OVERVIEW TRIAL LESSON SAT MATH PAYMENT MATH WORKSHEETS CALCULUS CART (0)

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SAT Math Notes

This is a comprehensive guide of the math you need to know for the SAT Math Section. It includes step-by-step examples for how to solve for all of the key
topics and question types you will encounter.

Keep an eye out for the USEFUL TIPS since they could give you hints for how to solve problems more quickly, even for some of the questions with basic
content.

The SAT math section includes problems from the following four general categories, with more speciDc topics included in each category, as shown below.

Heart of Algebra Passport to Advanced Mathematics

Contains 19 of 58 questions = 32.8% Contains 16 of 58 questions = 27.6%
Linear equations and inequalities Polynomial factors, graphs, and operations
 Interpreting linear functions Quadratic, exponential, radical, and rational equations and
Systems of linear equations and inequalities expressions
Basic function notation Radical and rational exponents
Absolute value functions Structure in expressions and isolating quantities
Function notation

Problem Solving and Data Analysis

Contains 17 of 58 questions = 29.3% (Calculator Section Additional Topics in Math
only) Contains 6 of 58 questions = 10.3%
Ratios, rates, and proportions Geometry: area, volume, triangles, angles, arc lengths, sector
Percentages areas
Units Right triangle trigonometry
Linear and exponential growth Circle equations and theorems
Reading table data and graphs Complex numbers
Data collection, inference, and conclusions

Heart of Algebra
The Heart of Algebra problems make up 18 of 58 questions, or roughly 32.8% of the entire math section. The main topics include:
Linear equations and inequalities
Interpreting linear functions
Systems of linear equations and inequalities
Basic function notation
Absolute value functions

Order of Operations

Simplifying Expressions Solving for a Variable

Simplify expressions with the order of operations, PEMDAS. Solve for a variable using the reverse order of PEMDAS: SADMEP.
PEMDAS stands for Parenthesis, Exponents, Multiplication or SADMEP stands for Subtraction or Addition, Division or
Division, Addition or Subtraction. Multiplication, Exponents, and Parenthesis.
Multiplication and division have equal priority and should be done Addition and subtraction have equal priority, as does multiplication
from left to right. The same is true for addition and subtraction. and division.
Simplifying Example: Solving Example:

4(8 - 5) + 9 (3x - 12)/2 = 9

Subtract 5 from 8. According to the PEMDAS order, Drst simplify anything Multiply by 2. There is nothing that can be Added or Subtracted, but there is
inside of the Parenthesis. something that can be Divided or Multiplied, so do that Drst in this case.

4(3) + 9 3x - 12 = 18

Multiply 4 by 3. According to PEMDAS, there is nothing left to simplify in the Add 12. According to the SADMEP order, there is something that can be
Parenthesis and no Exponents to deal with, so the next step would be Subtracted or Added to both sides next.
to Multiply or Divide.
3x = 30
12 + 9
Divide by 3. According to SADMEP, there is nothing that can be Subtracted
Add 12 and 9. This is the only step left. or Added to both sides, so the next step would be to Divide or Multiply.

21 x = 10

USEFUL TIP: If you need to isolate a variable that is being multiplied by a fraction, multiply both sides by the reciprocal of the fraction to isolate the variable in
one step. For example, here is how you could solve for x in the equation below.

Multiply both sides by 5/4 so that the coe]cient of 4/5 on the right side is cancelled.

This becomes:

USEFUL TIP: Before using SADMEP to solve for a variable, it would be helpful to combine any like terms Drst. For example, for the equation 2x + 6x + 4 = 28,
Drst combine the like terms (2x and 6x) to get 8x + 4 = 28. Then solve for (or "isolate") x by using SADMEP.

Forms of Linear Equations for Graphing

Linear equations can be expressed in the forms shown below.

*Note: The word "output" is interchangeable with the word "height."

Slope-Intercept Form Slope Formula Standard Form

m = slope or rate USEFUL TIP:
m = slope If y is isolated for the standard form, the
The change in output for every increase of
(see Example 2 below) equation becomes:
1 for the input.
Change in height divided by change in
horizontal distance.
b = y-intercept
(see Example 1 below) "Rise over run."

For graphs: The output when x = 0.

x1 and x2 = given x values where -A/B is the slope, and C/B is the y-
y1 and y2 = given y values intercept.
x = input value of the function
y = output value of the function
*This form is often used to Dnd the slope when
two points are known.

USEFUL TIP: If the coordinates of a point are given but they are in the form of two variables, such as the point (c, d), then you can substitute c as an x value
and d as a y value in one of the formulas above to help you solve the problem. Don't get intimidated if you don't see numbers as point coordinates, such as (4,
7). You can manipulate other variables in the same way as numbers, even if the answer is written in terms of the variables (see example 4 below).

USEFUL TIP: If it's given that the line goes through the origin, you know that (0, 0) is one of the points on that line, so you can often use that information to get
to the answer (see example 3 below).

Example 1. Example 2. Example 3. Example 4.

The y-intercept is always at (0, b) Visualization of the "rise" and "run" When it's given that the line goes If the coordinates are given as
for y = mx + b. Note that the y-axis of a slope, represented by y2 - y1, through the origin, you can often variables, use them as you would
is the line x = 0, so the x value will and x2 - x1, respectively. use (0, 0) as a point to help solve numbers to Dnd the slope or other
always be 0 for the y-intercept of a the problem. values of a line.
graph. By plugging in 0 for x for
y = mx + b, you get y = m(x) + b.
Therefore, y = b when x = 0.

Interpreting Linear Equations

On the SAT you may need to interpret the meaning of part of a linear equation or its graph in the context of the situation it represents. For problems where
the equation is given, it could be of the form y = mx + b, or it could be written in a dimerent form that still represents a linear equation. Variables other than x
and y might be used as well.

Imagine this scenario: Betty is selling popcorn at a school event. She spent $12 on cotton candy ingredients and supplies in total, and she is charging $1.50 per
cotton candy that she sells, where p is the proDt she earns and c is the number of cotton candies sold.

Below are some ways that p as a function of c may be expressed for this situation.

Those 5 equations all represent the same function, and there are even more ways to rewrite the function. For interpreting linear functions, you will typically
have to Dgure out whether a given part of the function represents the rate or initial condition of a situation.

For example, if the function is written as:

What is the best interpretation of the number -12 in the equation?

A) Betty loses $12 for every cotton candy that she sells.
B) It cost Betty $12 originally to set up her operation.
C) Betty will need to sell 12 cotton candies to break even.
D) There are 12 cotton candies left for Betty to sell.

Answer: B
Explanation: When Betty has sold 0 cotton candies, c = 0. By plugging in 0 for the variable c in the equation, p = -12. This means that her proDt when she
started is -12 dollars. In other words, she has spent 12 dollars before selling any cotton candies.

USEFUL TIP: If you're having trouble interpreting parts of a linear function because of its form, take a few moments to rewrite it in the form y = mx + b (slope-
intercept form) so that you can quickly tell what the parts of the equation represent.

Finding the Rate:

It is the value being multiplied by the input variable (the variable on the x-axis) for slope-intercept form.
For graphs, it is the value of the slope.
In each of the Dve equations above, p increases by 1.5, or 3/2, for each increase of 1 for c. Therefore, the rate of change of p in terms of c is 1.5, or 3/2.

Finding the Initial/Starting Condition (Initial Output):

It is the constant on the side with the input variable for slope-intercept form.
For graphs, it is the y-intercept.
 In the equations above, p = -12 when c = 0. Therefore, the proDt is -12 dollars when 0 cotton candies are sold.

USEFUL TIP: There may be cases where you are asked to solve for p in terms of c. In other words, you would need to isolated the other variable. In those
instances, use the Reverse order of PEMDAS (or SADMEP) that was mentioned earlier to isolate the other variable.

For example, solve for c in terms of p (in other words, get c by itself):

Add 12.

Multiply both sides by 2/3 to cancel out the coe]cient of 3/2 on the right side.

The equation is solved for c.

For an alternate form, distribute 2/3 to the terms in the parenthesis on the left side.

Alternate form of the equation solved for c.

Slopes of Linear Equations

Slopes of horizontal lines are 0. Slopes of vertical lines are Slopes of parallel lines are equal. Slopes of perpendicular lines are
undeDned. negative reciprocals.
For example: 5/3 and -3/5.

Systems of Linear Equations

Systems of linear equations are two or more lines that are graphed simultaneously. Solutions for systems of equations are the points where the graphs
intersect. There are three possible types of solutions for systems of linear equations.

One solution: The lines intersect at one point. No solutions: The lines intersect nowhere. In\nite Solutions: The lines intersect at inDnite
If the slopes of two lines are dimerent, If the slopes of two lines are the same points (they are overlapping lines).
they will have exactly one solution. (they are parallel) but the y-intercept is If the slopes and y-intercepts are the
dimerent, they will have no solutions. same for both lines, they will have inDnite
solutions.

