Graph Theory

Chapter 8 (Rosen)
Applications (examples)
 Computer networks
 Distinguish between two chemical compounds
with the same molecular formula but different
structures
 Solve shortest path problems between cities
 Scheduling exams
 Assign channels to television stations, etc.
Definitions
A Graph G=(V, E) consists a finite nonempty set of
vertices (or nodes) denoted by V(G), or simply by V
and a set of edges E(G), or simply by E (which is a
subset of V × V).

Graphical Representation: Vertices are represented

by dots or circles and a line between two dots/circles
represents an edge.
Definitions – Edge Type
Directed: Ordered pair of vertices. (u, v) represents a directed
edge from vertex u to v.

u v

Undirected: Unordered pair of vertices. Represented as (u, v).

Disregards any sense of direction and treats both end vertices
interchangeably. That is, (u, v) and (v, u) are same]

u v
Definitions – Edge Type
 Loop: A loop is an edge whose endpoints are equal
i.e., an edge joining a vertex to itself is called a loop.

 Multiple Edges: Two or more edges joining the

same pair of vertices.
Definitions – Graph Type
Simple Undirected Graph: consists of V, a nonempty set of
vertices, and E, a set of unordered pairs of distinct elements of
V called edges (undirected)

Example: G(V, E), V = {u, v, w}, E = {(u, v), (v, w), (u, w)}

u v

w
Definitions – Graph Type
Multigraphs: Graphs that may have multiple edges
connecting the same vertices

Example: V = {u, v, w}, E = {e1, e2, e3} [e = (u, v)]

u
e1 e2 w

e3
v
Definitions – Graph Type
Pseudograph: Graphs that may include loops and possibly
multiple edges connecting the same pair of vertices.

Example: V = {u, v, w}, E = {e1, e2, e3, e4}

u
e1 w e4
e2

v e3
Definitions – Graph Type
Directed Graph: G(V, E), set of vertices V, and set of Edges E,
that are ordered pair of elements of V (directed edges)

Example: G(V, E), V = {u, v, w}, E = {(u, v), (v, w), (w, u)}

u v

w
Definitions – Graph Type
Directed Multigraph:
Example: V = {u, v, w}, E = {e1, e2, e3, e4}

u
w e4
e1 e2

v e3
 Simple Undirected graphs
 u and v are adjacent (or neighbours) if e = (u, v) is an edge; e is called
incident with (or on/to) u and v. u and v are called endpoints of (u, v). Edge
e is said to join u and v.
 Degree of a Vertex, deg (v), is the number of edges incident on a vertex.
A loop contributes twice to the degree (why?). [deg(v) or simply d(v)]

 Pendant Vertex: deg (v) =1

 Isolated Vertex: deg (k) = 0

Example: For V = {u, v, w, k} , E = { (u, w), (u, v) }

d(u) = 2, d(v) = 1, d(w) = 1, d(k) = 0, w and v are pendant , k is isolated

u v
k

w
 Directed graphs
 For the directed edge (u, v), u is adjacent to v OR v is adjacent from u.
 u – Initial vertex, v – Terminal vertex

 In-degree, deg- (u), is the number of edges for which u is terminal vertex

 Out-degree, deg+ (u), is the number of edges for which u is initial vertex

Note: A loop contributes 1 to both in-degree and out-degree (why?)

Example: For V = {u, v, w} , E = { (u, w), ( v, w), (u, v) }

d-(u) = 0, d+(u) = 2, d-(v) = 1, d+(v) = 1, and d-(w) = 2, d+(u) = 0

u v

w
Theorem: Undirected Graphs
Theorem 1
The Handshaking theorem:
2e   deg( v )
vV

Why?
Every edge connects 2 vertices
 Theorem: Undirected Graphs
Theorem 2:
An undirected graph has even number of vertices with odd degree

Pr oof V 1 is the set of even degree vertices and V2 refers to odd degree vertices
2e   deg(v)   deg(u)   deg(v)
vV u  V1 v  V2

 deg (v) is even for v  V1,

 The first term in the right hand side of the last inequality is even.
 The sum of the last two terms on the right hand side of
the last inequality is even since sum is 2e.
Hence second term is also even
 second term  deg(u)  even
v  V2
Theorems: directed Graphs
 Theorem 3:  deg + (u) =  deg - (u) = |E|
Simple undirected graphs – special cases
 Complete graph: Kn, is the simple graph that contains exactly
one edge between each pair of distinct vertices.

