1/8/2024 A Guide on Load

Flow Analysis
Using ETAP

Harikrishnan Prakash
 Load Flow-Voltage Drop Study
A Load Flow-Voltage Drop (LF/VD) study is a comprehensive analysis conducted to assess the steady-state
operation of a power system under normal operating conditions. It differs from short circuit or arc flash studies,
which focus on faulted conditions and short-duration events. The primary objective of a load flow study is to
analyze the loading across the system and evaluate the voltage drop levels experienced throughout the
network during typical operating scenarios. By performing a load flow study, various important parameters can
be determined, including:

Circuit Loading: By examining the load flow results, potential overloaded circuits can be identified. This
information is valuable for planning and designing the system to ensure that circuits are not overloaded, which
could lead to equipment damage or power quality issues.

Steady State Bus Voltages: Load flow studies provide insight into the voltage levels at various buses within the
power system. This information helps ensure that the voltage remains within acceptable limits to maintain the
proper functioning of electrical equipment connected to the network.

Voltage Drop Levels: The load flow study calculates the voltage drop across transmission lines, transformers,
and other components. Identifying areas with significant voltage drops allows for targeted corrective actions to
mitigate voltage regulation problems and ensure optimal system performance.

Transformer Tap Settings: Load flow analysis helps determine the appropriate tap settings for transformers to
regulate the voltage and maintain a desired level at specific locations. By optimizing tap settings, voltage
imbalances can be minimized, ensuring efficient power delivery.

Additionally, while not typically included in a standard LF/VD study, load flow studies can also provide valuable
information on:

Reactive Power Flows: By examining the load flow results, the study can identify areas with excessive reactive
power flows. This information aids in maintaining power factor control, improving system efficiency, and
reducing losses.

System Losses: Load flow studies enable the evaluation of power losses within the system. Understanding the
distribution and magnitude of losses helps in identifying areas where efficiency improvements can be made,
leading to energy conservation.

Generator Exciter/Voltage Regulator Set Points: Load flow analysis allows for the assessment of generator
exciter and voltage regulator set points. By optimizing these parameters, voltage stability and power quality
can be enhanced, ensuring reliable operation of the power system.

By considering these aspects and incorporating them into the load flow-voltage drop study, a comprehensive
analysis of the power system's behavior can be achieved, assisting in efficient system operation, planning, and
maintenance.
Modelling
Grid

Just like the utility short circuit current is the starting point for a short circuit study, the utility voltage level is the
starting point for the load flow study.
Priority Data Required
Nominal Voltage
Maximum Voltage
High Minimum Voltage
Contract Demand
Export Limit (for Source)
Power Factor
Max 3ph FC & X/R
Low Min 3ph FC & X/R
Max 1ph FC & X/R
Min 1ph FC & X/R

Different range of utility voltages can be defined in the Rating Tab. While the generating category should be
defined in Project -> Settings -> Loading and Generation Categories.

Bus
Need to fill continuous ampacity, or else %
loading will not be populated in result analyzer.
Transmission Line

Either directly fill out impedance tab based on available data or complete parameter and configuration tab to
auto populate the impedance parameters.

Ferranti Effect
In electrical engineering, the Ferranti effect is the increase in voltage occurring at the receiving end of a very
long (> 200 km) AC electric power transmission line, relative to the voltage at the sending end, when the load
is very small, or no load is connected. This phenomenon occurs when the current drawn by the distributed
capacitance surpasses the load-associated current at the receiving end, especially during light or no load
conditions. The capacitive line charging current produces a voltage drop across the line inductance that is in-
phase with the sending-end voltage, assuming negligible line resistance. Therefore, both line inductance and
capacitance are responsible for this phenomenon. The Ferranti effect is much more pronounced in
underground cables, even in short lengths, because of their high capacitance per unit length, and lower
electrical impedance.
To address voltage stability and control in power systems, a common practice is to incorporate shunt reactors.
Shunt reactors are inductive devices connected in parallel (shunt) with transmission lines or substations. Their
primary role is to compensate for capacitive reactive power, assisting in maintaining a stable voltage profile
within the electrical grid.
Generator

In ETAP, a generator can operate in 4 different modes.

Swing
For load flow studies, a swing generator will take up the slack of the power
flows in the system, i.e., the voltage magnitude and angle of the generator
terminals will remain at the specified operating values.

