CD DSTC Notes

Dr.
Subhash Technical Campus

Faculty of Degree Engineering
Compiler Design - 3170701
1. Introduction to Compiler
1. Draw structure of Compiler. Explain all phases of compiler with example.

A compiler is a computer program which helps you transform source code written in a high-
level language into low-level machine language.
Lexical Analysis
The first phase of scanner works as a text scanner. This phase scans the source code as a stream of
characters and converts it into meaningful lexemes. Lexical analyzer represents these lexemes in the form of
tokens as:
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<token-name, attribute-value>
Syntax Analysis
The next phase is called the syntax analysis or parsing. It takes the token produced by lexical analysis as
input and generates a parse tree (or syntax tree). In this phase, token arrangements are checked against the
source code grammar, i.e. the parser checks if the expression made by the tokens is syntactically correct.
Semantic Analysis
Semantic analysis checks whether the parse tree constructed follows the rules of language. For example,
assignment of values is between compatible data types, and adding string to an integer. Also, the semantic
analyzer keeps track of identifiers, their types and expressions; whether identifiers are declared before use or
not etc. The semantic analyzer produces an annotated syntax tree as an output.
Intermediate Code Generation

After semantic analysis the compiler generates an intermediate code of the source code for the target
machine. It represents a program for some abstract machine. It is in between the high-level language and the
machine language. This intermediate code should be generated in such a way that it makes it easier to be
translated into the target machine code.
Code Optimization
The next phase does code optimization of the intermediate code. Optimization can be assumed as something
that removes unnecessary code lines, and arranges the sequence of statements in order to speed up the
program execution without wasting resources (CPU, memory).
Code Generation
In this phase, the code generator takes the optimized representation of the intermediate code and maps it to
the target machine language. The code generator translates the intermediate code into a sequence of
(generally) re-locatable machine code. Sequence of instructions of machine code performs the task as the
intermediate code would do.
Symbol Table
It is a data-structure maintained throughout all the phases of a compiler. All the identifier's names along
with their types are stored here. The symbol table makes it easier for the compiler to quickly search the
identifier record and retrieve it. The symbol table is also used for scope management.

For Example: Input String: position = initial + rate * 60
2. What is the pass of a compiler? Explain how the single and multi-pass
compilers work.

A compiler can have many phases and passes.

 Pass : A pass refers to the traversal of a compiler through the entire program.
 Phase : A phase of a compiler is a distinguishable stage, which takes input from the previous stage,
processes and yields output that can be used as input for the next stage. A pass can have more than
one phase.
Single Pass Compiler:
In single pass Compiler source code directly transforms into machine code. For example, Pascal
language.
Two Pass Compiler:
Two pass Compiler is divided into two sections,
1. Front end: It maps legal code into Intermediate Representation (IR).

2. Back end: It maps IR onto the target machine
The Two pass compiler method also simplifies the retargeting process. It also allows multiple
front ends.
Multipass Compilers:

 The multipass compiler processes the source code or syntax tree of a program several
times.
 It divided a large program into multiple small programs and processes them.
 It develops multiple intermediate codes. This entire multipass takes the output of the
previous phase as an input. So it requires less memory. It is also known as 'Wide
Compiler'.
3. Explain cousins of compiler.
Figure: A Language-processing System

 Preprocessor: The preprocessor is considered as a part of the Compiler. It is a tool which

produces input for Compiler. It deals with macro processing, augmentation, language
extension, etc.
 Interpreter: An interpreter is like Compiler which translates high-level language into
low-level machine language. The main difference between both is that interpreter reads
and transforms code line by line. Compiler reads the entire code at once and creates the
machine code.
 Assembler: It translates assembly language code into machine understandable language.
The output result of assembler is known as an object file which is a combination of
machine instruction as well as the data required to store these instructions in memory.
 Linker: The linker helps you to link and merge various object files to create an executable
file. All these files might have been compiled with separate assemblers. The main task of a
linker is to search for called modules in a program and to find out the memory location
where all modules are stored.
 Loader: The loader is a part of the OS, which performs the tasks of loading executable
files into memory and run them. It also calculates the size of a program which creates
additional memory space.
 Cross-compiler: A cross compiler is a platform which helps you to generate executable
code.
 Source-to-source Compiler: Source to source compiler is a term used when the source
code of one programming language is translated into the source of another language.