More about In\nite Solutions

If each of the coe]cients and constants of one linear equation are proportional to the corresponding coe]cients or constants of another linear
equation, the lines will have inDnite solutions.
For example: -2x + 3y = 9 and -4x + 6y = 18 will have inDnite solutions because the second equation's coe]cients and constant are all twice the value of
the Drst equation's.
Written in y = mx + b form, both equations could be rewritten as y = (2/3)x + 3. In other words, they are the same line.

Graphing Linear Equations

Graphed lines will go through at most only 3 quadrants.

Lines with positive slopes with a positive y-intercept will go through Lines with negative slopes with a positive y-intercept will go through
quadrants I, II, and III, but will not go through quadrant IV. quadrants I, II, and IV, but will not go through quadrant III.
Lines with positive slopes with a negative y-intercept will go through Lines with negative slopes with a negative y-intercept will go through
quadrants I, III, and IV, but will not go through quadrant II. quadrants II, III, and IV, but will not go through quadrant I.

USEFUL TIP: If a linear graph is given where you need to determine either the slope or y-intercept, make sure to check the scale of the axes. There may be
times when one axis uses dimerent units than another. For example, each mark on the x-axis may represent a unit of 1, however, each mark on the y-axis may
represent a unit of 5. It is fairly common for graphs on the SAT to use dimerent scales for the dimerent axes, and not noticing this will likely result in an
incorrect choice.

Solving Systems of Equations

As mentioned above, the solution to a system of equations is the point or points where two lines intersect. If you're given two lines in either the slope-
intercept form (y = mx + b) or standard form (Ax + By = C), you can solve for the places the lines intersect by either the Combination Method (sometimes
called the Elimination Method) or the Substitution Method.

Combination Method

General process: Make the coe]cients of one of the variables opposites, add the equations to cancel out the variable, and solve for the other variable.

Example: Steps:

10x + 5y = 40 Multiply either or both equations by a number that makes the coe]cients of one of the variables opposite values. In this case,
-6x + 2y = -4 the top equation can be multiplied by 3 and the bottom equation can be multiplied by 5. This will make it so that there is 30x in
the top equation and -30x in the bottom equation.

3•(10x + 5y = 40) Distribute.

5•(-6x + 2y = -4)
30x + 15y = 120 Add the left sides together and set them equal to the right sides added together. Notice that 30x and -30x will cancel each other
-30x + 10y = -20 out.

25y = 100 Solve for y by dividing both sides by 25.

y=4 Substitute the value of y into one of the original equations.

10x + 5(4) = 40 Solve for x.

10x = 20

x=2

Since x = 2 and y = 4, the solution to the system of equations is the point (2, 4).

USEFUL TIP: Almost all systems of equations problems can be solved fairly e]ciently with the combination method on the SAT.

USEFUL TIP: Using the combination method, if you need to solve for just one variable, multiply the equations by constants that cancel out the other variable.

Substitution Method

General process: Solve for one variable in terms of the other and substitute the value into the second equation.

Example: Steps:

3x + y = -10 Solve for y in terms of x in the top equation by subtracting 3x from both sides.
-4y = -8x - 20

y = -3x - 10 Substitute -3x - 10 for y into the bottom equation.

-4(-3x - 10) = -8x - 20 Solve for x since it is the only variable in the equation.

12x + 40 = -8x - 20

20x + 40 = -20

20x = -60

x = -3 Substitute -3 for x in the other equation (3x + y = -10) to solve for y.

3(-3) + y = -10

-9 + y = -10
y = -1

Since x = -3 and y = -1, the solution to the system of equations is (-3, -1).

USEFUL TIP: In the problem above, -3 could be substituted into the equation y = -3x -10 to solve for y more quickly.

USEFUL TIP: Sometimes you only need to solve for one variable. Using the substitution method, if you need to just solve for x, Drst solve for y in terms of x for
the Drst step. If you need to just solve for y, Drst solve for x in terms of y for the Drst step.

Function Notation Basics

Function notation is a slightly dimerent method of writing equations than we've discussed so far. In basic function notation f(x) (read "f of x") represents the
output of a function. The x inside the parenthesis represents the input of the function. In the regular x and y coordinate graphing system, f(x) takes the place
of y, the graph's output (a.k.a. height).

For example, f(x) = 2x - 5 is the function notation equivalent of y = 2x - 5. And y = -3x + 8 could be written as f(x) = -3x + 8 in function notation.

Although f(x) = "expression" is the basic form of function notation, other letters besides f and x can also be used, just as linear equations can be written with
variables other than x and y. For example, y = 4x + 3 could be rewritten as h = 4s + 3, where both y and h refer to the output, and x and s refer to the input of a
linear function. Similarly, f(x) = 4x + 3 and g(x) = 4x + 3 and p(a) = 4a + 3 all refer to a function where the input is multiplied by 4 and then 3 is added to the
value.

Function notation can also specify certain input and output pairs. Let's use the function f(x) = 5x + 8 as an example. This function states that the input is
multiplied by 5 and then 8 is added to the value. We could say that f(2) = 18. This means that by inputting 2 into the function, the output is 18. We can check
this: f(2) = 5(2) + 8 = 18.

Using this same function, f(3) would mean that 3 is the input value. Therefore, f(3) = 5(3) + 8 = 23.

More on Function Notation is given in the Passport to Advanced Mathematics section.

Linear Inequalities in One Variable

Graphing Linear Inequalities in One Variable

When graphing linear inequalities, the collection of all points that make the inequality true are plotted on a number line. For "greater than" or "less than"
inequalities, there will be an open (not Dlled in) point. On the other hand, for "greater than or equal to" or "less than or equal to" inequalities, the
corresponding point is closed (Dlled in).

There is an open (not Dlled in) circle at x = 3. There is a closed (Dlled in) circle at x = 3.
This might be a representation of the sentence: This might be a representation of the sentence:
"He has more than three dollars." "He has at least three dollars."
Notice the dimerence between these two graphs: the "greater than" graph is not Dlled at the point x = 3 since plugging in 3 for x would not make the inequality
true. 3 is not greater than 3. However, for the "greater than or equal to" graph, plugging in 3 for x would still make the inequality true since 3 is greater than
OR EQUAL TO 3.

For graphs that are "less than" or "less than or equal to," the graph would be Dlled in on points to the left of a speciDc value instead of to the right as shown
above.

Solving for Linear Inequalities in One Variable

When solving for an inequality, use the same process as solving for a variable in an equation until the variable is isolated. The one major dimerence is that
when multiplying or diving by a negative value, you need to reverse the direction of the inequality sign.

Example 1: Example 2:

2x + 5 > 17 -4x - 2 ≤ 6

Subtract 5. Add 2.

2x > 12 -4x ≤ 8

Divide by 2. Divide by -4 and reverse the inequality sign.

x>6 x ≥ -2

Linear Inequalities in Two Variables

The solution to linear inequalities graphed on an xy-plane is the shaded region of points that make the inequality true. You should be careful to note whether
the region to shade should be above or below a certain line and whether the line itself should be a solid line or a dotted line.

Choosing which Region to Shade

If the inequality starts as y > ... or y ≥ ... then the region above the line is shaded (for "greater than" or "greater than or equal to").
If the inequality starts as y < ... or y ≤ ... then the region below the line is shaded (for "less than" or "less than or equal to").

Choosing the Type of Line

If the inequality starts as y > ... or y < ... then the line is dotted, since the values for x and y on the line itself do not make the inequality true (for
"greater than" or "less than").
If the inequality starts as y ≥ ... or y ≤ ... then the line is solid, since the values for x and y on the line itself make the inequality true (for "greater than or
equal to" or "less than or equal to").
 y > 2x + 3 y ≥ 2x + 3 y < 2x + 3 y ≤ 2x + 3
The line is dotted since points on The line is Dlled in since points on The line is dotted since points on The line is Dlled in since points on
the line do not make the inequality the line make the inequality true. the line do not make the inequality the line make the inequality true.
true. The region above the line is The region above the line is shaded true. The region below the line is The region below the line is shaded
shaded since y (the height) is since y (the height) is greater than shaded since y (the height) is less since y (the height) is less than or
greater than the line. or equal to the line. than the line. equal to the line.

Systems of Linear Inequalities

The solution to a system of linear inequalities is the region of points where both inequalities are true at the same time. Two inequalities are graphed together
below that illustrates this idea. The inequalities are y ≤ 3x + 1 and y > -x + 2.

y ≤ 3x + 1 y > -x + 2 y ≤ 3x + 1 and y > -x + 2 graphed together. The

solution is the overlapping region.

Absolute Value

Absolute value refers to the magnitude of a value, regardless of its sign. In other words, it is the distance of a value from 0, no matter which direction it is. The
symbol for absolute value is two vertical lines. The absolute of x is written as |x|.