Adjustable V & δ

Voltage Control
A generator can be selected as a voltage control (regulated) system, which
means that the generator will adjust its Var output to control the voltage. Therefore, the generator’s terminal
voltage magnitude, operating real power (MW), and minimum and maximum allowable reactive power supply
(Max Q and Min Q) must be entered for voltage control generators. A voltage control generator means that the
generator is base loaded (droop mode with fixed MW) with an Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) controlling
the field excitation for a constant voltage operation. During load flow studies, if the calculated generator Mvar
falls outside the generator Mvar capability limits (Max Q or Min Q limit), the value of the Mvar will be set equal
to the limit and the generator mode is changed to Mvar control.

Adjustable V & P

Mvar Control
Using this option, you can specify the amount of fixed MW and Mvar generation in the Rating page of the
Synchronous Generator Editor. An Mvar control generator means that the generator is base loaded (droop
mode with fixed MW) with a fixed field excitation (no AVR action).

Adjustable P & Q

PF Control
In this mode, the governor is operating in Droop mode, based loaded; therefore, the MW output is fixed to the
MW setting. On the other hand, the exciter AVR adjusts to the Power Factor Setting. The generator’s MW and
%PF settings must be entered on the Rating page for the generation category selected when modeled in this
mode.

Adjustable P & pf
Rating Tab
400 kW – Alternator capacity
400 kW – Prime mover limit
300 kVAr – Qmax at 0.8 pf lag
-162.5 kVAr – Qmin at 0.8 pf lead

Capability Curve:

* Due to inherent software limitations, replicating the

capability curve exactly may not be achievable.
The figure shown below portrays six distinct scenarios wherein the same generator, depicted earlier, functions
in voltage control mode. This involves regulating its terminal voltage in response to various utility voltages -
ranging from 98% to 108%. The generator possesses the capability to either supply or absorb reactive power,
thereby adjusting its terminal voltage to the desired level.
However, in the third and sixth cases, the generator struggles to sustain a 100% terminal voltage. This occurs
when the demanded reactive power surpasses the generator's limit for reactive power generation.

Case No 1 2 3 4 5 6
Grid Voltage (%) 100 % 99.5 % 98 % 100 % 104 % 108 %
Gen Voltage (%) 96.97 % 100 % 98.91 % 100 % 100 % 103.7 %
kVAr Generated - 270.2 kVAr 300 kVAr 224.7 kVAr -139 kVAr -162.5 kVAr
Solar Inverters
Similar to synchronous generators, solar inverters can operate in
four main modes: swing, voltage control, MVAr control, and PF
control. An additional option, the Smart Inverter Mode, enables
advanced features like Volt-Var control, Volt-Watt control, and
Watt-PF control. It's worth noting that the Smart Inverter Mode is
typically not utilized during load flow simulations.
More details regarding Smart Inverter Control can be found in the
Help section of Smart Inverter Tab.

When modeling a solar inverter, a crucial factor to account for is its rating dependency on ambient temperature.
Typically, the inverter output experiences a decrease as the temperature rises. Therefore, it is essential to
incorporate this derating factor into the model to accurately reflect the real-world performance of the solar
inverter.

Here is an example of an inverter

datasheet along with its derating
curve. Notice that the inverter output
starts decreasing beyond 40°C,
highlighting the impact of ambient
temperature on its performance.

40 4504 Temp KVA

42.7 4414 42.7 4413.76
50 4169
55 4001

Inverter Rating vs Temperature

4600

4500 40, 4504

4400 42.7, 4414

4300

4200
y = -33.542x + 5846 50, 4169
4100

4000 55, 4001

3900
30 35 40 45 50 55 60

In this example, the ambient temperature for the inverter was measured at 42.7°C. Therefore, the inverter's
rating is adjusted according to the derating curve to account for this temperature.
Cable

Just like in other modules, length and conductor/phase and size should be updated. However, special care
should be given to confirm the accuracy of impedance tab.

In addition, make sure to populate ampacity. It is used in

the output reports of Load Flow studies to indicate the
percent of cable overloading.
*If User-Defined option is selected, total ampacity of all the
parallel runs combined should be considered. ETAP will not
multiply the number in user defined with the number of
conductors per phase to find total ampacity of the bundle.
Transformer

The modeling of the Rating and Impedance tabs should closely resemble that of the Short Circuit and Arc Flash
modules. The primary distinction lies in the Impedance tab, specifically in the Z Tolerance option. For load flow
calculations, a positive tolerance is applied, whereas for Short Circuit and Arc Flash analyses, a negative
tolerance is considered.
Tolerance
Negative Positive
Short-Circuit X
Load Flow X
Motor Starting X
Transient Stability X
Harmonics X
Optimal Power Flow X

Tap
Taps can be modelled either as DETC or OLTC.
DETC:

Use the up and down arrows to change taps

manually before running each LF scenario.