2. Lexical Analyzer
4. Construct a NFA for following regular expression using Thompson’s notation

and then convert it into DFA.
(a+b)*abb
Figure: NFA for (a+b)*abb
 ε – closure (0)={0,1,2,4,7} ---- LetA

 Move(A,a) ={3,8}
ε – closure (Move(A,a))={1,2,3,4,6,7,8} --- LetB
Move(A,b) = {5}
ε – closure (Move(A,b))={1,2,4,5,6,7}---- LetC
 Move(B,a) ={3,8}
ε – closure (Move(B,a))={1,2,3,4,6,7,8}---- B
Move(B,b) = {5,9}
ε – closure (Move(B,b))={1,2,4,5,6,7,9} --- Let D
 Move(C,a) ={3,8}
ε – closure (Move(C,a))={1,2,3,4,6,7,8}---- B
Move(C,b) = {5}
ε – closure (Move(C,b))={1,2,4,5,6,7} ---- C
 Move(D,a) ={3,8}
ε – closure (Move(D,a))={1,2,3,4,6,7,8} ----B

Move(D,b) = {5,10}
ε – closure (Move(D,b))={1,2,4,5,6,7,10} ---- Let E
 Move(E,a) ={3,8}
ε – closure (Move(E,a))={1,2,3,4,6,7,8} ---- B
Move(E,b) = {5}
ε – closure (Move(E,b))={1,2,4,5,6,7} ---- C
States a b
A B C
B B D
C B C
D B E
E B C
Table: Transition table for (a+b)*abb
a
b
a B D
a
b b
A
a
a
b E
C
Figure: DFA for (a+b)*abb
5. Construct a DFA without constructing NFA for following regular expression.

Find minimized DFA.
(a+b)*abb#
To find followpos traverse concatenation and star node in depth first searchorder.
1. 2. 3.
i=lastpos(c1)={5} i=lastpos(c1)={4} i=lastpos(c1)={3}
firstpos(c2)={6} firstpos(c2)={5} firstpos(c2)={4}
followpos(i)=firstpos(c2) followpos(i)=firstpos(c2) followpos(i)=firstpos(c2)
followpos(5)={6} followpos(4)={5} followpos(3)={4}

4. 5.
i=lastpos(c1)={1,2} i=lastpos(c1)={1,2}
firstpos(c2)={3} firstpos(c1)={1,2}
followpos(i)=firstpos(c2) followpos(i)=firstpos(c1)
followpos(1)={3} followpos(1)={1,2}
followpos(2)={3} followpos(2)={1,2}
Position Followpos(i)
1 {1,2,3}
2 {1,2,3}
3 {4}
4 {5}
5 {6}
Table: followpos table
Construct DFA
Initial node = firstpos (root node)= {1,2,3} --A
δ(A,a) = followpos(1) Ufollowpos(3)
= {1,2,3} U{4}
= {1,2,3,4} ---B
δ (A,b) =followpos(2)
={1,2,3} ---- A
δ (B,a) = followpos(1) Ufollowpos(3)

= {1,2,3} U{4}
={1,2,3,4} -- B
δ(B,b) = followpos(2) Ufollowpos(4)
= {1,2,3} U{5}
={1,2,3,5} -- C
δ(C,a) = followpos(1) Ufollowpos(3)

= {1,2,3} U{4}
= {1,2,3,4} ---B
δ(C,b) = followpos(2) Ufollowpos(5)
= {1,2,3} U{6}
= {1,2,3,6} --- D

δ(D,a) = followpos(1) U followpos(3)

= {1,2,3} U{4}
= {1,2,3,4} ---B
δ(D,b) = followpos(2) = {1,2,3}---A
Transition Table
States a b
A B A
B B C
C B D
D B A
Table: Transition table for (a+b)*abb
a
A B
a
b a
D C
b
Figure: DFA for (a+b)*abb