For example, the absolute value of -3 is 3 because -3 is 3 units away from 0. This could be written using math symbols as |-3| = 3. On the other hand, 3 is also
3 units away from 0. So |3| = 3 is also true. |-3| = 3 and |3| = 3.
In the equation |x + 6| = 2, there are two possible solutions for x. Think about it this way: if the expression inside the absolute value sign is equal to either 2 or
-2, the equation is true. So to solve for x, we can set up two dimerent equations: x + 6 = 2 or x + 6 = -2.

By solving for the two equations, we get x = -4 or x = -8.

Distance-Rate-Time and Work-Rate-Time Problems

The relationship between distance, rate, and time is essentially the same as the relationship between work, rate, and time.

Distance - Rate - Time Work - Rate - Time

Making sense of the equation: If you were to run at 10 miles an hour for 2 Similarly to the D-R-T example, if you were to paint 10 walls an hour for 2
hours, you would run 10 miles per hour times 2 hours, or 20 miles total. hours, you would paint 10 walls per hour times 2 hours, or 20 walls total.

If you are given two parts of a D-R-T problem, rewrite d = rt to solve for the If you are given two parts of a W-R-T problem, rewrite w = rt to solve for the
remaining variable. remaining variable.
d = rt (use if given the rate and time and you need the distance) w = rt (use if given the rate and time and you need the work)
r = d/t (use if given the distance and time and you need the rate) r = w/t (use if given the work and time and you need the rate)
t = d/r (use if given the distance and rate and you need the time) t = w/r (use if given the work and rate and you need the time)

Problem Solving and Data Analysis

The Problem Solving and Data Analysis problems are only on the Calculator Section of the SAT. The make up 17 of 58 questions, or roughly 29.3% of the entire
math section. The main topics include:
Ratios, rates, and proportions
Percentages
Units
Linear and exponential growth
Reading table data and graphs
Data collection, inference, and conclusions

Ratios

A ratio is a comparison of one value to another. It can be written as a fraction, such as 3/4, or with a colon, such as 3:4. Ratios are typically used to compare
parts to parts, or parts to wholes.
For example, if you need to make a fruit smoothie that uses 2 strawberries, 5 raspberries, and 6 blueberries, the ratio of strawberries to raspberries would be
2:5 (part to part). The ratio of strawberries to fruit would be 2:13 (part to whole).

USEFUL TIP: If a ratio is given not in its fraction form, turn it into the fraction form Drst since it will often be easier to use that form to solve a problem.

Rates

Rates are ratios that compare ratios involving two dimerent units of measurement. They often involve time as a unit. When dealing with anything that says,
"per minute," "per week," per year," etc., that is a rate.

Rates involving units of time: Rates involving units other than time:
The car drove 45 miles per hour. (45 miles / 1 hour) The club earned $24 for each customer. ($24 / 1 customer)
She wrote 5 essays each week. (5 essays / 1 week) Each carton has 10 eggs. (10 eggs / carton)
He grew 5 inches in 2 years. (5 inches / 2 years) They need 15 markers for a group of 4 people. (15 markers / 4
people)

As you can see in the examples above, the denominator of a rate might not always be a unit of 1.

USEFUL TIP: When asked to Dnd a rate, make sure to carefully check the units and cancel common factors. For example, if revenue increases by $45,000 over
3 years, both the numerator and denominator have a factor of 3 that can cancel. The simpliDed rate would be $45,000 / 3 years = $15,000 / 1 year.

Unit Rates

Unit rates are rates in which the denominator is written in terms of a unit of 1. For example, 55 miles per hour is a unit rate because it means that an object
moves at a rate of 55 miles in one hour.

To convert a rate into a unit rate, divide both the numerator and denominator by the value in the denominator.

Example:

A hot air balloon rises 74 meters in 4 minutes. What is the unit rate for its speed of ascent?

Write the original rate.

Divide the numerator and denominator by the value of the denominator so that the new denominator becomes 1 of that unit (in other words, it converts it
into the unit rate).
The answer can be read as "18.5 meters per minute."

Density as a Unit Rate

Density is deDned as the mass of an object divided by its volume and is typically given as a unit rate.

Example:

If the density of liquid mercury is 13.56 grams per cubic centimeter, would an object that has a mass of 127 grams and takes up 9.2 cubic centimeters toat or
sink in the mercury?

In order to solve this, you need to determine whether the object's density is greater or less than that of the liquid mercury's.

The object's density is slightly greater than that of the liquid mercury, so it will sink.

Proportions

Proportions are two or more ratios that are equal. Ratios are proportional if they are equal. Here are examples of proportions:

Notice that there can be more than two equal ratios in a proportion, and variables can also be used.

Proportions can often be solved by "cross multiplying." To cross multiply means to multiply the numerator of one fraction by the denominator of the other
fraction and set that equal to the denominator of the Drst fraction being multiplied by the numerator of the second fraction. This works because if you
multiply both sides of the original equation by both denominators, the denominators will cancel out as shown below:

This shows the Divide by 4.

Cancel out the same (Previous step shown)
Multiply both sides by original equation
factors in the
both denominators. when it is cross
numerator and
multiplied.
denominator on
Next, multiply 3 by 12.
each side.

In the example above, if you were to start by cross multiplying, you would multiply x times 4 and set that equal to 3 times 12: 4x = 3•12.
This is a good method to use on the SAT to save time.
USEFUL TIP: Solve for proportions by cross multiplying. (Just make sure you understand why it works!)

Another way to deal with a proportion when the unknown value is in the numerator is to multiply both sides by the denominator of the side with the unknown
value. The next problem shows this method.

Example:

If a man drives 270 miles in 6 hours, at the same rate, how far will he drive in 10 hours?

Remember that proportions are equal ratios, or equal rates. In this scenario, we are dealing with rates. One rate is 270 miles / 6 hours. In the other rate, we
aren't given the number of miles, but we are given the number of hours, so we can use a variable to represent the unknown number of miles and divide it by
10 hours, which becomes x / 10 hours. Then we can set these rates equal to each other to solve for the unknown value:

Multiply both sides by 10 hours (which is the denominator on the side with the unknown value).

Cancel out 10 hours in the numerator and denominator on the right side.

Cancel out the unit "hours" on the top and bottom on the left side, and simplify 270 / 6 to be 45 / 1.

Simplify the left side.

Unit Conversions

The key to unit conversions is to make sure that equivalent values are substituted accurately and that units cancel properly during the conversion process.
Example problem: If a person runs half of a 3 kilometer race, how many feet would that person have run during that portion of the race?
(1 kilometer = 0.621 miles, and 1 mile = 5280 feet)

To solve this problem, Drst you can write the original information given and then substitute equivalent values for units until you convert the unit into feet.

Express the information given: the person runs one half of 3 kilometers.

Since 1 kilometer = 0.621 miles, substitute 0.621 miles for "kilometers."

Since 1 mile = 5280 feet, substitute 5280 feet for "miles."

Calculate the product of 1/2 times 3 times 0.621 times 5280 feet.

For anything other than very common knowledge, problems involving unit conversions will give you information on how one unit converts to another.

If you need to convert units in the numerator and denominator, the same principle as above applies. In a slightly more complicated example, let's say that a
certain type of glass can support 3,000 pounds per square inch, and you need to Dnd how many kilograms per square centimeter that would be. (1 kilogram =
2.2 pounds, and 1 square inch = 6.45 square centimeters).

In this situation we are given that 1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds. However, since we are given pounds per square inch but we need kilograms per square
centimeter, we need to convert pounds into kilograms to start.

1km 0.621
=

mile): 5260 feet

11xg: 2.2 p

can
=
6.15 on

By dividing both sides by 2.2, you can solve for what 1 pound is equal to in terms of kilograms.

Simplify as a decimal.
Now that we know that 1 pound = 0.454 kilograms and it was given that 1 square inch = 6.45 square centimeters, we are ready to convert all the units.
Next, substitute 0.454 kilograms for "pounds" and 6.45 cm^2 for "inches^2."

Simplify the right side by dividing both the numerator and denominator by 6.45 in order to get a unit rate.

This tells us that 3000 pounds per square inch is equal to 211.16 kilograms per square centimeter.

USEFUL TIP: When dealing with unit conversions, start with the expression that represents the situation of the problem and replace each unit with its
equivalent value until you arrive at the required units.

Percentages

A percentage is a ratio that means "per 100" or "out of 100." For example, 32 percent (32%) means 32 out of 100.

It's often useful to use the decimal version of a percentage when calculating. To turn a percentage into a decimal, divide the percentage number by 100. For
example, 57% = 57/100 = 0.57.

To convert between percentages and fractions, use the formula:

Here are some example problems involving percentages, some which use a variation of the formula above.