OLTC:

When the Automatic Voltage

Regulator (AVR) is activated, ETAP
monitors the voltage at the Regulated
Bus and autonomously adjusts the tap
settings to maintain the voltage within
acceptable limits. The adjustments
are made in incremental steps, each corresponding to the specified
step voltage (0.625% or 1.438V).
 Load Flow simulation with DETC Load Flow simulation with OLTC

Calculation of X/R ratio from copper loss

By following the steps represented below, we can determine the X/R ratio from the given copper loss
information and transformer rating.

We have the relation, Per unit resistance = Per unit copper loss. Cu loss 42 KW
KVA 4300 KVA
 Rpu = Copper loss/ Transformer rating Example: Pcu 0.98 %
 Rpu = Pcu/KVA Rpu 0.98 %
 Xpu = √𝑍 2 − 𝑅2 Zpu 8.00 %
 X/R = Xpu/Rpu Xpu 7.94 %
X/R 8.13
ZIP Load

In electrical systems, loads are categorized into three (Constant Impedance, Constant Current, and Constant
Power) to accurately model its characteristics.

As per IEEE 399, power consumed by these loads can be represented as shown below.

𝑉 𝑉 2 𝑉 𝑉 2
𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = [𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ( ) ] 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑗 [𝐷 + 𝐸 + 𝐹 ( ) ] 𝑄𝑖
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
Were,
P – Active power consumption at voltage V
Q – Reactive power consumption at voltage V
Pi – Active power consumption at voltage Vi
Qi – Reactive power consumption at voltage Vi
A, B, C and D, E, F represent fractions of P and Q, respectively.
The sums A + B + C and D + E + F must equal 1.

This example represents a load with equal

proportion of constant impedance, constant current
and constant power loading characteristics.

ETAP calculates the power drawn by polynomial

load model based on the below formula:
𝑉 2 𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑃0 |𝑝1 ( ) + 𝑝2 + 𝑝3| ∗ (1 + 𝐾𝑝𝑓 ∗ 𝛥𝑓)
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝑉 2 𝑉
𝑄 = 𝑄0 |𝑞1 ( ) + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3| ∗ (1 + 𝐾𝑝𝑓 ∗ 𝛥𝑓)
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖

As per IEEE 399, A more general expression can be formulated as:

𝑉 𝑘1 𝑉 𝑘2
𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = [𝑃𝑖 ( ) + 𝑗𝑄𝑖 ( ) ] ; The exponents k1 and k2 could be different and non-integers.
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖

The Exponential model of the Lumped Load uses the

following equations to determine the real and reactive
power components of the load:

𝑉 𝑎
𝑃 = 𝑃0 ( ) ∗ (1 + 𝐾𝑝𝑓 ∗ 𝛥𝑓)
𝑉0
𝑉 𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑄0 ( ) ∗ (1 + 𝐾𝑝𝑓 ∗ 𝛥𝑓)
𝑉0

Exponents a & b define the characteristic of the load as

follows:
a,b – 0 = Constant Power
a,b – 1 = Constant Current
a,b – 2 = Constant Impedance
Constant Impedance Load (Z) Constant Current Load (I) Constant Power Load (P)
A Constant Impedance Load Constant Current Load sustains a Constant Power Load maintains a
maintains a fixed impedance consistent current level regardless consistent power level irrespective
irrespective of changes in applied of fluctuations in applied voltage. of applied voltage variations.
voltage.
The current flowing through the Power consumption is directly The current flowing through the
load is directly proportional to the proportional to voltage. load is inversely proportional to
voltage, resulting in a consistent voltage.
impedance value.
Real-world examples of constant Examples of constant current An example of a constant power
impedance load include heaters, loads include power electronics load is the induction motor.
incandescent lamps, and resistive, devices like VFDs and UPS.
inductive, and capacitive loads.

a 2 1 0
Po 4 4 4
Qo 3 3 3
Vo (%) 100 100 100
V (%) 96.87 96.77 96.65 Formula
P 3.75 3.87 4.00 P=Po(V/Vo)^a
Q 2.82 2.90 3.00 Q=Qo(V/Vo)^a

It is important to limit the Short-Circuit Contribution from loads to

a smaller value to avoid unrealistic SC levels on the bus that
they are connected to.
Induction Machine

An induction motor operates as a constant power load, meaning that its power consumption remains
relatively constant over a range of operating conditions. It can operate in different modes, primarily
determined by its slip, which is the relative speed difference between the rotating magnetic field and
the rotor. The two main modes are:
Motor Mode:
The machine acts as a consumer of electrical
power, converting it into mechanical power to drive
a load.