Representation Example: K1, K2, K3, K4

K1 K2 K3
K4
Simple graphs – special cases
 Cycle: Cn , n ≥ 3 consists of n vertices v1, v2, v3 … vn and edges
(v1, v2), (v2, v3), (v3, v4) … (vn-1, vn), (vn, v1)

Representation Example: C3 (triangle), C4

C3 C4
Simple graphs – special cases
 Wheels: Wn, obtained by adding an additional vertex to Cn and
connecting all vertices to this new vertex by new edges.
Representation Example: W3, W4

W3 W4
Simple graphs – special cases
 N-cubes: Qn, vertices represented by 2n bit strings of length n.
Two vertices are adjacent if and only if the bit strings that they
represent differ by exactly one bit positions
Representation Example: Q1, Q2

10 11

0 1

00 01

Q1 Q2
 Bipartite graphs
 A simple graph G(V, E), is called bipartite if V can be partitioned
into two disjoint sets V1 and V2 such that every edge in the graph
connects a vertex in V1 and a vertex V2 (so that no edge in G
connects either two vertices in V1 or two vertices in V2)

Application example: Representing Relations

Representation example: V1 = {v1, v2, v3} and V2 = {v4, v5, v6},

v4
v1

v5
v2

v6
v3

V1 V2
 Complete Bipartite graphs
 Km,n : It is the graph that has its vertex set portioned into two
subsets of m and n vertices such that there is an edge between
two vertices if and only if one vertex is in the first subset and
the other vertex is in the second subset.
Representation example: K2,3, K3,3

K2,3 K3,3
 Subgraphs
 A subgraph of a graph G = (V, E) is a graph H =(V’, E’) where V’ is a
subset of V and E’ is a subset of E

Example: V = {u, v, w}, E = ((u, v), (v, w), (w, u)}, H1 , H2

u u u

v w v w v

G H1 H2
 Union
 G = G1 U G2 wherein E = E1 U E2 and V = V1 U V2
 G, G1 and G2 are simple graphs

Example: V1 = {u, w}, E1 = {(u, w)}, V2 = {w, v},

E1 = {(w, v)}, V = {u, v ,w}, E = {(u, w), (w, v)}

u
u

w v
w w v

G1 G2 G
 Subgraphs
 A spanning subgraph is a subgraph containing all the vertices of G.

For any set S of vertices of G, the induced subgraph <S> is the

maximal subgraph of G with vertex set S (Thus, two vertices of S are
adjacent iff they are adjacent in G)

u v w u v w u v w

x y z y x y z

G G1 G2
 Subgraphs
 The removal of a vertex vi from a graph G results in that subgraph G - vi
of G consisting of all vertices of G except vi and all edges incident with vi.
 The removal of an edge ej from G yields the spanning subgraph G – ej of
G containing all edges of G except ej.

Example: G2 = G – u and G1 = G – (w, v)

u
u

w v
w v w v
G1 G2 G
Weighted Graphs
In a weighted graph, each edge has a weight or cost
 Typically numeric

 Some graphs allow negative weights; many do not

Agra 120
Delhi
500
Jaipur
 Representation

 Incidence Matrix: Most useful when information about

edges is more desirable than information about vertices.

 Adjacency Matrix/Adjacency List: Most useful when

information about the vertices is more desirable than
information about the edges. These two representations are
also most popular since information about the vertices is
often more desirable than edges in most applications
 Representation- Incidence Matrix

 G = (V, E) be an undirected graph. Suppose that v1, v2, v3, …, vn

are the vertices and e1, e2, …, em are the edges of G.

