CSE321: Operating Systems

Introduction

FBA
Course Outcome
● To understand the fundamental concepts of computer system organization and the
structure of operating systems.
● To explore various aspects of process management in operating system
● To know how different CPU scheduling algorithm works and their respective importance
● To develop practical knowledge on the concept of threads
● To inspect process synchronization mechanisms and deadlocks
● To be able to analyze the management of main and virtual memory
Marks Distribution
● Theory – 80%
○ Class participation – 5%
○ Quiz – 15%
○ Mid – 25%
○ Final – 35%
● Lab – 20%
 Operating Systems
"Actual” Introduction

FBA
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary
between a user of a computer and the computer hardware.

USER Application
( a program or application or interface)

Operating System
( a system software )

Hardware
( processor, monitor, keyboard etc. )
System Software Vs Application Software
System Software:

● System Software refers to the operating system and all utility

programs that manage computer resources at a low level.
● Systems software includes compilers, loaders, linkers, and
debuggers.

Application Software:

● Applications software comprises programs designed for an

end user, such as word processors, database systems, and
spreadsheet programs.
Major Goals of OS
● Execute user programs.
● Make the computer system convenient to use.
● Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
● Manages and allocate all resources
● Controls the execution of user programs and operations of I/O devices
Timeline of OS
Timeline of OS

● IBM 704 was the first mass-produced computer

● GM-NAA (General Motors-North American Aviation) I/O

is the OS used in the IBM 704

● There was no UI in the OS as we know now

● It was mostly based on command prompts (terminals)

Timeline of OS

● Xerox 8010 Star

(released in 1981) was
the first system that was
referred to as a fully
integrated desktop
computer including
applications and a GUI
Timeline of OS

● Bill Gates got lucky to sign the so-called “Deal of the Century” with IBM to design a new OS for
IBM machines
● The deal allowed Microsoft to add an OS with $50 per PC and IBM did not own copyright for
the OS
● This allowed Microsoft to start the their OS dominance on the PC domain
Timeline of OS
● Developed by Apple Computer, Inc for their new
product, the Macintosh home PC, The Macintosh 128K,
was released in 1984

● was widely advertised (the famous 1984 commercial is

available below).

● Mac OS was the first OS with a GUI built-in

● It was also one of the first consumer computers with

mouse!

● Even though Microsoft introduced mouse in their PCs a

bit earlier

● The use of GUI with mouse was not Steve Job’s idea,
the idea was taken during his visit in Xerox PARC (Palo
Aalto Research Center)

● Jobs reportedly traded US $1 million in stock options to

Xerox for a detailed tour of their facilities and current
projects

● One of the things Xerox showed Jobs was the Alto,

which sported a GUI and a three-button mouse
Timeline of OS
Timeline of OS
Timeline of OS

● Another revolution of OS came

in the mobile computing
domain, when Steve Jobs
introduced iPhone with iOS in
2007
● The iPhone introduction video
is now regarded as a classic
advertise video
 Operating Systems
Computer System
Organization

FBA
Components of a Computer System
Kernel
The one program running at all times.
● Kernel is the central module of an operating system
● Part of OS that loads first, and it remains in main memory.
● As small as possible
● Provide all the essential services required by other parts of the operating system and applications.
● Kernel code is usually loaded into a protected area of memory to prevent it from being overwritten.
Bootstrap Program
An initial program executed when a computer starts running.

● When a computers is powered up or rebooted, it is executed first.

● Stored in the ROM or EEPROM, known as firmware
● Initializes all aspects of the system, from CPU registers to device controllers to memory contents
● bootstrap program must know how to load the operating system and how to start executing
● Once the OS kernel is loaded and executing, it can start providing services to the system and its
users
Storage Structure
❏ Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
❏ Random access
❏ Typically volatile
❏ Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile storage capacity

● CPU can load instructions only from main memory.

● General-purpose computers run most of their programs from rewritable memory, called main
memory ( also called RAM)
● Computers use other forms of memory as well - Read Only Memory (ROM) and electrically
erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM)
● Only static programs, such as the bootstrap program described earlier, are stored here.
Storage Device Hierarchy
 Operating Systems
OS Architecture

FBA
Operating System Architecture
Single-Processor Systems:

● One main CPU capable of executing a general-purpose instruction set.

● Almost all single processor systems have other special-purpose processors (device-specific
processors), which run a limiter instruction set.
Operating System Architecture
Multiprocessor Systems (parallel systems or multicore systems ):

● Such systems have two or more processors in close communication, sharing the computer bus and
sometimes the clock, memory, and peripheral devices.

A dual-core system
Operating System Architecture
Clustered Systems:

● Special kind of multiprocessor system which gathers together multiple CPUs. They are composed of
two or more individual systems- or nodes - joined together.
● Clustered computers share storage and are closely linked via a local-area network (LAN) or a faster
interconnect, such as InfiniBand
Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming:

● Increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs (code and data) so that

the CPU always has one to execute.
● OS keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously. As main memory
is small, it keeps the jobs on the disk (job pool) which waits there to
be allocated in the main memory.
● OS picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in memory.
Eventually, the job may have to wait for some task. OS picks
another job from the pool to execute while the previous one waits.
Requirements of Multiprogramming
● Job Scheduling: If several jobs are ready to be brought into
memory, and if there is not enough room for all of them, then the
system must choose among them.
● When OS selects a job from the job pool, it loads that job into
memory for execution. Having several programs in memory at the
same time requires some form of memory management.
● CPU Scheduling: if several jobs are ready to run at the same time,
the system must choose which job will run first.
● Running multiple jobs concurrently requires that their ability to affect
one another be limited in all phases of the operating system.

