)
– Humans/animals can be trained to react involuntarily to a stimulus
that previously had no effect on them.
• This is a form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus
becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the
capacity to elicit a similar response.
• Basic principle – a type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a
response.
S R
Classical Conditioning Theory – Ivan Pavlov
 Classical Conditioning Theory – Ivan Pavlov
Unconditioned Unconditioned
Stimulus(US) e.g.(Bell) ® response (UR) e.g. (No
saliva)

Unconditioned Unconditioned
Stimulus(US) e.g.(meat) ® response (UR) e.g. (saliva)

Conditioned ® Conditioned
Stimulus (CS) e.g.(bell) response (CR) e.g.(saliva)
 Classical Conditioning Theory – Implication
• Condition Response (CR) was learned because of repeated
reinforcement which in this case following the Condition
Stimulus (CS) (Bell) by the Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
(food) and Unconditioned Response (UR) saliva) at
appropriate time intervals.
•If the food (US) was not re-supplied from time-to-time, the
response would begin to disappear or extinguish.
• Organisational Implication –
- Certain stimulus enforces employees to respond in a
particular manner.
- Repeated occurances of this stimulus help them
to make a habit of that particular response.
- It can stimulate desired employee behaviour.
 Operant Conditioning Theory – B.F. Skinner

• Also known as Instrumental Learning Theory /

Reinforcement Theory
– Pioneer Psychologist- e.g. Thorndike & Skinner believed
that the majority of human behaviours are not random
responses to stimuli which are purposive
– Behaviour = f(Consequences of the Behaviour), i.e.,
consequences of behaviour produce changes in the
probability that behaviour will occur
• A type of learning whereby a voluntary response is strengthened
when it is reinforced
• People actively and voluntarily “operate” on their environment
to produce different kinds of consequences
 Operant Conditioning Theory – B.F. Skinner
• Behavior changes according to its immediate
consequences (immediacy of consequences is key)
• Skinner Box Experiment
 Operant Conditioning Theory – B.F. Skinner

• Reinforcers – consequences that are likely to increase the

frequency of the behavior, i.e., strengthen the behavior
• Positive reinforcement – are usually things given to
students that they value, e.g., praise.
• Negative reinforcement – escape from an unpleasant or a
way of preventing unpleasant behavior from occurring.
• Punishment – consequences that weaken behavior; punishment
like reinforcement is in the eye of the receiver and the impact on
behavior.
 Operant Conditioning Theory – Schedule of
Reinforcement

1. Intermittent or Partial reinforcement – Reinforcing responses only some of

the time can be categorized as ,

• Fixed ratio – It could be the reinforcement after a fixed no. of behaviours or

accomplishments. For example, every quarter there will be performance
evaluation & reinforcement. The fixed ratio schedule keeps the response fairly
low after the moment of reinforcement.
ü Response rate is FAST
ü Extinction rate is MEDIUM

• Variable ratio – Employee behaviour is reinforced after a variable no. of times.

For example, Salespeople experience this when they can make a successful deal
after making some unsuccessful calls.
ü Response rate is FAST
ü Extinction rate is SLOW
 Operant Conditioning Theory – Schedule of
Reinforcement

1. Intermittent or Partial reinforcement – Reinforcing responses only

some of the time can be categorized as ,

• Fixed interval – Here employees receive their reinforcement after a

fixed period of time. For example, pay-check.
ü Response rate is MEDIUM
ü Extinction rate is MEDIUM

• Variable interval – Employees are reinforced after a variable amount of

time. For example, merit-basis promotion.
• Response rate is FAST
• Extinction rate is SLOW
 Operant Conditioning Theory – Schedule of
Reinforcement

2. Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcing every occurrence of the

desired behaviour.

• Response rate is SLOW

• Extinction rate is FAST
 Operant Conditioning Theory – Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

BEHAVIOUR CONSEQUENCE FUTURE BEHAVIOUR

Student asks Teacher praises Student asks more
good question student good questions

(Add or obtain positive stimulus)

Negative reinforcement

BEHAVIOUR CONSEQUENCE FUTURE BEHAVIOUR

Student turns Teacher stops Student increasingly
homework in criticising turns homework in
on time student on time

(Subtracted or removed negative stimulus)

 Operant Conditioning Theory – Reinforcement

Punishment

BEHAVIOUR CONSEQUENCE FUTURE BEHAVIOUR

Student interrupts Teacher verbally Student stops
teacher reprimands interrupting
student teacher
 Operant Conditioning Theory – Thorndike

CONSEQUENCE EFFECT
Behavior Reinforcer Strengthened or
repeated behavior

CONSEQUENCE EFFECT
Behavior Punisher Weakened or
decreased behavior

Law of Effect (Thorndike):

"responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely
to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect
become less likely to occur again in that situation (Gray, 2011, p. 108–109)."
Implication of Operant Conditioning Theory – Shaping
Behaviour

• A technique to control & change behaviour by reinforcing in a systematic

way those actions that are considered important or desirable

A-B-C Model of Behaviour Modification ---

Antecedents Behaviour Consequences

(what happens (what person (what happens
before acts) after
behaviour) behaviour)
 Strengths & Limitations of Behavioural Learning
Theory

How to modify behaviour?