 Then the incidence matrix with respect to this ordering of V and E

is the n x m matrix M = [m ij], where

1 when edge ej is incident on v i

m ij  
0 otherwise
Representation- Incidence Matrix
 Example: G = (V, E)

e1 e2 e3
u
v 1 0 1
e1 e2
u 1 1 0

v w w 0 1 1
e3
 Representation- Adjacency Matrix
 The Adjacency Matrix A of a graph G= (V, E), is of dimension N x N ,
where |V | = N , A = [aij]

For undirected graph

1 if (vi, vj) is an edge of G

a ij  
0 otherwise

 For weighted graphs, the entries are weights of the

corresponding edges instead of being binary
Representation- Adjacency Matrix
 Adjacency is chosen on the ordering of vertices. Hence, there as
are as many as n! such matrices.

 The adjacency matrix of simple undirected graphs are

symmetric (aij = aji) .

 When there are relatively few edges in the graph the adjacency
matrix is a sparse matrix.

 Directed Multigraphs can be represented by using aij = number

of edges from vi to vj.
Representation- Adjacency Matrix
 Example: Undirected Graph G (V, E)

v u w
u
v 0 1 1

u 1 0 1
v w
w 1 1 0
Representation- Adjacency Matrix
 Example: directed Graph G (V, E)

v u w
u
v 0 1 0

u 0 0 1
v w
w 1 0 0
Representation- Adjacency List
Each node (vertex) has a list of which nodes (vertex) it is adjacent

Example: undirectd graph G (V, E)

u
node Adjacency List

u v,w

v w, u
v w
w u,v
 Graph - Isomorphism
 G1=(V1, E2) and G2=(V2, E2) are isomorphic if:
 There is a bijection f from V1 to V2 with the property
that
 Vertices a and b are adjacent in G1 if and only if f(a) and f(b)
are adjacent in G2, for all a and b in V1
(preserves the adjacency)
 Function f is called isomorphism

Application Example:
In chemistry, to find if two compounds have the same structure
 Graph - Isomorphism

 Two graphs are isomorphic (to each other) if there

is a 1-1 correspondence between their vertices and
between their edges such that the incidence
relationship is preserved.
Graph - Isomorphism
Example: G1 = (V1, E1) , G2 = (V2, E2)

f(u1) = v1 f(u2) = v4 f(u3) = v3 f(u4) = v2

u1 u2 v1 v2

u3 u4 v4
v3
 Complement graph
The complement G’ of a graph G=(V, E) also has V as its vertex
set, but two vertices are adjacent in G’ iff they are non-adjacent
in G.

Example: A graph and its complement

u1 u2 v1 v2

u3 u4
v3 v4
 Complement graph
A graph G is said to be self-complementary if G is isomorphic to
its complement G’.

Example: A graph and its complement where they are isomorphic too.

u1 u2 v1 v2

u3 u4
v3 v4
 Connectivity
 In a graph reachability among vertices by
traversing the edges.

Application Examples:
In a city to city road-network, if one city can be reached from
another city.

Determining whether a message can be sent between two

computers using intermediate links

Efficiently planning routes for data delivery in the Internet

 Walk, trail, path
A “walk” in a graph G=(V, E) is a finite sequence of vertices
v0, v1, …, vn such that (vi,vi+1) ∊ E for all 0  i<n. v0 and vn are
terminal vertices. v0 – initial and vn - final vertex.
(Walk from v0 to vn or v0-vn walk) d
a

b
Example: a, b, c, d, c, b, e e
 Walk, trail, path
If no edge is repeated more than once in a walk, then it is a
“trail” (however, a vertex may repeat).

a d

b
Example: a, c, b, e, c, d e
 Walk, trail, path
A walk (or trail) in which no vertex appears more than once
is a “path”.
Pn – a path with n vertices
Path length – no. of edges in a d

the path
c

b
Example: a, b, e, c, d e
(a path of length 4)
 Closed walk, Cycle
A closed walk is a walk that begins and ends with the same vertex
(otherwise, open).
A closed path is called circuit or cycle, where no vertex (except the initial
and final vertex) appears more that once.
a d

Cycle: 1) a, b, e, d, a b
e
2) b, a, c, d, e, b
 Paths and Cycles in Directed Graphs
Example: D
C
A

 Is there a path from A to D? No

 Does the graph contain any cycles? No

 Connectivity – Connectedness
Undirected Graph
A vertex u is said to be connected to a vertex v in a graph G if
there is path in G from u to v.