Formula Example Situation Calculation

What is 42% of $280? 200)

up +
=

What percent of 60 is 24?

If a computer's old version cost $800 when it

came out, but the new version costs $920, what
 percent increase is the new version's price (This means the price increased by 15%).
compared to the old version?

If a jacket is on sale for 20% om and originally

cost $85, what is the new price?

(Note: The percentage change is -20%, since it is

20% less than the original price.)

Scatterplots

Graphs of Scatterplots

Scatterplots are graphs that typically include these characteristics:

Data points are plotted on an xy-grid.
The x and y values represent dimerent units.
They are often used to Dnd trends or patterns in data with two variables.

This scatterplot shows the height of 8 people plotted against their age. The x-axis represents age in years, and the y-axis represents height in feet. The data
point in blue has coordinates (15, 5.5), which means that person is 15 years old and 5.5 feet tall.

Best-\t Line and Best-\t Curve

An equation that most closely describes the points on a scatterplot is called a best-Dt line (for linear models) and a best-Dt curve (for non-linear models).
Here is some information you should know about best-Dt lines or curves:
They often do not go through all of the points.
They do not need to go through any of the points.
They can be used to estimate where a certain point may be, even though there may not be a point there.
 Best-\t Line Best-\t Curve

Above, the best-Dt line is graphed with the data points. Above, the best-Dt curve is graphed with the same data points as the
This line only represents an estimate of where points may be based previous scatterplot.
on the patterns of the data. Notice how the curve seems to Dt the points more closely than the
Best-\t Equations are equation that describes the best-Dt line. best-Dt line in this case.
In this case, the best-Dt equation can be written as: y = 0.14x + 3.2. As this best-Dt curve shows, the data is better described by an
Interpreting the best-\t equation: The equation for the best-Dt line equation that has the height starting to level om after a certain age
has a y-intercept of 3.2 and slope of 0.14. This means that the line rather than continuing to increase with age.
estimates the initial height (when people are 0 years old) to be 3.2 This type of graph shown may be modeled by some type of
feet, and that every year they will grow 0.14 feet. exponential or power function (more about types of best-Dt curves
further below).
Using this equation, a 12 year old would be predicted to be:
0.14(12) + 3.2 = 4.88 feet tall. This is a fairly reasonable
estimate.
However, the model is not a good estimate for other age
ranges:
Babies are not born being as tall as 3.2 feet as
this equation predicts.
And with this equation, a person 50 years old would be
estimated to be a height of 0.14(50) + 3.2 = 39 feet tall!
Therefore, it's important to keep in mind that best-Dt
equations may only be useful for modeling situations for
certain input values, but not others. In particular, they may
not give good estimates when you input numbers outside of
the least and greatest input values (x values) from the original
data.

Modeling Data
The relationship between two variables can be expressed as an equation that allows you to make a prediction or draw conclusions about the data. Here are
three types of models that you are most likely to come across.

Linear Quadratic Exponential

In a linear model, the values increase when the In a quadratic model, the shape looks roughly An exponential function will be a curve where
slope is positive. The values decrease when the like a "U" and the values change from decreasing one side "tattens out" while the other side either
slope is negative. to increasing or vice versa. When the coe]cient shoots up or down more and more quickly.
of the x^2 value is positive, the graph opens up Unlike the quadratic model, the values for an
and will have a minimum point, as shown above. exponential function do not change direction and
Form of equation:
When the coe]cient of the x^2 value is negative, there is no vertex.
the graph open down and will have a maximum
m: slope or rate of change point. The maximum or minimum point of a
Form of equation:
b: initial amount (the y-intercept) parabola is called the vertex.

a: the initial amount (output value when x = 0)

Form of equation:
b: common ratio (determines the ratio of one
output value to the previous value each time x is
a: if positive the graph opens up, and if negative increased by 1)
the graph opens down

Association

The association of a model to data describes how closely the data Dts the model. If the data Dts the model closely, it is called a strong association. If it Dts
somewhat, it is called a weak association. There is no association if the data does not Dt the model at all. Additionally, for linear models, if the model has a
positive slope, the association is also called positive. If the model has a negative slope, the association is also called negative.

Below are Dve associations for linear models.

Strong positive association Weaker positive association No association Weaker negative Strong negative association
association

Table Data

Table data presented as two-way tables allow you to calculate the relative frequency or the conditional probability of an event. The relative frequency is the
percentage a sub-group is of the larger group. And a conditional probability is the probability of an event occurring given that some other aspect is already
known to be true.

Let's use this hypothetical situation and the table below to calculate such values: 127 people in a town answered a survey about their age and whether or not
they had travelled abroad. The answers are reported in this two-way table.

18 = the number of people younger than 20 who have travelled abroad.

27 = the number of people 20 or older who have travelled abroad.
45 = the total number of people who have travelled abroad.

44 = the number of people younger than 20 who have not travelled abroad.
38 = the number of people 20 or older who have not travelled abroad.
82 = the total number of people who have not travelled abroad.

62 = the total number of people under 20.

65 = the total number of people 20 or older.
127 = the total number of people who responded to the survey.
The rows on the left shows the travel status, while the two middle columns
show the age. The totals of each column and row are shown in the margins.

Approximately what percent of the If a person is chosen at random from those Those who have travelled abroad or are under
respondents have never travelled abroad? who have travelled abroad, what is the 20 make up what fraction of the total
probability that they are 20 or older? respondents?
Solution:
Take the number of people who have never Solution: Solution:
travelled abroad and divide it by the total We will only deal with people who have travelled The number of people who have travelled abroad
number of people. abroad for this problem. Take the number of is 45. Those under 20 make up 62 of the people.
people who are 20 or older who have travelled However, it is important to realize that there is an
82 / 127 is approximately .6456 or 65%. abroad and divide it by the total number of overlapping group here. 18 of the people who
This is a relative frequency. people who have travelled abroad. have travelled abroad are also under 20. We
don't want to count them twice.
27 / 45 = 0.6 or 60%.
 This is a conditional probability. Therefore, to calculate the answer, we need to
add the number of people who have travelled
abroad with those under 20, and then subtract
18 so that we don't double-count the overlap.

Travelled abroad (45) + under 20 (62) - travelled

abroad AND under 20 (18) = 45 + 62 - 18 = 89.

Finally, we need to divide this number by the

total number of people to Dnd the fraction who
have travelled abroad or are under 20.

89 / 127

Statistics

You'll want to know the basics of statistics for the SAT, including how to calculate certain statistical values and the meaning of others in the context of a
problem. You should know how to calculate the value for the mean, median, mode, and range of a set of data. Let's use this set of data to calculate those four
values: 5, 8, 8, 8, 10, 13, 13, 16, 18

Term De\nition Calculation / How to Find the Value

Mean The sum of values divided by the number of values.

(Arithmetic Average)

Median The value in a middle of a set of numbers when they are There are 9 numbers in this set. Therefore, the middle value is
arranged from least to greatest. If there is an even number the Dfth number since there are four numbers both below and
of terms, take the mean of the two middle terms. above the Dfth number. The Dfth number in this set is 10.

Mode The number that appears the most frequently in a set. 8 is the mode in this set since it appears three times, which is
more than any other number appears.

Range The dimerence between the greatest and least value. To Dnd 18 is the maximum, and 5 is the minimum.
the range, calculate the maximum minus the minimum. The range is 18 - 5 = 13.

You should also understand what standard deviation, conDdence intervals, and measurement error are to answer certain questions, but you will not need to
calculate their values.

Standard Deviation: A measure of how far data points are spread from the mean of the data. In general, there will be a lower standard deviation if most
values are closer to the mean than if they are farther from the mean. For example, this set of data: 8, 8, 9, 10, 12, has a smaller standard deviation than this
set: 8, 12, 15, 23, 28. This is because the Drst set of numbers are all generally closer to the mean than the second set of numbers.
Data Set A has a larger standard deviation than Data Set B since the values are spread farther from the mean in general for Data Set A than for Data Set B.

Con\dence Intervals: ConDdence intervals contain two components: an interval between which a data value is expected to be found and the probability that
it will be in that interval. For example, after studying the tra]c tow at a certain stop light, it was found that there would be between 410 to 530 cars (the
interval) that drive through the light in a day for 95% of days (the probability). Based on this conDdence interval, it would be highly likely that on any given day
there would be between 410 to 530 cars that drive through the light and a low probability that there would either be less than 410 cars or more than 530 cars
that drive through the light.

Measurement Error: The dimerence between a measured value of quantity and its true measurement. Measurement errors are either:
1. Random errors that occur while taking measurements (such as a person accidentally Dlling out the wrong age).
2. Problems with the way data are collected that causes inaccurate results (such as trying to Dnd the average age of people in a town but only asking
people at a university, which would not be a representative sample of everyone in the town).
Random errors are often di]cult to anticipate and avoid, but care should be taken to collect data in a way that can Dnd accurate or representative answers of
the matter being studied.