3. Parsing Theory
6. Write down the algorithm for left factoring and left recursion.
Left Factoring:
Left factoring is a grammar transformation that is useful for producing grammar suitable for
predictive parsing.
Algorithm to left factor a grammar
Input: Grammar G
Output: An equivalent left factored grammar.
1. For each non terminal A find the longest prefix α common to two or more of its alternatives.
2. If α!= E, i.e., there is a non trivial common prefix, replace all the A productions
Aà αβ1| αβ2|..............| αβn| ɣ where ɣ represents all alternatives that do not begin with
α by
A==> α A'| ɣ
A'==>β1|β2|….|βn
Here A' is new non terminal. Repeatedly apply this transformation until no two
alternatives for a non-terminal have a common prefix.
Left Recursion:
• A grammar is said to be left recursive if it has a non terminal A such that there is a derivation
A Aα for some string α.
• Top down parsing methods cannot handle left recursive grammar, so a transformation that
eliminates left recursion is needed.
Algorithm to eliminate left recursion:
Input: Grammar G
Output: An equivalent left recursive grammar.
1. Assign an ordering A1,…,An to the nonterminals of the grammar.
2. for i:=1 to n do
begin
for j:=1 to i−1 do begin
replace each production of the form Ai→Aiɣ
by the productions Ai ->δ1ɣ | δ2ɣ |…..| δkɣ
where Aj -> δ1 | δ2 |…..| δk are all the current Aj productions;
end
eliminate the intermediate left recursion among the Ai-productions
end
7. Draw parsing table for Table Driven Parser for the given grammar. Is the
grammar LL (1)?
Consider the following grammar
E E+T / T
T T*F / F
F (E) / id
Eliminate immediate left recursion from above grammar then we obtain,
E TE’
E’ +TE’ | ε
T FT’
T’ *FT’ | ε
F (E) | id
Compute FIRST & FOLLOW:
FIRST FOLLOW
E {(,id} {$,)}
E’ {+,ϵ} {$,)}
T {(,id} {+,$,)}
T’ {*,ϵ} {+,$,)}
F {(,id} {*,+,$,)}
Predictive Parsing Table
id + * ( ) $
E ETE’ ETE’
E’ E’+TE’ E’ϵ E’ϵ
T TFT’ TFT’
T’ T’ϵ T’*FT’ T’ϵ T’ϵ
F Fid F(E)
There is no any multiple entries in the parsing table. So, given grammar is LL(1) grammar.
8. Explain Shift-Reduce parsing with suitable example.

The shift reduce parser performs following basic operations,
• Shift: Moving of the symbols from input buffer onto the stack, this action is called shift.
• Reduce: If handle appears on the top of the stack then reduction of it by appropriate rule is
done. This action is called reduce action.
• Accept: If stack contains start symbol only and input buffer is empty at the same time then
that action is called accept.
• Error: A situation in which parser cannot either shift or reduce the symbols, it cannot even
perform accept action then it is called error action.
Consider the following grammar:
E E+T|T
T T*F|F
F id
Input String: id + id * id

9. Explain SLR parser in detail with the help of an example.

 SLR means simple LR.
 A grammar for which an SLR parser can be constructed is said to be an SLRgrammar.
 SLR is a type of LR parser with small parse tables and a relatively simple parser generator
algorithm. It is quite efficient at finding the single correct bottom up parse in a single left
to right scan over the input string, without backtracking.
 The parsing table has two states (action, Go to).
 The parsing table has fourvalues:

 Shift S, where S is astate
 reduce by a grammarproduction
 accept,and
 error
Example:
E→ E + T | T
T→ TF | F
F→ F * | a | b
Augmented grammar: E’→.E
Now find Closure(I)

I0: E’ →.E I1 : Go to ( I0,E ) I2 : Go to ( I0, T )
E → .E + E’ → E. E →T.
T E → .T E → E.+T T→T.F
T→.TF F→.F*
T →.F F→.a
F → .F F→.b
* F →.a
F →.b
I3 : Go to ( I0,F ) I4: Go to ( I0,a ) I5 : Go to (I0,b)
T→ F. F→a. F→ b.
F→F.*
I6: Go to ( I1,+ ) I7 : Go to (I2,F) I8 : Go to ( I3,* )
E→E+.T T→TF. F→F *.
T→.TF F→F.*
T→ .F
F→.F*
F→.a
F→.b
I9 : Go to( I6,T ) Go to ( I2,a ) – I4 Go to ( I7,* ) – I8
E→E+T. Go to ( I2,b ) – I5 Go to ( I9,a ) – I4
T→T.F Go to ( I6,a ) – I4 Go to ( I9,b ) – I5
F→.F* Go to ( I6,b) – I5
F→.a
F→.b

Table : LR(0) collection
SLR Parsing Table:
Action Go to
state + * a b $ E T F
0 S4 S5 1 2 3
1 S6 Accept
2 R2 S4 S5 R2 7
3 R4 S8 R4 R4 R4
4 R6 R6 R6 R6 R6
5 R6 R6 R6 R6 R6
6 S4 S5 9 3
7 R3 S8 R3 R3 R3
8 R5 R5 R5 R5 R5
9 R1 S4 S5 R1 7
10. Write down steps to set precedence relationship for Operator Precedence
Grammar. Design precedence table for:
• Operator Grammar: A Grammar in which there is no Є in RHS of any production or no
adjacent non terminals is called operator precedence grammar.
• In operator precedence parsing, we define three disjoint precedence relations <. , .>and =
between certain pair of terminals.
Relation Meaning
a <.b a “yields precedence to” b
a=.b a “has the same precedence as” b
a.>b a “takes precedence over” b
Leading:-
Leading of a nonterminal is the first terminal or operator in production of that nonterminal.
Trailing:-

Trailing of a nonterminal is the last terminal or operator in production of that nonterminal.