An undirected graph is connected iff there exists a path

between every pair of vertices

Example: G (V, E) is connected since for V = {v1, v2, v3, v4, v5},
there exists a path between vi and vj, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ 5
v4
v1 v3

v2 v5
 Connected components
Undirected Graph
A graph that is not connected is called disconnected.

Any disconnected graph G can be expressed as the union of

connected graphs, each of which is a “(connected) component”
[A maximal connected subgraph of G]

Example: A disconnected graph with 5 vertices and two components.

v4
v1 v3

v2 v5
Undirected Graph Connectivity
An undirected graph is connected if for all pairs of vertices u≠v,
there exists a path from u to v

Connected graph Disconnected graph

An undirected graph is complete,

or fully connected, if for all pairs
of vertices u≠v there exists an
edge from u to v
Connected components
Theorem:
Let G be a simple graph on n vertices. If G has k components,
then the number m of edges of G satisfies

n – k ≤ m ≤ (n – k)(n – k + 1)/2
 Connectivity – Connectedness

 Articulation Point (Cut vertex): removal of a vertex produces

a subgraph with more connected components than in the
original graph. The removal of a cut vertex from a connected
graph produces a graph that is not connected.

 Cut Edge: An edge whose removal produces a subgraph with

more connected components than in the original graph.

Example: In G=(V, E) below, v3 is an articulation point [and (v2, v3) is a

cut edge], the number of connected components is 2 (> 1)

v3
v5
v1

v2
v4
Connectivity – Connectedness
Directed Graph
 A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a path from
a to b and from b to a whenever a and b are vertices in the
graph.
 A directed graph is weakly connected if there is a
(undirected) path between every two vertices in the underlying
undirected path.

A strongly connected Graph can be weakly connected but the

vice-versa is not true (why?)
Connectivity – Connectedness
Directed Graph
Example: G1 (Strongly connected), G2 (Weakly Connected), G3 is
undirected graph representation of G2 or G1

G1 G2 G3
 Directed Graph Connectivity

A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a

path from every vertex to every other vertex

A directed graph is weakly connected if there is a path

from every vertex to every other vertex ignoring
direction of edges

A direct graph is complete or fully connected, if for all

pairs of vertices u≠v , there exists an edge from u to v
 Connectivity – Connectedness
 Directed Graph
Strongly connected Components: subgraphs of a
directed graph G that are strongly connected

Example: G1 is the strongly connected component in G

G G1
 The Seven Bridges of Königsberg, Germany

 The residents of Königsberg, Germany, wondered if it was possible

to take a walking tour of the town that crossed each of the seven
bridges over the Presel river exactly once.
 Is it possible to start at some node and take a walk that uses each
edge exactly once, and ends at the starting node?
 The Seven Bridges of Königsberg, Germany

Euler:

 Has no tour that uses each edge exactly once.

 (Even if we allow the walk to start and finish in different places.)
 Can you see why?
 Euler Graph
 A connected graph G is Eulerian or Euler if there exists a
closed walk of G containing every edge of G exactly once.
(such a closed walk is called an Eulerian tour).
[A ‘tour’ is a closed walk containing every edge at least once]
 Eulerian trail (or Euler walk) in a graph is a trail that uses
each edge precisely once. If such a trail exists, the graph is
called traversable.

 Example: G has Euler trail a, c, d, e, b, d, a, b but not Eulerian

a b

c d e
 Euler Graph

 Example: G is Eulerian - Eulerian tour: a, b, e, d, f, b, d, c, f, a, c, g, a

a b

g c d e
 The problem in our language:

Show that is not Eulerian.

In fact, it contains no Euler trail.

Euler - theorems
1. A simple graph G is Eulerian if and only if G is connected and
has no vertices of odd degree.