• Shaping – With shaping, an appropriate reinforcer is
selected to suit the occasion, & all positive
reinforcements are contingent on the organism moving
closer to adopting the desired behaviour.
• Modeling – An applied learning procedure associated
with shaping is modeling. The desired behaviour is firmly
kept in mind before selecting the appropriate model
capable of exemplifying the way to proceed.
Strengths & Limitations of Behavioural Learning Theory

Difference between Classical & operant

Conditioning Theories:

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

A proactive process
•A reactive process
Response to stimulus
•Stimulus to response
Responses are variable;
•Responses are fixed to choices are there.
stimulus; no choice
Strengths & Limitations of Behavioural Learning
Theory

• The basic principles are as firmly established

as any in psychology and have been
demonstrated under many different conditions

• However, the theories only deal with

observable behavior

• In some ways in complements cognitive

theories of learning
 Social Learning Theory

• Bandura and observational learning – he noted that Skinnerian

emphasis of the consequences of behavior largely ignored the
phenomena of modeling – the imitation of others.
• Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment
• Observational learning involves four phases:
- Attention
- Retention
- Reproduction
- Motivation
• Vicarious Learning - People learn in this process by seeing other
people rewarded or punished.
• Self-regulation – people can observe their own behavior, judge it
against their own standards, and reinforce or punish themselves.
 Social Learning Theory
Features:
• Behavioural modeling – People learn by observing behaviours of a
role model on the critical task, remembering the important elements of
the observed behaviours, & then practicing those behaviours.
Behaviour modeling increases self-efficacy because people gain more
self-confidence after seeing someone else to do it.
• Learning behaviour consequences – We learn consequences of
behaviour in ways other than through direct experiences. In particular,
we learn by logically thinking through the consequences of our actions
& by observing the consequences that other people experience
following their behaviour.
• Self-reinforcement – It occurs whenever an employee has control over
a reinforcer but doesn’t take the reinforcer until completing a self-set
goal.
• Self-efficacy – Bandura has defined self-efficacy as the self-
perceptions of how well a person can cope with situations as they
arise.
 Cognitive Learning Theory
• Cognitive learning theories stress the importance of
internal mental processes.
• Understanding and thinking – the mental map
• Problem solving approach to learning
• Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols
• Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a
meaningful & memorable way
• Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate
symbol connection
• Edward Tolman – the rat maze experiment
• Learning the association between cognitive cues &
expectancy – purposive and goal-directed behaviour
 Learning Style

Relationship with Curriculum

Personal
Style

Relationship with others Relationship with Self

 Kolb’s
Experiential
Learning
Theory
 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory

1. Concrete Experience - a new experience or situation

is encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing
experience.
2. Reflective Observation of the New Experience -
of particular importance are any inconsistencies between
experience and understanding.
3. Abstract Conceptualization reflection gives rise to a
new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept
(the person has learned from their experience).
4. Active Experimentation - the learner applies their
idea(s) to the world around them to see what happens.
 Learning Style
Style Attributes Activities

Activist Activists are those people who learn by brainstorming

doing. Activists need to get their hands problem solving
dirty, to dive in with both feet first. group discussion
Have an open-minded approach to puzzles
learning, involving themselves fully and competitions
without bias in new experiences. role-play

Theorist These learners like to understand the models

theory behind the actions. They need statistics
models, concepts and facts in order to stories
engage in the learning process. Prefer quotes
to analyse and synthesise, drawing background information
new information into a systematic and applying theories
logical 'theory'.
 Learning Style
Style Attributes Activities

Pragmatist These people need to be able to see discussion

how to put the learning into practice in
the real world. Abstract concepts and
games are of limited use unless they
can see a way to put the ideas into
action in their lives. Experimenters,
trying out new ideas, theories and
techniques to see if they work.

Reflector These people learn by observing and paired discussions

thinking about what happened. They self analysis
may avoid leaping in and prefer to questionnaires
watch from the sidelines. Prefer to personality questionnaires
stand back and view experiences from time out
a number of different perspectives, observing activities
collecting data and taking the time to feedback from others
work towards an appropriate coaching
conclusion. interview
 Personalized Learning
• Personalized learning refers to instruction in
which the pace of learning and the
instructional approach are optimized for the
needs of each learner. Learning objectives,
instructional approaches, and instructional
content (and its sequencing) may all vary
based on learner needs. In addition, learning
activities are meaningful and relevant to
learners, driven by their interests, and often
self-initiated. (The United States National
Education Technology Plan 2017)
 Personalized Learning
• ICT and communications technology can be a powerful tool
for personalized learning as it allows learners access to
research and information, and provides a mechanism for
communication, debate, and recording learning
achievements. However, personalized learning is not
exclusive to digital technologies or environments. In the
rhetoric around 21st Century Skills, personalized learning is
often equated with 'customization' (as found in the
business world), with digital personalization used to the
frame the learning experience as highly efficient.
Problematic in this is the discounting of the highly
relational and socially constructed space well defined in the
research on learning. Narrowing personalized learning to its
digital form also raises the concern of the echo
chamber effect emerging in (hyper)personalized online
experiences. (Eduard Pogorskiy)