Example:
E E+E
E E*E
E id
Establish Relation between operators
1. T1 NT T2 T1= T2
2. T NT T < Leading (NT)
3. NT T Trailing (NT) > T
4. $ < Leading (Starting Symbol)
5. Trailing (Starting Symbol) > $
Operator Precedence Relationship Table
+ * id $
+ > < < >
* > > < >
id > > >
$ < < <
Operator Precedence Table
+ * id $
f(x) 2 4 4 0
g(x) 1 3 5 0

4. Error Recovery
11. Explain Error Recovery strategies of compiler.
1. Panic mode
 This strategy is used by most parsing methods. This is simple toimplement.
 In this method on discovering error, the parser discards input symbol one at time. This
process is continued until one of a designated set of synchronizing tokens is found.
Synchronizing tokens are delimiters such as semicolon or end. These tokens indicate an
end of input statement.
 Thus in panic mode recovery a considerable amount of input is skipped without
checking it for additional errors.
2. Phrase level recovery
 In this method, on discovering an error parser performs local correction on remaining
input.
 It can replace a prefix of remaining input by some string. This actually helps parser to
continue its job.
 The local correction can be replacing comma by semicolon, deletion of semicolons or
inserting missing semicolon. This type of local correction is decided by compiler
designer.
 While doing the replacement a care should be taken for not going in an infinite loop.
 This method is used in many error-repairing compilers.
3. Error production
 If we have good knowledge of common errors that might be encountered, then we can
augment the grammar for the corresponding language with error productions that
generate the erroneous constructs.
 If error production is used during parsing, we can generate appropriate error message to
indicate the erroneous construct that has been recognized in the input.
 This method is extremely difficult to maintain, because if we change grammar then it
becomes necessary to change the corresponding productions.
4. Global correction
 We often want such a compiler that makes very few changes in processing an incorrect
input string.
 Given an incorrect input string x and grammar G, the algorithm will find a parse tree for
a related string y, such that number of insertions, deletions and changes of token require
to transform x into y is as small as possible.
 Such methods increase time and space requirements at parsing time.
 Global production is thus simply a theoretical concept.
12. Explain how type checking & error reporting is performed in a compiler.
A compiler must check that the source program follows both syntactic and semantic conventions of
the source language. This checking, called static checking, detects and reports programming errors.
Some examples of static checks:

1. Type checks - A compiler should report an error if an operator is applied to an incompatible operand.
Example: If an array variable and function variable are added together.
2. Flow-of-control checks - Statements that cause flow of control to leave a construct must have some place
to which to transfer the flow of control. Example: An enclosing statement, such as break, does not exist in
switch statement.
A type checker verifies that the type of a construct matches that expected by its context. For example:
arithmetic operator mod in Pascal requires integer operands, so a type checker verifies that the operands of
mod have type integer. Type information gathered by a type checker may be needed when code is generated.
Type Systems
The design of a type checker for a language is based on information about the syntactic constructs in the
language, the notion of types, and the rules for assigning types to language
constructs.
For example : “ if both operands of the arithmetic operators of +,- and * are of type integer, then the result is
of type integer ”
Type Expressions
The type of a language construct will be denoted by a “type expression.” A type expression is either a
basic type or is formed by applying an operator called a type constructor to other type expressions. The sets
of basic types and constructors depend on the language to be checked. The following are the definitions of
type expressions:
1. Basic types such as boolean, char, integer, real are type expressions.
A special basic type, type_error , will signal an error during type checking; void denoting “the
absence of a value” allows statements to be checked.
2. Since type expressions may be named, a type name is a type expression.
3. A type constructor applied to type expressions is a type expression.
Constructors include:
Arrays : If T is a type expression then array (I,T) is a type expression denoting the type of an array with
elements of type T and index set I.
Products : If T1 and T2 are type expressions, then their Cartesian product T1 X T2 is a type expression.
Records : The difference between a record and a product is that the names. The record type constructor will
be applied to a tuple formed from field names and field types.
Error Recovery
Since type checking has the potential for catching errors in program, it is desirable for type checker to
recover from errors, so it can check the rest of the input. Error handling has to be designed into the type
system right from the start; the type checking rules must be prepared to cope with errors.

