THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT

The ideas of the Enlightenment characterise the end of the 17th century and
especially the whole 18th century. Equality before the law, religious tolerance, freedom of
thought and a new political system based on the people's sovereignty are the main ideas that
emerged during the era. Absolutism based on a monarch's divine right to rule and the
indisputable authority of the Church became an obstacle to the development; therefore, they
did not avoid severe criticism, which ultimately led to their collapse.
The philosophy of the Enlightenment is, among others, the basis of today's European
value system. Historically, it is linked to overcoming feudalism and a new civil society
formed by the bourgeoisie and their economic-political interests.
As far as the philosophy itself is concerned, the Enlightenment thoughts drew upon
both Rationalism and Empiricism. Rationalism inspired the Enlightenment, focusing on the
unwavering power of human reason, while Empiricism concentrated on experience and the
rejection of speculative metaphysical conceptions. However, neither of them was presented in
their pure form; the philosophers of the Enlightenment took only their highlights (the criticism
of scholastics, natural morality, natural rights, religious freedom, liberalism, the social
contract theory, or individualism...).

The Enlightenment in England

Thomas Hobbes's Social Contract Theory (1588-1679)

Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher known for his work on political
philosophy. He deservedly ranks among the founders of modern social philosophy. He was
the witness and participant of revolutionary changes in England, which led to the overthrow
of the king, the proclamation of the republic, and the Stuarts' restoration. These influenced his
philosophical work.
In his book called Leviathan, he deals with the state foundation theory and its mission.
Hobbes gave rise to the so-called social contract theory. The emergence of the state is
explained in the following way: In the State of Nature, each person has absolute freedom and
a right to everything, lives without a company and can do what they want. People use their
infinite freedom towards all others and meet their basic needs at the expense of others. It leads
to a war of all against all; to the state where “homo homini lupus est” (man is a wolf to
man. In such a state, people fear death and lack the things necessary to live and hope.
However, the human being has the self-preservation instinct, and to avoid such a state, people
conclude a social contract and establish society. Thus, people gave up some of their rights
and ceded them to a sovereign authority for the sake of protection. It means the individuals
are the authors of all decisions made by the sovereign. In conclusion, the state is created to
protect citizens and not to abuse them.
Though a supporter of absolutist monarchy, Hobbes developed some of the
fundamentals of European liberal thoughts: the right of the individual; the natural equality of
all men; the artificial character of the political order; the view that all legitimate political
power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal
interpretation of the law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly
forbid.
 Locke's Social-Political Theory
Locke's analysis of the human mind and its limits resulted in his social-political
theories, including natural rights, liberalism, and toleration. Like Hobbes, Locke invokes a
´State of Nature´ too but somewhat differently.
Locke claims that life in the State of Nature was “a state of perfect freedom” as well as
equality and plenty. In this situation, a human possesses several rights by the law of Nature,
the most fundamental of which are the right to life, liberty and property. However, the
natural rights might be violated, and since the State of Nature lacks a common authority to
judge between people, they must defend themselves alone. It can lead to irresolvable conflict.
This is one of the most cogent reasons that humans have to abandon the State of Nature by
contracting together to form a civil government.
Because everyone is born equal and free, any form of rule requires an individual's
consent to be legitimate. Thus, society originates from a social contract. The purpose of
submitting to the government is to secure the individual rights to life, liberty, and
property. If a ruler turns against this mission and the majority's will, society can overthrow
them. In order to eliminate the threat of accumulating and abusing power, Locke suggests the
separation of the legislative and executive powers with their mutual control. Unlike
Hobbes, Locke proposes constitutional monarchy as the best form of government.
Locke is the advocate of religious tolerance. The state should not interfere in
religious matters, and the Church must not force citizens to practise the faith. He strictly
distinguishes the duties of civil and ecclesiastical authorities, which is the forerunner of the
contemporary doctrine of the separation of Church and state. Locke held the position of a
deist. Deism acknowledges God as the creator who no longer interferes in the world.

French Enlightenment
During Louis XIV's reign, the French cultural heyday had no counterpart in Europe.
The perfect literary and scientific applicability of the French language, which became the
lingua franca of the European courts and academic circles, destined France for a leading role
in the social and spiritual development of the 18 century.
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After Louis XIV died, the French began to study the English constitution, natural
sciences and philosophy. They realised that the English had already carried out a lot in the
social, political and spiritual field, and it only waited for France. After that, the Enlightenment
experienced the climax in France, from which it spread throughout Europe.
A national character and historical conditions imprinted every nation's Enlightenment
with an individual face. The French Enlightenment became more radical than English.
France offers more severe ideas on religion and secularisation, sometimes resulting in extreme
materialism.
 Charles-Louis de Montesquieu (1689 – 1755)
In 1721, “Persian Letters” was published in Paris. It depicted the path of two young
Persians throughout France and their letters home criticising social, political and religious
conditions there. Jokes and ridicule hide a severe and radical attack on the foundations of the
French social order. It was authored by Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et
de Montesquieu, that is a wealthy aristocrat: everything but a revolutionary.
His ideas grew mature only after his stay in England. In his following writing - "The
Spirit of the Laws" – he claims that states and laws are not created arbitrarily, and it is
impossible to change them in such a fashion. On the contrary, they grew from natural and
historical conditions, such as landscape, climate, manners, education, and religion. The proper
law is the one best suited to a nation's nature and its developmental stage. He supports the so-
called Natural Law theory – laws do not come from God but the nature of things. Therefore,
Montesquieu is sceptical to a universal ideal of the best state.
But once he thinks about the relation of political freedom and a constitution, he uses
Locke's separation of powers. Where Locke demands the strict separation of the legislature
and the executive, Montesquieu adds the judiciary. The independence of judges is crucial so
that despotism and human rights suppression would not come into effect.