★ If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out

to run from main memory achieving this goal is virtual memory.
Operating System Structure
Time Sharing:

● CPU executes multiple jobs by switching among them.

● Switches occur so frequently that the users can interact
with each program while it is running.
● requires an interactive computer system, which provides
direct communication between the user and the system.
● Response time should be short.
Operating System Operations
● Modern operating systems are interrupt driven
● Events are almost always signaled by the occurrence of an interrupt or a trap
● A trap (or an exception) is a software-generated interrupt
● For each type of interrupt, separate segments of code determine what action should be taken
● Errors can occur when one erroneous program modify another program, the data of another
program, or even the operating system itself.
● A properly designed operating system must ensure that an incorrect (or malicious) program
cannot cause other programs to execute incorrectly.
Dual Mode Operation
● Need to distinguish between the execution of operating-system code and user defined code.
● A bit, called the mode bit, is added to the hardware of the computer to indicate the current mode:
kernel (0) or user (1).
● dual mode of operation provides protection of the operating system from errant users
● this protection is provided by designating some of the machine instructions that may cause harm as
privileged instructions that are executed only in kernel mode.
Operating Systems
OS Services

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Operating System Services
● OS provides an environment for the execution of programs.
● Specific services provided, differ from one operating system to another, but there are some
common classes
● Services are provided for the convenience of the programmer
 Operating Systems
System Call,
System Program,
System Boot

FBA
 System Call
● System calls provide an interface to the services made available by an operating system.
● These calls are generally available as routines.
● Routines are written in C or C++. Some low level tasks are written in assembly language.

A program to copy the contents of a file to another file !

Open the input Read from input

Input two Close the
file, and create file, and Write
file name file
the output file into output file

Acquire input file name

Open the input file Loop Close output file.
System Calls

Write prompt to screen

if file doesn't exist, abort Read from input file Write completion
Accept input
Create output file Write to output file message to screen.
Acquire output file name
if file exists, abort Until read fails Terminate normally.
Write prompt to screen
Accept input
System Call Interface
● Serves as the link to system calls made available by the operating system.
● A number is associated with each system call, and the system-call interface maintains a table
indexed according to these numbers.
● Invokes the intended system call in the operating-system kernel and returns the status of the system
call and any return values.
Types of System Call
Type Windows OS Linux OS

Process Control CreateProcess() fork()

ExitProcess() exit()
WaitForSingleObject() wait()

File Manipulation CreateFile() open()

ReadFile() read()
WriteFile() write()
CloseHandle() close()

Device Manipulation SetConsoleMode() ioctl()

ReadConsole() read()
WriteConsole() write()
Types of System Call
Type Windows OS Linux OS

Information GetCurrentProcessID() getpid()

Maintenance SetTimer() alarm()
Sleep() sleep()

Communication CreatePipe() pipe()

CreateFileMapping() shm_open()
MapViewOfFile() mmap()

Protection SetFileSecurity() chmod()

InitlializeSecurityDescriptor() umask()
SetSecurityDescriptorGroup() chown()
System Programs
System programs, also known as system utilities, provide a convenient environment for program
development and execution.

These system programs provide -

● File management
● Status information
● File modification
● Programming-language support
● Program loading and execution
● Communications
● Background services
System Boot
● When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed memory location.
➔ Firmware ROM used to hold initial boot code

● Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware can start it.
➔ Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, stored in ROM locates the kernel, loads it into memory,
and starts it
➔ Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed location loaded by ROM code, which
loads bootstrap loader from disk

● Common bootstrap loader, GRUB, allows selection of kernel from multiple disks, versions, kernel
options

● Kernel loads and system is then running.

Operating Systems
OS Structures

FBA
OS Structure
Simple/Monolithic structure:

● Earliest and most common architecture

● Every component of OS is in the kernel and can communicate with each other directly
● Complex and Large ( millions line of code , ) hard to maintain
OS Structure
Layered structure:

● OS is divided into layers.

● Each layer can use services of its lower layers.
● Easy to debug and develop.
● Less efficient as each layer adds some overhead
OS Structure
Microkernel structure:

● Moves as much from kernel into user space

● Communication takes place between user modules using message passing
● Easier to extend a microkernel
● More reliable( less code running in kernel mode ) and secure
● Performance overhead
Upcoming Episodes
Process:
● Process States: A condition of the process at a specific instant of time.

● Process Architecture: The structural design of general process systems.

● Operations on Process: process creation, preemption, blocking, and termination etc

● Process Scheduling: A task that schedules processes of different states like ready,
waiting, and running

● Process Synchronization: The task of coordinating the execution of processes

Upcoming Episodes
Thread:
● Definition & Purpose: a sequential flow of tasks within a process.

● Multithreading Models: Ways of achieving multithreading

● Thread Library: provides the programmer with an Application program interface

for creating and managing thread

● Threading Issues: Common problems and pitfalls with multi-thread programming

Upcoming Episodes
Deadlock:
● Reason

● Necessary Conditions for Deadlock

● Methods of Handling Deadlocks

Upcoming Episodes
Memory Management:
● Background and importance of memory management

● Memory Management Techniques

● Virtual Memory
THE END