5. Intermediate Code Generation
13. Explain quadruple, triple and indirect triple with suitable example.
 There are three types of representation used for three address code,
1. Quadruples
2. Triples
3. Indirect triples
 Consider the input statement x: = -a*b +-a*b.
Three address code for above statement:
t1= -a
t2 := t1 * b
t3= -a
t4 := t3 * b
t5 := t2 + t4
x= t5
Quadruple representation
 The quadruple is a structure with at the most four fields such as op, arg1,arg2.
 The op field is used to represent the internal code for operator.
 The arg1 and arg2 represent the two operands.
 And result field is used to store the result of an expression.
 Statement with unary operators like x= -y do not usearg2.

Triples
 To avoid entering temporary names into the symbol table, we might refer a temporary value by
the position of the statement that computes it.
 If we do so, three address statements can be represented by records with only three fields: op, arg1
and arg2.
Number Op Arg1 Arg2
(0) uminus a
(1) * (0) b
(2) uminus a
(3) * (2) b
(4) + (1) (3)
(5) := X (4)
Indirect Triples
 In the indirect triple representation the listing of triples has been done, and listing pointers are used
instead of using statement.
 This implementation is called indirect triples.

14. Write syntax directed definition of a simple desk calculator and draw an
annotated parse tree for 3 * 5 + 4 n
 Value of synthesized attribute at a node can be computed from the value of attributes at
the children of that node in the parse tree.
 Syntax directed definition that uses synthesized attribute exclusively is said to be S-
attribute definition.
 A parse tree for an S-attributed definition can always be annotated by evaluating the
semantic rules for the attribute at the each node bottom up, from the leaves toroot.
 An annotated parse tree is a parse tree showing the value of the attributes at each node.
The process of computing the attribute values at the node is called annotating or
decorating the parse tree.
 The syntax directed definition for simple desk calculator is given in following table:
Production Semantic Rules
LEn Print(E.val)
EE1+T E.val=E1.val+T.val
ET E.val= T.val
TT1*F T.val=T1.val*F.val
TF T.val= F.val
F(E) F.val= E.val
Fdigit F.val=digit.lexval
Table: Syntax directed definition of a simple desk calculator

Figure: Annotated Parse Tree
15. Differentiate Synthesized and Inherited attributes.

No Synthesized Attribute Inherited attribute
1 Value of synthesized attribute at a Values of the inherited attribute at a
node can be computed from the value node can be computed from the value
of attributes at the children of that of attribute at the parent and/or
node in the parse tree. siblings of the node.
2 Pass the information from bottom to Pass the information top to bottom in
top in the parse tree. the parse tree or from left siblings to the
right siblings

\6. Run Time Memory Management
16. Explain Stack Allocation and Activation Record Organization in brief.
Stack allocation
 All compilers for languages that use procedures, functions or methods as units of user define
actions manage at least part of their run-time memory as a stack.
 Each time a procedure is called, space for its local variables is pushed onto a stack, and when
the procedure terminates, the space is popped off the stack.
Calling Sequences: (How is task divided between calling & called program for stack updating?)
 Procedures called are implemented in what is called as calling sequence, which consist of
code that allocates an activation record on the stack and enters information into its fields.
 A return sequences similar to code to restore the state of machine so the calling procedure can
continue its execution after the call.
 The code is calling sequence of often divided between the calling procedure (caller) and
procedure is calls (callee).
 When designing calling sequences and the layout of activation principles are helpful:
1. Value communicated between caller and callee are generally placed atthe beginning
of the callee’s activation record, so they are as close as possible to the caller’s
activation record.
2. Fixed length items are generally placed in the middle. Such items typically include
the control link, the access link, and the machine statusfield.
3. Items whose size may not be known early enough are placed at the end of the
activation record.
4. We must locate the top of the stack pointer judiciously. A common approach is to
have it point to the end of fixed length fields in the activation is to have it point to the
end of fixed length fields in the activation record. Fixed length data can then be
accessed by fixed offsets, known to the intermediate code generator, relative to the
top of the stack pointer.
 The calling sequence and its division between caller and callee are as follows:
1. The caller evaluates the actual parameters.
2. Thecallerstoresareturnaddressandtheoldvalueoftop_spintothecallee’s activation record.
The caller then increments the top_sp to the respective positions.
3. The callee saves the register values and other status information.
4. The callee initializes its local data and begins execution.
 A suitable, corresponding return sequences:

1. The callee places the return value next to the parameters.

2. Using the information in the machine status field, the callee restores top_sp and other
registers, and then branches to the return address that the caller placed in the status
field.
3. Although top_sp has been decremented, the caller knows where the return value is,
relative to the current value of top_sp ; the caller therefore may use that value.
Activation Records (Most IMP)
Return value
Actual parameter
Control link
Access link
Saved M/c status
Local variables
Temporaries
Figure: Activation Record
Various field of activation record are as follows:

1. Temporary values: The temporary variables are needed during the evaluation of expressions.
Such variables are stored in the temporary field of activation record.
2. Local variables: The local data is a data that is local to the execution procedure is stored in
this field of activation record.
3. Saved machine registers: This field holds the information regarding the status of machine
just before the procedure is called. This field contains the registers and program counter.
4. Control link: This field is optional. It points to the activation record of the calling procedure.
This link is also called dynamic link.
5. Access link: This field is also optional. It refers to the non local data in other activation
record. This field is also called static link field.
6. Actual parameters: This field holds the information about the actual parameters. These
actual parameters are passed to the called procedure.
7. Return values: This field is used to store the result of a function call
17. Explain various parameter passing methods.

 There are two types of parameters, Formal parameters & Actual parameters.
 And based on these parameters there are various parameter passing methods, the common
methods are,
1. Call by value:
 This is the simplest method of parameter passing.
 The actual parameters are evaluated and their r-values are passed to caller procedure.
 The operations on formal parameters do not change the values of a parameter.

 Example: Languages like C, C++ use actual parameter passing method.
2. Call by reference:
 This method is also called as call by address or call by location.
 The L-value, the address of actual parameter is passed to the called routines activation
record.
3. Copy restore:
 This method is a hybrid between call by value and call by reference. This method is also
known as copy-in-copy-out or values result.
 The calling procedure calculates the value of actual parameter and it then copied to activation
record for the called procedure.
 During execution of called procedure, the actual parameters value is not affected.
 If the actual parameter has L-value then at return the value of formal parameter is copied to
actual parameter.
4. Call by name:
 This is less popular method of parameter passing.
 Procedure is treated like macro. The procedure body is substituted for call in caller with
actual parameters substituted for formals.
 The actual parameters can be surrounded by parenthesis to preserve their integrity.
 The local names of called procedure and names of calling procedure are distinct.
18. For what purpose compiler uses symbol table? How characters of a name are
stored in symbol table? What do you mean by dangling reference?
 Definition: Symbol table is a data structure used by compiler to keep track of semantics of
a variable. That means symbol table stores the information about scope and binding
information about names.
 Symbol table is built in lexical and syntax analysis phases.
Symbol table entries
 The items to be stored into symbol table are:
1) Variablen ames
2) Constants
3) Procedure names
4) Function names
5) Literal constants and strings
6) Compiler generated temporaries
7) Labels in source language
 Compiler use following types of information from symbol table:
1) Data type

2) Name
3) Declaring procedure
4) Offset in storage
5) If structure or record then pointer to structure table
6) For parameters, whether parameter passing is by value or reference?
7) Number and type of arguments passed to the function
8) Base address
How to store names in symbol table?
There are two types of representation:
3. Fixed length name
 A fixed space for each name is allocated in symbol table. In this type of storage if name is
too small then there is wastage of space.
 The name can be referred by pointer to symbol table entry.
Name Attribute
c a I c u I a t e
s u m
a
b
Figure: Fixed length name
4. Variable length name

 The amount of space required by string is used to store the names. The name can be stored
with the help of starting index and length of each name.
Name Attribute
Starting Length
index
0 10
10 4
14 2
16 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
C a I c u I a t e $ s u m $ a $ b $
Figure: Variable length name

Dangling Reference:
A dangling reference is a reference to an object that no longer exists. Garbage is an object that cannot be
reached through a reference. Dangling references do not exist in garbage collected languages because objects
are only reclaimed when they are no longer accessible (only garbage is collected).
In short, When you have a pointer (or reference) and it points to a location from where data is deleted, known
as dangling reference .

7. Code Optimization
19. Explain various code optimization techniques.

1. Compile Time Evaluation
 Compile time evaluation means shifting of computations from run time to compile time.
 There are two methods used to obtain the compile time evaluation.
Folding
 In the folding technique the computation of constant is done at compile time instead of run
time.
Example : length = (22/7)*d
 Here folding is implied by performing the computation of 22/7 at compile time.
Constant propagation
 In this technique the value of variable is replaced and computation of an expression is done
at compilation time.
Example:
pi = 3.14; r = 5;
Area = pi * r * r;
 Here at the compilation time the value of pi is replaced by 3.14 and r by 5 then
computation of 3.14 * 5 * 5 is done during compilation.
2. Common sub expressions elimination
 The common sub expression is an expression appearing repeatedly in the program which is
computed previously.
 If the operands of this sub expression do not get changed at all then result of such sub
expression is used instead of re-computing it each time.
Example:
t1 := 4 * i t1=4*i
t2 := a[t1] t2=a[t1]
t3 := 4 * j t3=4*j
t4 : = 4 * t5=n
i t5:= n t6=b[t1]+t5
t6 :=
b[t4]+t5