2. A simple graph G is has an Euler trail from node a to some

other node b if and only if G is connected and a  b are the
only two nodes of odd degree.
Euler – theorems (=>)
Assume G has an Euler trail T from node a to node b (a and b
not necessarily distinct).
For every node besides a and b, T uses an edge to exit for each
edge it uses to enter. Thus, the degree of the node is even.

1. If a = b, then a also has even degree.  Euler tour

2. If a  b, then a and b both have odd degree.  Euler trail

[ Each occurrence of a given vertex in T contributes 2 to the degree of

that vertex, and since each edge of G appears exactly once in T , every
vertex must have even degree.]
Euler - theorems
1. A simple graph G is Eulerian if and only if G is connected and
has no vertices of odd degree

a b

f c d

Building a cycle:
e {a,b}, {b,c}, {c,f}, {f,a}

Euler tour constructed if all edges

are used. True here?
Euler - theorems
1. A simple graph G is Eulerian if and only if G is connected and
has no vertices of odd degree

c d

e
Delete the cycle:
{a,b}, {b,c}, {c,f}, {f,a}

c is the common vertex for this

sub-graph with its “parent”.
Euler - theorems
1. A simple graph G is Eulerian if and only if G is connected and
has no vertices of odd degree

c d

c is the common vertex for this sub-graph

e with its “parent”.

c has even degree.

Start at c and take a walk:

{c,d}, {d,e}, {e,c}
Euler - theorems
1. A simple graph G is Eulerian if and only if G is connected and
has no vertices of odd degree

a b

f c d
“Splice” the circuits in the 2 graphs:
{a,b}, {b,c}, {c,f}, {f,a}
“+”
e {c,d}, {d,e}, {e,c}
“=“
{a,b}, {b,c}, {c,d}, {d,e}, {e,c}, {c,f}
{f,a}
Euler Tour
1. Cycle C := a cycle in G beginning at an arbitrary
vertex v.
1. Add edges successively to form a path that returns to this
vertex (such a cycle exists since degree of every vertex is at least two)
2. H := G – above cycle C
3. While H has edges
1. Sub-cycle sc := a cycle that begins at a vertex in H that
is also in C (e.g., vertex “c ”)
2. H := H – sc (- all isolated vertices)
3. Tour := cycle C “spliced” with sub-cycle sc
4. Tour C has the Euler tour.
 Hamiltonian Graph
 Hamiltonian path (also called traceable path) is a path that visits
each vertex exactly once.

 A Hamiltonian cycle (also called Hamiltonian circuit, vertex tour or

graph cycle) is a cycle that visits each vertex exactly once (except for
the starting vertex, which is visited once at the start and once again at
the end).

 A graph that contains a Hamiltonian path is called a traceable graph.

A graph that contains a Hamiltonian cycle is called a Hamiltonian
graph. Any Hamiltonian cycle can be converted to a Hamiltonian path
by removing one of its edges, but a Hamiltonian path can be extended
to Hamiltonian cycle only if its endpoints are adjacent.
A graph of the vertices of a dodecahedron.

Is it Hamiltonian?

Yes
.
 Hamiltonian Graph

This one has a Hamiltonian path, but not a

Hamiltonian tour.
Hamiltonian Graph

This one has an Euler tour, but no Hamiltonian path.

 Hamiltonian Graph
 Similar notions may be defined for directed graphs, where edges
(arcs) of a path or a cycle are required to point in the same
direction, i.e., connected tail-to-head.

 The Hamiltonian cycle problem or Hamiltonian circuit problem in

graph theory is to find a Hamiltonian cycle in a given graph.
The Hamiltonian path problem is to find a Hamiltonian path in a
given graph.

 Both problems are NP-complete. However, certain classes of

graphs always contain Hamiltonian paths.
Hamiltonian Graph
 DIRAC’S Theorem: if G is a simple graph with n
vertices with n ≥ 3 such that the degree of every
vertex in G is at least n/2 then G has a Hamilton
circuit.

 ORE’S Theorem: if G is a simple graph with n

vertices with n ≥ 3 such that d(u) + d(v) ≥ n for
every pair of nonadjacent vertices u and v in G, then
G has a Hamilton circuit.