Data Inferences

Making data inferences means to deduce properties, or make probable guesses, about a population (the entire group) being studied based on the data taken
from a sample (a portion of the population). In order to make accurate data inferences, it's important that the data is taken in a way that would accurately
retect the overall population.

Here are a few general guidelines that should be followed in order to make accurate data inferences.

Sample Size: In general, a sample size of 30 is considered large enough to make fairly accurate calculations for any size population. That said, the larger the
sample, the more accurate the statistics are that can be calculated from it.

Randomization: To be a representative sample of a population, the participants of a sample should be chosen using randomizing techniques to avoid bias.

Passport to Advanced Mathematics

The Passport to Advanced Mathematics problems make up 16 of 58 questions, or roughly 27.6% of the entire math section. The main topics include:
Polynomial factors, graphs, and operations
Quadratic, exponential, radical, and rational equations and expressions
Radical and rational exponents
 Structure in expressions and isolating quantities
Function notation

Polynomials

A polynomial is an expression with one or more terms consisting of variables that have non-negative integer exponents. They can also have coe]cients for
each term with a variable. Here are some examples of polynomials.

Each of the polynomials above have x as the variable, but polynomials could have dimerent variables than x as well.

Also, polynomials are typically written with their exponents in descending order. As you can see with the polynomials above, the Drst term has the greatest
power, with each following terms having a lesser power than the one before it. They don't need to be written in this order, but keeping the way you write
polynomials consistent can help in determining key features that they have.

Adding Polynomials Subtracting Polynomials

To add two or more polynomials, all you need to do is combine like terms. Subtracting polynomials is very similar to adding them. Just make sure to be
Below are two polynomials being added, each contained within parenthesis careful of distributing a negative sign if necessary.
to distinguish them.

Distribute the negative sign to the terms in the second polynomial and take
Rewrite the expression by placing like terms next to each other and in everything out of the parenthesis.
descending order of powers.

Rewrite the expression by placing like terms next to each other and in
Combine like terms. descending order of powers.

Combine like terms.

Multiplying Polynomials

When multiplying polynomials, each term of one polynomial needs to be multiplied by each term of the other polynomial. Then the like terms can be
combined.

Multiplying Two Binomials Multiplying Other Polynomials

For multiplying two binomials (polynomials with two terms) such as for the For multiplying polynomials that are not two binomials, make sure each
example below, it can be helpful to remember to multiply the terms in the term of one polynomial is multiplied by each term of the other polynomial.
order FOIL: First, Outside, Inside, Last. If one polynomial has two terms and the other being multiplied has three
terms, there should be a total of 2 x 3 = 6 terms created before combining
like terms. This type of example is shown below.

Multiply the terms using the FOIL method.

Both x and 4 need to be multiplied by x^2, -2x, and 5.

Combine like terms.

Rewrite the expression by placing like terms next to each other and in
descending order of powers.

Combine like terms.

Polynomial Factors and Zeros

The zeros of a polynomial are the values for x that make the polynomial
equal to 0. Other names for the zeros are the x-intercepts, roots, or
solutions of the polynomial.

The graph of the polynomial shown has three zeros.

They are x = -1, x = 1, and x = 3.

In order to Dnd the zeros of a polynomial, it is useful to have the polynomial in factored form. Let's start with factoring the quadratic polynomial below.

This quadratic expression will factor into two binomials. Since the Drst term is x^2, we can assume that there will be an x in both binomials. At this point we
assume the factored form will look something like (x + ?)(x + ?), and we need to Dnd the numbers (called constants) that go in each parenthesis.

Since the constant of the original polynomial is -15, we know that the two constants from the factored form will multiply to -15 when we FOIL. We also know
that x is multiplied by each constant, and the original polynomial had a total of 2x. 2x is the value we will get when we combine like terms, which will be our
terms with x in them.

This tells us that the two constants will multiply to -15 and add up to 2. To Dnd these numbers, we can think of factors of -15, and see which add up to 2. The
only possible pair is -3 and 5. Therefore, the factored form of the quadratic is (x - 3)(x + 5).

To check if this is in fact true, you can use the FOIL method described above to see if the factored form is equivalent to the original quadratic expression.

Finally, to Dnd the zeros of the polynomial, we can use the factored form and set each factor equal to 0 to solve for what values of x make the polynomial
equal to 0. Since the zeros (or x-intercepts or roots) are what values of x makes the polynomial equal to 0, we can write 0 = (x - 3)(x + 5).

If either (x - 3) or (x + 5) equals 0, the whole polynomial will equal 0 since the factors are being multiplied by each other. To Dnd the zeros for this quadratic:
x - 3 = 0, therefore x = 3
x + 5 = 0, therefore x = -5
The two zeros for x^2 + 2x -15 are x = 3 or x = -5.

Possible Number of Zeros

A polynomial can have at most the same number of zeros as the highest degree of the variable. For example, a quadratic function, which has 2 as the greatest
exponent, will have at most 2 zeros. A cubic function, which has 3 as the greatest exponent, will have at most 3 zeros. However, this does not mean that the
graph has to have that many zeros.

A function with an odd number as the highest power must have at least 1 zero or as many as up to the highest power. For example, a cubic equation (which
has degree 3) could have 1, 2, or 3 zeros.

A function with an even number as the highest power could have no zeros or as many as the up to the highest power. For example, a quartic equation (which
has degree 4), could have 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 zeros.

Single zeros (single roots) will "cross" the x-intercept at the zero. For example, for the graph of y = (x - 5)(x - 6), the graph will cross the x-axis at the points x = 5
and x = 6. However, for double zeros (double roots), the graph will not cross the x-axis but will simply "bounce" back from the direction it came. For example,
y = (x - 3)(x - 3) has a double root at x = 3. In this case, the graph will come down to touch the x-axis at x = 3 and go back up after that point, but will not cross
the x-axis.

In general, single or any odd number of roots at a particular point will cross the x-axis, while double or any even number of roots at a particular point will
bounce back from the direction the graph approached the x-axis.

This function has two single roots. They each cross the x-axis. This function has a double root. It bounces back at the x-axis.
 This might be the graph of a function such as y = (x - 1)(x - 3). This might be the graph of a function such as y = (x - 2)(x - 2) = (x - 2)^2.

Quadratic Equations

There are 3 forms of quadratic equations that you should be familiar with and know how to Dnd the vertex and x-intercepts (a.k.a. zeros, roots, or solutions)
for. The vertex is the maximum or minimum of the parabola. The x-intercepts are the values you would input for x to make the height equal to 0. That is, y =
0 or f(x) = 0 at the x-intercepts.

For all of the forms below, when the "a" value is positive, the parabola opens up and it will have a minimum, as shown in the images. When the "a" value is
negative, the parabola opens down and it will have a maximum.

Vertex Form

This form shows the vertex as constants

(numbers) in the equation.
The vertex is the point (h, k).
To solve for the x-intercepts, set y equal to
0 and algebraically solve for x by
applying the following steps to both sides:
subtract k
divide by a
take the square root (and include
the plus or minus sign on the
opposite side of the equation that x
is on)
add h

USEFUL TIP: If you are given the vertex coordinates and one other point of a parabola, you can Dnd the equation of the parabola by solving for the "a"
value of the vertex form. In order to do this, substitute the vertex coordinates for h and k, substitute the coordinates of the other point in for x and y,
and then the only unknown value left will be "a," which you can solve for by isolating it in the equation.

For example, if the vertex is (3, -2) and another point on the parabola is (5, 14), then "a" can be solved for by plugging in 3 for h, -2 for k, 5 for x, and 14 for y:
y = a(x - h)^2 + k becomes 14 = a(5 - 3)^2 - 2
14 = a(2)^2 - 2
14 = 4a - 2
16 = 4a
4=a
Therefore, the equation for the parabola in vertex form is y = 4(x - 3)^2 - 2.

Factored Form
 This form shows the x-intercepts as
constants (numbers) in the equation.
The x-intercepts are at x = p or x = q.
This should make sense because
when either p or q is inputted for x,
the value inside one of the
parenthesis becomes 0, so
the entire output becomes 0.
The vertex occurs where x is in the middle
of the x-intercepts, which is at x = (p + q)/2.
To Dnd the y-value of the vertex,
plug in (p + q)/2 for x into the
equation and solve for y.

USEFUL TIP: If you are given the x-intercepts and one other point of a parabola, you can Dnd the equation of the parabola by solving for the "a" value of the
factored form. In order to do this, substitute in the x-intercepts for p and q, substitute the coordinates of the other point in for x and y, and then the only
unknown value left will be "a," which you can solve for by isolating it in the equation.