François-Marie Arouet - Voltaire (1694 – 1779)

Voltaire was perhaps the most prominent representative of the Age of Reason (as the
Enlightenment is called) and one of the most brilliant figures of French philosophy. Asking
what new and original ideas Voltaire brought in philosophy, we hardly find something not
pronounced before him. Nevertheless, we will not find another thinker who had pronounced it
as clearly, passionately and successfully as Voltaire himself did. François-Marie Arouet, as
his original name was, paid for his opinion – imprisonment in the Bastille twice and several
emigrations (England, Switzerland...). On the other hand, he was a guest of honour at
Frederick II's or Catherine II's courts; his residence became a spiritual capital of Europe, and
plenty of thinkers and noblemen arrived or wrote to bow down to him.
His political views are largely antifeudal and antichurch - he was an eager advocate of
the separation of church and state, social reform, civil rights and freedoms. After his stay in
England, he was astonished by English approaches and solutions. In his “Letters on the
English Nation”, which angered the French Church and government, he recommends: 1)
accepting Locke's empiricism, which does not enable speculations; 2) a focus on Newton's
mechanic physics in science, showing the greatness of the Universe and the laws of Nature; 3)
the belief in deism, which refutes the superstitions of the Church; deism is the pure worship of
God without ecclesiastical power; 4) tolerance in religious and other matters, which is the
precondition of peaceful civil coexistence; 5) the parliamentary system as an optimum form of
government. In his view, a constitutional monarchy headed by an enlightened ruler was the
reasonable state system.
Voltaire claimed the Church was the main enemy of progress. “Écrasez l'Infâme
(Crush the infamous thing)!” was the slogan he constantly repeated.
Voltaire's ideas, along with Locke's and others', were incorporated into the Declaration
of Independence and initiated the French Revolution; even though he would probably not be
satisfied with such a development.
 Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
He is among the most radical French philosophers whose works inspired the French
Revolution. While other Enlightenment philosophers emphasised reason, Rousseau
highlighted emotions and instincts.
He considers private property the origin of all evil. His “Discourse on the Origin of
Inequality” distinguishes two kinds of inequality: natural and artificial. The first arises from
differences in strength, intelligence, etc., while the second from society. He depicts a ' State of
Nature' and suggests that the original human was not a social being but entirely solitary. But
in contrast to Hobbes's pessimist view that man's life in such a condition must have been
“poor and dangerous“, Rousseau claims that the original human was healthy, happy, sound,
and free. He argues that human vices date from the time when people formed private property
and societies because the destructive passion of jealousy was born. Neighbours started to
compare their wealth and achievements, which marked the first step towards inequality.
Society leads people to hate one another.
In “Of the Social Contract (Du contrat social)”, Rousseau claims that people united
their strength to stop violence and establish supreme power. Thus the state and laws arose.
The first disaster in humankind development was private property – it created the rich
and the poor. The second disaster was the establishment of the supreme power – it created
rulers and the subject. The third disaster was the turn to state arbitrariness – it created masters
and obedient slaves. It is the peak of inequality; the most extreme perversion.
Rousseau agrees that the „return to caves“ is not possible. Instead, he suggests signing
a social contract that would rid a human of chains. According to the social contract, the
people are rulers, and they create laws. His civil society is based on a general will (volonté
générale) that aims at the common good (in contrast to individual´s interests). It means that
laws are the same for all, whether you agree or disagree with them or whether they protect or
punish. The general will is expressed through elections and voting. The ruler´s will is not
important; if the ruler acts against the social contract and the general will, people have the
right to depose him in any way.
Rousseau´s excellent pedagogical and psychological skills are presented in Emile, or
on Education. He claims that the idea of man as the creature of Nature must be present in
upbringing and education. Rousseau stresses that children must be educated in harmony with
Nature. It means both to respect them, their nature and natural inclinations, and to educate in
harmony with Nature itself – because the love for Nature means love for good and virtues.

The Legacy of the Enlightenment:

Hardly is there a period when philosophy influenced public opinion and social
development more than during the Enlightenment. Although the demands of philosophers
for using human reason, freedom, tolerance and humanity drowned in the bloody terror of the
French Revolution at first, it shaped our contemporary society in the long run.
We are grateful to these ideals for the fundamental and natural conveniences, such as
the abolition of torture, corporal punishment, slavery or witch-hunt, the termination of
religious wars, the recognition of the separation of powers (especially the judiciary), the
freedom of speech and thinking, the humane treatment of mentally ill, and many others –
simply put for human rights.