 The common sub expression t4:=4*i is eliminated as its computation is already in t1 and
value of i is not been changed from definition to use.
3. Variable propagation
 Variable propagation means use of one variable instead of another.
Example:
x = pi;
area = x * r * r;
 The optimization using variable propagation can be done as follows, area = pi * r *r;
 Here the variable x is eliminated. Here the necessary condition is that a variable must be
assigned to another variable or some constant.
4. Code movement
 There are two basic goals of code movement:
I. To reduce the size of the code.
II. To reduce the frequency of execution of
code.
Example:
for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
{
x=y*5; k=(y*5)+50;
}
Loop invariant computation

temp=y*5
for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
{
x=temp; k=(temp) + 50;
}

Loop invariant optimization can be obtained by moving some amount of code outside
the loop and placing it just before entering in theloop.
 This method is also called code motion. Example:
While(i<=max-1) N=max-1;
{ While(i<=N
sum=sum+a[i] )
; {
} sum=sum+a[i];
}
5. Strength reduction
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 Strength of certain operators is higher than others.

 For instance strength of * is higher than+.
 In this technique the higher strength operators can be replaced by lower strength
operators.
 Example:
for(i=1;i<=50;i++)
{
count = i*7;
}
 Here we get the count values as 7, 14, 21 and so on up to less than50.
 This code can be replaced by using strength reduction as
follows temp=7;
for(i=1;i<=50;i++)
{
count = temp;
temp =
temp+7;
}
6. Dead code elimination
 A variable is said to be live in a program if the value contained into is subsequently.
On the other hand, the variable is said to be dead at a point in a program if the value contained into it
is never been used. The code containing such a variable supposed to be a dead code. And an
optimization can be performed by eliminating such a dead code.
Example:
i=0;
if(i==1)
{
a=x+5;
}
 If statement is a dead code as this condition will never get satisfied hence, statement
can be eliminated and optimization can be done.
20. Write a note on Peephole Optimization.

Definition: Peephole optimization is a simple and effective technique for locally improving
target code. This technique is applied to improve the performance of the target program by
examining the short sequence of target instructions (called the peephole) and replacing these
instructions by shorter or faster sequence whenever possible. Peephole is a small, moving
window on the target program.
Characteristics of Peephole Optimization
 The peephole optimization can be applied on the target code using following
characteristic.
o Redundant instruction elimination.
 Especially the redundant loads and stores can be eliminated in this type of
transformations.
Example:
MOV
R0,x
MOV
x,R0
 We can eliminate the second instruction since x is in already R0. But if MOV x,
R0 is a label statement then we cannot remove it.
o Unreachable code.
 Especially the redundant loads and stores can be eliminated in this type of
transformations.
 An unlabeled instruction immediately following an unconditional jump may be
removed.
 This operation can be repeated to eliminate the sequence of
instructions. Example:
#define debug
0 If(debug) {
Print debugging information
}
In the intermediate representation the if- statement may be translated as:
If debug=1 goto
L1 goto L2
L1: print debugging

information L2:
One obvious peephole
optimization is to eliminate
jumps over jumps. Thus no
matter what the value of
debug, can be replaced by:
If debug≠1 goto L2
L2:
 Now, since debug is set to 0 at the beginning of the program, constant propagation
should replace by
If 0≠1 goto L2
L2:
 As the argument of the first statement of evaluates to a constant true, it can be
replaced by gotoL2.
 Then all the statement that print debugging aids are manifestly unreachable and
can be eliminated one at a time.
o Flow of control optimization.
 The unnecessary jumps can be eliminated in either the intermediate code or the
target code by the following types of peephole optimizations.
 We can replace the jump sequence.
Goto L1
……
L1: goto
L2 By the
sequence
Goto L2
…….
L1: goto L2
 If there are no jumps to L1 then it may be possible to eliminate the statement L1:
goto L2 provided it is preceded by an unconditional jump. Similarly, thesequence
If a<b goto L1
……
L1: goto L2
Can be replaced by
If a<b goto L2
……
L1: goto L2
o Algebraic simplification.
 Peephole optimization is an effective technique for algebraic simplification.

 The statements such as x = x + 0 or x := x* 1 can be eliminated by peephole
optimization.
8. Code Generation
21. Discuss generic issues in the design of code generation.