For example, if the x-intercepts are at x = -1 and x = 5, and another point on the parabola is (6, 21), then "a" can be solved for by plugging in -1 for q, 5 for p, 6
for x, and 21 for y.
y = a(x - p)(x - q) becomes 21 = a(6 + 1)(6 - 5)
21 = a(7)(1)
21 = 7a
3=a
Therefore, the equation for the parabola in factored form is y = 3(x + 1)(x - 5).

Standard Form

This form shows the y-intercept as a

constant (number) in the equation.
The y-intercept is the value c.
To solve for the x-intercepts, either use the
quadratic formula or factor the equation (if
possible) and use the factored form
method to Dnd the x-intercepts.
The vertex occurs where x = -b/(2a).
To Dnd the y-value of the vertex,
plug in -b/(2a) for x into the
equation and solve for y.
USEFUL TIP: Quadratics in standard form may
factor and can be rewritten in factored form. If
they do, converting the equation to a factored
form is often a faster way to solve for the x-
intercepts.

Linear and Quadratic Systems

Linear and quadratic systems have solutions where their graphs intersect. To solve for such systems, Drst make sure both the linear and quadratic equation
has isolated one of the variables (typically y), and then set the other expressions equal to each other.

Example: Find the intersections of the following equations.

In this case, the quadratic equation is solved for y, but the linear equation isn't. The Drst step would be to solve for y for the linear equation.

Set the expressions including x's equal to each other to solve for the x-coordinate of the intersection(s).

Move all the terms to one side in order to set it equal to 0 and combine like terms.

Simplify by dividing both sides by 2.

Factor.

Solve for x.

This tells us that the graphs intersect at two places: where x = 2 and where x = 7. The next step is to solve for the y value at each intersection. Do this by
plugging in 2 and 7 for x in any of the equations that involve both x and y. However, the most direct equation to use is y = 6x -5.

When x = 2: When x = 7:

When x = 2, then y = 7. When x = 7, then y = 37. Therefore, the solution to the system are the points (2, 7) and (7, 37). In terms of graphs, this means the line
and parabola both go through the points (2, 7) and (7, 37).

For this system, we were able to solve for the quadratic equation that resulted using the standard form and then using the factoring method. However, there
are multiple variations to the types of quadratic equations you might be given originally, so make sure to know how to e]ciently solve for x using the vertex
form, factored form, and standard form as described in the Quadratic Equations section shown above.

Exponential Equations

Exponential equations represent situations where each successive output is a certain percent larger or smaller than the previous output. For example,
exponential equations could represent the amount of money in a bank account that grows by 5% more than each previous year due to interest. Simple
exponential equations such as this example could be expressed in the following form:

In the form above,

A(t) is the total amount (or output)
Ao is the initial amount (or amount at time = 0)
r is the rate of change
If the rate of change is expressed as a percentage, make sure to convert this to the decimal version of the percentage
The equation has exponential growth when r > 0 and has exponential decay when r < 0
t is the time passed (or input variable)

Example problem: If a bank account with $500 earns 8% annual interest and is otherwise left alone, how much money, to the nearest cent, will be in the
account after 6 years?
In this example, Ao = $500, r = 0.08 (which is 8%), and t = 6. Plug these values into A(t) = Ao(1 + r)^t to Dnd the solution.

Some situations involving exponential functions are slightly more advanced. These include situations where:
Case 1: the interest is compounded more than once per time interval t
Case 2: the initial amount changes by a certain percentage during a time interval either more or less than what is represented by t

For case 1 situations, use the following formula: For case 2 situations, use the following formula:

In the form above, In the form above,

n is the number of times compounding occurs per time interval t. b is the percentage of the initial amount that it becomes in c amount
of time.

Example problem: If an account with $1,600 earns 5% interest compounded For example, if the unit of time is in years, when b = 0.8 and c
quarterly, how much interest, to the nearest cent, will the account earn in 18 = 5, that means that in 5 years the initial amount becomes
years? 80% of what it was.

Notice that this problem is asking how much is earned by only interest, not Example problem: If a town's population is 24,000 people now and is
how much total money is in the account. growing by 15% every 10 years, what will the population estimate be, to the
nearest person, in 32 years?
Since the money is compounded quarterly and t is being measured in units
of years, that means that n would be 4 (the money is compounded 4 times Since the population is growing in this scenario, b is greater than 1. In fact, it
per year = compounded n times per t). would be 1 + .15 = 1.15. Since b grows 15% every 10 years, c = 10.

Ao = 1600 By using the formula above, we can say that:

r = 0.05
n=4 Ao = 24,000
t = 18 b = 1.15
t = 32
c = 10

$30,267.23 is the total amount in the account after 18 years. Since we

needed to Dnd the amount earned solely by interest, we have to subtract the Rounding to the nearest person would give an estimate of 37,536 people.
original $1,600 from the amount in the account to Dnd the answer.

$30,267.23 - $1,600 = 28,667.23

Rules of Exponents
Rule Example Explanation

When multiplying expressions with the same base, add the

exponents.

When dividing expressions with the same base, subtract the

exponent of the denominator from the exponent of the
numerator.

When raising an expression with an exponent to a power,

multiply the exponents.

When raising a product to a power, raise each factor to the

exponent.

When raising an expression to a negative exponent, it becomes

the reciprocal of the expression with its opposite power.

An expression to the power of 0 is equal to 1 if the expression

itself is not equal to 0.

Rules of Radicals

Rule Example Explanation

Factors under the radical can be separated into separate

radical expressions that are multiplied.

A quotient under a radical sign can be separated into a

quotient of two radical expressions.

Radical expressions can be combined as like terms if the

expressions under the radicals are equal.

Rational exponents can be turned into radical expressions. The

numerator from the exponent is what the radical is raised to.
The denominator from the exponent becomes the root of the
radical.

Useful Tip: When taking the square root of a variable in an expression being squared, make sure to include a plus or minus sign on the opposite side of the
equation. Example:
Notice that x could be equal to either positive or negative 3 since either value being squared would result in 9.
Take the square root of both sides to turn the left side into x. Include the plus or minus sign on the other side during this step.

Simplify the square root of 9.

This also applies to any expression being squared that involves a variable. Here is another example:

Take the square root on both sides and include the plus or minus sign on the right.

The square root symbol and the power of 2 cancel each other out on the left. Simplify the expression on the right.

Subtract 2 on both sides.

Split the answers.

Rationalizing the Denominator

If you need to simplify an expression with a radical in the denominator (that doesn't itself simplify), multiply the numerator and denominator by the radical in
the denominator. This will allow you to rationalize the denominator. In other words, it will allow you to make the denominator a rational number.

Example problem:

Multiply the numerator and denominator by the radical in the denominator. This turns the denominator into a rational number.
Simplify any values that have a common factor. In this case, 15 and 6 have 3 as a common factor so the fraction can simplify further.

Unde\ned Values: A radical expression involving a square root sign is undeDned for values of x (or the input) which make the expression under the square
root sign negative. For example, the equation

is undeDned for where 5x - 10 is less than 0. Set up an inequality to Dnd the undeDned values:

5x - 10 < 0

Add 10 to both sides.

5x < 10

Divide both sides by 5.

x<2

*Note: Negative values under a square root sign can be expressed in terms of i. See the Additional Topics in Math section about Complex Numbers for more
about this.

Rational Expressions and Rational Equations

Rational expressions are fractions that contain one or more variables in the denominator. These are all examples of rational expressions:

Unde\ned Values: Rational equations are undeDned for values of x (or the input) that make the denominator equal to 0.

For example, the equation

is undeDned at the value for x that makes the denominator equal to 0. To Dnd what that value is, set 3x - 2 = 0, and solve for x.

3x - 2 = 0

Add 2 to both sides.

3x = 2

Divide both sides by 3.

x = 2/3

Since plugging in 2/3 for x makes the denominator of the rational equation 0, the expression is undeDned at x = 2/3.

USEFUL TIP: When solving for rational equations with multiple terms, you can get rid of all the denominators by multiplying both sides of the equation by the
least common multiple of all the denominators.

Example:

Multiply each term by 5x, which is the least common multiple of the denominators. This will get rid of all the denominators.

Cancel out common factors and combine like terms.

Subtract 3x^2 from both sides.

Divide both sides by 17.

Take the square root of both sides and include the plus or minus sign on the right.

Operations with Rational Expressions

Rational expressions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided. Techniques for dealing with each operation involving rational expressions are shown
below.

Adding Rational Expressions Subtracting Rational Expressions

To add rational expressions, Drst make a common denominator and then To subtract rational expressions, Drst make a common denominator and
add the numerators. then Dnd the dimerence of the numerators.

Make a common denominator. In this case it will be (4)(x+1). Multiply the Make a common denominator. In this case it will be (x-2)(x+6). Multiply the
numerators and denominators of both terms by the missing factors of the numerators and denominators of both terms by the missing factors of the
common denominator. common denominator.

Distribute in the numerators . Distribute in the numerators.

Add the numerators and combine like terms. Subtract the second numerator from the Drst numerator and add like terms.
Be careful to make sure to distribute the negative value to each term. When
you distribute the negative sign, you will get -x^2, -3x, and +10 for the
numerator of the term on the right.

USEFUL TIP: It's helpful to keep the numerators and denominators of rational expressions in factored form so that you can easily tell if factors on the top and
bottom will cancel out to leave you with a more simpliDed form. In the example below, you can tell that (x + 4) will cancel when the rational expression is in
factored form, but this is very di]cult to notice when it is not in factored form.

Rational expression factored in the numerator and denominator: The same rational expression not factored:

It is easy to tell that the factor (x + 4) cancels out in the numerator and Unless the numerator and denominator are factored, it is hard to tell how
denominator. this rational expression will simplify.

Multiplying Rational Expressions Dividing Rational Expressions

When multiplying rational expressions: When dividing rational expressions:

Put each numerator and denominator in factored form Drst. Turn the division into a multiplication problem by multiplying the Drst
Next, see if any there are any common factors in the numerators that (or top) rational expression by the reciprocal of the second (or
 cancel out with any factors of the denominators. bottom) rational expression.
After that, multiply across in the numerators and multiply across in Then simplify by using the same methods described for multiplying
the denominators. rational expressions.
Example: Example:

Put each part in factored form. In this case, 2x + 6 can be factored into Multiply the Drst rational expression by the reciprocal of the second.
2(x+3).

Put each part in factored form.

Cancel out common factors in the numerator and denominator. In this case,
x + 3 can be cancelled out.

Cancel common factors in the numerators and denominators.

Multiply across in the numerators and denominators.

Multiply across in the numerators and denominators.

Distribute.

Distribute.

Polynomial Long Division

Rational expressions can be divided using long division in a very similar way to regular long division. Some SAT math problems will require this method to
rewrite a rational expression and Dnd an equivalent form.

Example: Use polynomial long division to rewrite the rational expression below.

Set the problem up as a long division problem.

The number of times the leading term of the denominator (2x) goes into the leading term of the numerator (6x^2) is 3x. Therefore, write 3x above the long
division bar.

Multiply 3x by 2x - 1 to get 6x^2 - 3x and put the product under 6x^2 + 5x. Subtract 6x^2 - 3x from 6x^2 + 5x to get 8x. Then bring down the -1.

The number of times the leading term of the denominator (2x) goes into the new leading term (8x) is 4. Therefore, write +4 above the long division bar.

Multiply 4 by 2x - 1 to get 8x - 4 and put the product under 8x - 1. Subtract 8x - 4 from 8x - 1 to get 3. This is the remainder.

Since 3 is the remainder, we need to add 3/(2x - 1) to the value we have at the top. We end up with 3x + 4 + 3/(2x-1).
USEFUL TIP: Use polynomial long division to rewrite rational expressions that don't simplify by putting them in factored form and cancelling factors.

Function Notation (Extended from Heart of Algebra Section)

Function notation is a method of writing equations for functions. For example, f(x) = 2x - 5 is the function notation equivalent of y = 2x - 5. And y = -3x +
8 could be written as f(x) = -3x + 8 in function notation. Function notation can also be used for quadratics or other types of functions besides linear functions,
including piecewise functions (functions with dimerent equations for dimerent domains that are spliced together to make one combined function).

In basic function notation f(x) (read "f of x") represents the output of a function. The x inside the parenthesis represents the input of the function. In the
regular x and y coordinate graphing system, f(x) takes the place of y, the graph's output, or height.

Although f(x) = [function expression] is the basic form of function notation, other letters besides f and x can also be used, just as linear equations can be written
with variables other than x and y. For example, y = 4x + 3 could be rewritten as h = 4s + 3, where both y and h refer to the output, and x and s refer to the
input of a linear function. Similarly, f(x) = 4x + 3 and g(x) = 4x + 3 and p(a) = 4a + 3 all refer to a function where the input is multiplied by 4 and then 3 is added
to the value.

Function notation can also specify certain input and output pairs. Let's use the function f(x) = 5x + 8 as an example. This function states that the input is
multiplied by 5 and then 8 is added to the value. We could say that f(2) = 18. This means that by inputting 2 into the function, the output is 18. We can check
this: f(2) = 5(2) + 8 = 18.

Using this same function, f(3) would mean that 3 is the input value. Therefore, f(3) = 5(3) + 8 = 23.

We could make this even more complicated by evaluating f(a + 4). Since we know the rule of function f is that the input of the function is multiplied by 5 and
then 8 is added to it, here is how we can evaluate f(a + 4):

f(a + 4) = 5(a + 4) + 8 = 5a + 20 + 8 = 5a + 28.

Useful Tip: Put a parenthesis around the substituted input value before simplifying to avoid any careless mistakes or distribution errors when dealing with
function notation. Using the previous example of f(x) = 5x + 8, when evaluating f(a + 4), the (a + 4) gets substituted for x on the right side of f(x) = 5x + 8.
Therefore, substitute exactly (a + 4) with the parenthesis where the x is on the right and then simplify.

There may be more than one place a substitution needs to occur depending on the function. If h(x) = 6x - 12/x, and you were asked to evaluate h(3), you could
write: h(3) = 6(3) - 12/(3). This simpliDes to 18 - 4 = 14. Notice that when evaluating h(3), (3) was substituted for each place the x was in the original equation on
the right side.

Additional Topics in Math

Additional Topics in Math make up 6 of 58 questions, or roughly 10.3% of the entire math section. The main topics include:
Geometry: area, volume, triangles, angles, arc lengths, sector areas
Right triangle trigonometry
Circle equations and theorems
 Complex numbers

Geometry

Many of the geometry related problems on the SAT can be solved for with the reference information given on the test that is shown below.

You'll want to make sure to be very comfortable with all the formulas, and if you don't have them memorized, it would be good to do so to help save time in
answering problems. Many area and volume problems involve solving for a variable using the formulas or making an extra connection or two to get to the
answer.

Angle Relationships

Knowing the angle relationships below will help you more quickly solve some problems involving diagrams. Many of the explanations involve the word
congruent/congruence, so let's start with an informal deDnition.

Congruent means that two geometric shapes or objects are the same in size, dimensions, and angle measure (or any combination that may apply). For
example, two line segments are congruent if they are the same length. Two angles are congruent if their measures (how many degrees or radians they
contain) are the same. Two triangles are congruent if they are the same size and have the same angle measures. Shapes can be congruent even if they don't
face the same direction.

Vertical Angles

Angles are angles on directly opposite parts of the intersection of two line segments.
 Vertical angles are congruent. That is, they are always the same angle measure.

Vertical Angles

If two parallel lines are intersected by a third, non-parallel line (called a transversal), certain angle pair relationships will always be true.

Corresponding Angles

Angles in the same location relative to the intersections formed by the parallel lines and the transversal.
Corresponding angles are congruent.

Corresponding Angles

Alternate Interior Angles

Angles on opposite (alternate) sides of the transversal that are on the inside (interior) of the parallel lines.
Alternate interior angles are congruent.

Alternate Interior Angles

Alternate Exterior Angles

Angles on opposite (alternate) sides of the transversal that are on the outside (exterior) of the parallel lines.
Alternate exterior angles are congruent.

Alternate Exterior Angles

Same Side Interior Angles

Angles on the same side of the transversal that are on the inside (interior) of the parallel lines.
Same side interior angles are supplementary.

Same Side Interior Angles

Same Side Exterior Angles

Angles on the same side of the transversal that are on the outside (exterior) of the parallel lines.
Same side exterior angles are supplementary.

Same Side Exterior Angles

Proportional Shapes
If two lines are intersected by a set of parallel lines, the length of line If two triangles (or other polygons) are similar, corresponding angles have
segments that are created will be proportional. In the case above, each the same measures, but the sides are not necessarily the same length.
segment on the left is 3/2 times the length of the corresponding segment on However, the corresponding sides of triangles are proportional in length. In
the right. the case above, each side of the triangle on the left is twice the length of its
corresponding side on the right.

Triangle Theorems and Properties

Triangle Sum Theorem: The three angle measures of a triangle add up to 180 degrees.

Triangle Inequality Theorem: The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is larger than the third side.

Side-Angle Relationships: The longest side is opposite the largest angle. The shortest side is opposite the shortest angle.

Isosceles Triangle Theorems (Isosceles triangles have at least two congruent sides and two congruent angles)
Angles opposite congruent sides are congruent.
Sides opposite congruent angles are congruent.

Exterior Angle Theorem (The exterior angle of a triangle is an angle on the outside of a triangle that makes a linear pair with an
angle on the inside of the triangle).
An exterior angle measure is equal to the sum of the two interior angles not adjacent to it.
m<1 + m<2 = 180 - m>3.
m<4 = 180 - m>3.
Therefore, m>1 + m>2 = m>4.