Issues in design of code generator are:
1. Input to the Code Generator
 Input to the code generator consists of the intermediate representation of the source
program.
 There are several types for the intermediate language, such as postfix notation, quadruples,
and syntax trees or DAGs.
 The detection of semantic error should be done before submitting the input to the code
generator.
 The code generation phase requires complete error free intermediate code as an input.
2. Target program
 The output of the code generator is the target program. The output may take on a variety
of forms; absolute machine language, relocatable machine language, or assembly
language.
 Producing an absolute machine language program as output has the advantage that it can
be placed in a location in memory and immediately executed.
 Producing a relocatable machine language program as output is that the subroutine can
be compiled separately. A set of relocatable object modules can be linked together and
loaded for execution by a linking loader.
 Producing an assembly language program as output makes the process of code
generation somewhat easier .We can generate symbolic instructions and use the macro
facilities of the assembler to help generate code.
3. Memory management
 Mapping names in the source program to addresses of data objects in run time memory
is done cooperatively by the front end and the code generator.
 We assume that a name in a three-address statement refers to a symbol table entry for the
name.
 From the symbol table information, a relative address can be determined for the name in
a data area.
4. Instruction selection
 If we do not care about the efficiency of the target program, instruction selection is
straightforward. It requires special handling. For example, the sequence of statements
a := b +
c d := a
+e
would be translated
into MOV b,R0
ADD c, R0
MOV R0, a
MOV a, R0
ADD e, R0
MOV
R0,d
 Here the fourth statement is redundant, so we can eliminate that statement.
5. Register allocation
 If the instruction contains register operands then such a use becomes shorter and faster
than that of using in memory.
 The use of registers is often subdivided into two sub problems:
 During register allocation, we select the set of variables that will reside in registers at a
point in the program.
 During a subsequent register assignment phase, we pick the specific register that a
variable will reside in.
 Finding an optimal assignment of registers to variables is difficult, even with single
register value.
 Mathematically the problem is NP-complete.
6. Choice of evaluation
 Theorderinwhichcomputationsareperformedcanaffecttheefficiencyofthetarget
code. Some computation orders require fewer registers to hold intermediate results
than others. Picking a best order is another difficult, NP-complete problem.
7. Approaches to codegeneration
 The most important criterion for a code generator is that it produces correct code.
 Correctness takes on special significance because of the number of special cases that
code generator mustf ace.
 Given the premium on correctness, designing a code generator so it can be easily
implemented, tested, and maintained is an important design goal.

CD DSTC Notes

Uploaded by

CD DSTC Notes

Uploaded by

Dr.

Subhash Technical Campus

1. Draw structure of Compiler. Explain all phases of compiler with example.

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Intermediate Code Generation

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For Example: Input String: position = initial + rate * 60

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A compiler can have many phases and passes.

Two Pass Compiler:

Two pass Compiler is divided into two sections,

1. Front end: It maps legal code into Intermediate Representation (IR).

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3. Explain cousins of compiler.

Figure: A Language-processing System

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 Preprocessor: The preprocessor is considered as a part of the Compiler. It is a tool which

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4. Construct a NFA for following regular expression using Thompson’s notation

Figure: NFA for (a+b)*abb

 ε – closure (0)={0,1,2,4,7} ---- LetA

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Figure: DFA for (a+b)*abb

5. Construct a DFA without constructing NFA for following regular expression.

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δ (B,a) = followpos(1) Ufollowpos(3)

δ(C,a) = followpos(1) Ufollowpos(3)

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δ(D,a) = followpos(1) U followpos(3)

Figure: DFA for (a+b)*abb

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8. Explain Shift-Reduce parsing with suitable example.

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9. Explain SLR parser in detail with the help of an example.

 The parsing table has fourvalues:

Now find Closure(I)

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Table : LR(0) collection

SLR Parsing Table:

a <.b a “yields precedence to” b

a=.b a “has the same precedence as” b

a.>b a “takes precedence over” b

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Trailing of a nonterminal is the last terminal or operator in production of that nonterminal.

+ > < < >

* > > < >

id > > >

$ < < <

Operator Precedence Table

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Some examples of static checks:

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5. Intermediate Code Generation

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Number Op Arg1 Arg2

(4) + (1) (3)

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Figure: Annotated Parse Tree

15. Differentiate Synthesized and Inherited attributes.

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\6. Run Time Memory Management

16. Explain Stack Allocation and Activation Record Organization in brief.

 A suitable, corresponding return sequences:

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Saved M/c status

Figure: Activation Record

Various field of activation record are as follows:

17. Explain various parameter passing methods.

 The operations on formal parameters do not change the values of a parameter.

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4. Variable length name

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19. Explain various code optimization techniques.

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