Proving Triangle Congruence

Two triangles can be proven to be congruent if certain information about them is known. You will not be asked to make a proof of congruence, but you may
need the information listed below to answer a question related to triangle congruence.
SSS (side-side-side): If all three sides of one triangle are congruent to three SAS (side-angle-side): If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are
corresponding sides of another triangle, the triangles are congruent. congruent to the corresponding parts of another triangle, the triangles are
congruent.

ASA (angle-side-angle): If two angles and the included side are congruent to AAS (angle-angle-side): If two angles and a non-included side are congruent
the corresponding parts of another triangle, the triangles are congruent. to the corresponding parts of another triangle, the triangles are congruent.

CPCPT: Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent. In other

words, if two triangles are shown to be congruent, any other corresponding
sides or angles will also be congruent.

Information that does NOT Prove Triangle Congruence:

HL (hypotenuse-leg): If the hypotenuse and one leg of a right triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of another right triangle, the triangles AAA (angle-angle-angle): This is not su]cient information to prove
are congruent. triangle congruence.
SSA (side-side-angle): This is not su]cient information to prove
triangle congruence unless the triangles are right triangles.

Sine and Cosine of Complementary Angles

If x° is the measure of one of the acute angles in a right triangle, the complementary angle
measure is (90-x)°.
The sine of x is the cosine of 90-x. sin(x) = cos(90-x). This is because the opposite side /
hypotenuse for x is the adjacent side / hypotenuse for 90-x.
The cosine of x is the sine of 90-x. cos(x) = sin(90-x). This is because the adjacent side /
hypotenuse for x is the opposite side / hypotenuse for 90-x.

Angle Measures, Arc Lengths, and Sector Areas

Central Angle: The angle contained between two radii. Arc Measure: The angle measure contained within the arc.

Arc Length: The length of part of a circle's circumference. Inscribed Angle: An angle in the circle with its vertex on the circle.

Sector Area: The area of part of a circle (often contained between two radii). A central angle is equal to the arc measure of the arc it subtends (the arc it
creates). However, the arc subtended by an inscribed angle is twice the
The central angle, arc length, and sector area are proportional values. If you measure of the inscribed angle.
know one value, you can Dnd the others using this proportion:

The basic idea behind this proportion is that each fraction contains a part of
the circle to the corresponding whole. The fraction of the central angle to
the full angle (360°) is the same as the fraction of the arc length to the
circumference, which is also the same as the fraction of the sector area to
the area of the entire circle.

For example, if the central angle is 120°, which is 1/3 of the full angle, then
the arc length will be 1/3 of the circumference.

USEFUL TIP: The key to solving a problem involving a circle, especially in

relation to an arc length or sector area, is often to Dnd the radius. Make
sure you know the radius for a problem involving circles if you get stuck.

Radians

Angles are often measured in units of degrees, but the radian is another unit to measure angles. A
radian is the central angle measure that would extend out to Dt just between an arc length of exactly
one radius length.

Whereas degrees divide the circle into 360 equal parts, radians use the radius length placed on the
circle as a measuring tool for the central angle. The number of times the radius lengths Dts between
the angle is the number of radian there are in the central angle.
There are 2π radians in a full circle because the radius can Dt 2π times around a circle. Remember: C =
2πr. Therefore, 360° = 2π radians.

Converting Between Radians and Degrees

If a radian problem appears on the SAT, it's highly likely that it will be an angle that is a multiple of 30° or 45°, so it will be good to know what those degrees are
in terms of radians.

Multiples of 30 Degrees Multiples of 45 Degrees

360° = 2π radians. 360° = 2π radians.

30° is 1/12 of 360°, therefore 30° is 1/12 of 2π radians = π/6 radians. 45° is 1/8 of 360°, therefore 45° is 1/8 of 2π radians = π/4 radians.

To Dnd how many radians any multiple of 30° is, multiply π/6 by the number To Dnd how many radians any multiple of 45° is, multiply π/4 by the number
of times you would need to multiply 30° by to get that many degrees. of times you would need to multiply 45° by to get that many degrees.

For example, 240° is 30° times 8. For example, 225° is 45° times 5.
π/6 times 8 is 8π/6, which simpliDes to 4π/3. π/4 times 5 is 5π/4.
In other words, 240° = 4π/3 radians. In other words, 225° = 5π/4 radians.

Radians and Degrees Conversion Proportion

Another way to convert between radians and degree is to use a proportion that relates the two units. By using the ratio of part to whole for the circle, we can
set up a proportion to directly convert between radians and degrees.
By dividing the denominators by 2, the proportion simpliDes to the following:

If you're given either the degrees or the radians of an angle, plug that value in and solve for the angle measure of the other unit.

Graphed Circles

The general equation that describes a circle is

where (h, k) is the circle's center and r is the length of the radius.

A circle with the equation

would have its center at (3, 2) and its radius would be 4.

USEFUL TIP: If a point on the circle and the center is known, the radius can be found using the distance formula since the radius is the distance between the
point on the circle and the center.

Completing the Square for Equations of Circles

Completing the square is a technique that can be used to rewrite quadratic equations but it can also be used to manipulate equations for circles to Dt the form
(x - h)^2 + (y - k)^2 = r^2 if it doesn't start with that form. The method is called "completing the square" because it takes two terms on one side of an equation
(involving a second degree and Drst degree variable) and rewrites them as a sum or dimerence being squared.

Steps for Completing the Square (an example is shown below)

 Turn the coe]cient of the variable being squared into 1 (if it isn't already) by dividing both sides of the equation by the value of the original coe]cient.
Move the constant to the other side of the equation from the variables.
Take half the coe]cient of the variable raised to the Drst power, square the number, and add it to both sides of the equation.
Factor the side with the variables into a sum squared or a dimerence squared.

Here is a basic example of completing the square for a quadratic equation without involving the whole equation for a circle:

Subtract 5 from both sides.

Take half of the coe]cient of x (half of -6 is -3), square it, and add it to both sides. -3 squared is 9, so add 9 to both sides.

This makes the left side into a form that can be factored as a dimerence squared. The right side can be simpliDed as well.

Those are the steps needed to compete the square, but for circles, you may need to perform that process for both the x and y variables.

An example for completing the square for Dtting the general equation for circles is shown below.

Move the constant from the left side to the right side by subtracting 37 from both sides.

Take half the coe]cient of x (half of -10 is -5), and add that number squared to both sides. Since -5 squared is 25, add 25 to both sides.

Rewrite x^2 - 10x + 25 as (x - 5)^2 and simplify the right side.

Take half the coe]cient of y (half of 8 is 4), and add that number squared to both sides. Since 4 squared is 16, add 16 to both sides.
Rewrite y^2 + 8y +16 as (y + 4)^2 and simplify the right side.

Now that the equation has completed the square for both the x and y variables, it is in the general equation form for the circle. We can tell that the center is at
(5, -4) and the radius is 2.

USEFUL TIP: Don't mix up the signs for h and k when writing the center. In the example above (x - h) = (x - 5), so h = 5. Also, (y - k) = (y + 4), so k = -4. It's easy
to get the opposite signs by mistake.

Complex Numbers

Complex numbers are numbers that include a real number component and an imaginary number component. They take the form "a + bi" where "a" is the real
number component and "bi" is the imaginary number component. The "i" is the imaginary unit, which is deDned as:

You should also know what i squared is equal to. If you were to square both sides of the equation above, you would get:

For the SAT you should know how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide complex numbers.

To add or subtract complex numbers, the main idea is to simply combine like terms.

Adding Complex Numbers Subtracting Complex Numbers

Example: Example:

Rearrange with like terms next to each other (if this step is helpful for you). Distribute the negative sign.

Combine like terms. Rearrange with like terms next to each other (if this step is helpful for you).
 Combine like terms.

When multiplying or dividing with complex numbers, you will often get values that contain i^2 in the process. If that's the case, you need to turn i^2 into -1.

Multiplying Complex Numbers Dividing Complex Numbers

Example: Example:

FOIL.
Multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the
denominator. The conjugate of the denominator is the expression in the
denominator with the sign reversed. The conjugate of 6-2i is 6+2i.

Turn i^2 into -1.

Multiply across in the numerators and denominators by FOILing each.

Combine like terms.

Notice that the middle terms in the denominators cancel out: 12i - 12i = 0.
The purpose of multiplying by the conjugate in the numerator and
denominator in the previous step was so that these terms would cancel out
and it would eliminate all the imaginary number components in the
denominator.

Turn i^2 into -1.

Combine like terms.

 Split into two fractions.

Simplify each fraction to make the form a + bi.

SAT Practice Tests

Now that you have seen the material that will be on the test, try taking o]cial SAT practice tests to check your estimated score. We also have a variety of SAT
math tips to help you study emectively and know what to bring on the test day.

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