Generation Mode:
Here, the induction motor acts as a generator,
converting mechanical power into electrical power.
This can occur when the motor is subject to an
external force causing it to rotate faster than the
synchronous speed.

In ETAP, the mode of operation can be defined by selecting appropriate App. Type.

Once the mode of operation is selected, rest of the motor information should be populated in the
Nameplate tab.
Rating 4 MW
Efficiency 0.8 pu Induction Motor
PF 0.8 pu
Pin 5 MW Pin=Rating/Efficiency
Sin 6.25 MVA Sin=Pin/PF
Qin 3.75 MVAr Qin=sqrt((Sin*Sin)-(Pin*Pin))

Rating 4 MW
Efficiency 0.8 pu Induction Generator
PF 0.8 pu
Pin 3.2 MW Pin=Rating*Efficiency
Sin 4 MVA Sin=Pin/PF
Qin 2.4 MVAr Qin=sqrt((Sin*Sin)-(Pin*Pin))
VFD

A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD), also known as an Adjustable Frequency Drive (AFD) or Inverter Drive, is a
device used in electrical systems to control the speed and torque of electric motors by varying the frequency
and voltage supplied to the motor.

When selecting an appropriate VFD size, the following points should be considered.
• Rating > Pin of motor + Losses in cable.
• Overloading capability of motor.
• Size of Load.

During VFD operation, it can draw distorted current from the power supply but also provides reactive power
compensation to correct its input power factor. This may result in a situation where the input current is less
than the output current, achieving a better power factor at the input (0.9 in this example) and a different power
factor at the output (0.7962 in this example).

To reduce reactive power demand, capacitors can be an efficient solution, especially for constant loads.
Capacitors supply reactive power without drawing active power from the grid, making them cost-effective for
overall power consumption reduction.

However, the choice between a VFD and capacitors depends on specific requirements. If the load varies
significantly, a VFD may be more suitable as it adjusts motor speed to match the load, reducing energy
consumption. Consulting with a qualified electrician or engineer is recommended to determine the optimal
solution based on the application's needs.

Output
kW 4000
kVA 5000
PF 0.8
Motor EFF 0.85
Input
kW 4706 >>4000/0.85
kVA 5882 >>4706/0.8
kVAr 3529 >>sqrt((5882*5882)-(4706*4706))

kW 35.5
Cable
kVAr 73.9

Output
kW 4741 >>4706+35.5
kVAr 3603 >>3529+73.9
kVA 5955 >>sqrt((4741*4741)+(3603*3603))
PF 0.7962 >>4741/5955
VFD Input
PF 0.9
EFF 0.95
kW 4991 >>4741/0.95
kVA 5545 >>4991/1
kVAr 2417.217 >>sqrt((5545*5545)-(4991*4991))
Capacitor

Capacitors are usually used as a reactive power compensation device to improve system power factor or
voltage levels. They always act as constant impedance loads. The reactive power supplied by capacitors is
directly proportional to the square of the terminal voltage.

Bus Voltage(%) kVAr Equation

100 2000
94.01 1768 >>2000*(94.01^2)/(100^2)
103.9 2159 >>2000*(103.9^2)/(100^2)

In ETAP, capacitors are categorized into two types:

1. Continuous Capacitors: These capacitors remain permanently connected to the

bus, providing continuous reactive power support.

2. Switched Capacitors: Switched capacitors offer flexibility by being selectively

connected or disconnected based on specific parameters such as voltage levels, power
factor requirements, current conditions, or reactive power demands.

If switched option is selected, an additional tab (Switching) will

be available in capacitor editor. In that we can define the control
mode (voltage, PF, current or reactive power) and its related
parameters.

In this example I have opted for voltage control and set the switch
in and switch out points as 97.5% and 102.5% of bus voltage of
the regulated bus (CONST Z LOAD BUS).

In the first case, when the terminal

voltage falls below the switch-in
threshold, the capacitor supplies
reactive power. In the second case,
where the terminal voltage surpasses
the switch-out threshold, the capacitor
is switched out of the system. This
dynamic switching optimizes reactive
power compensation based on real-
time voltage conditions.
Running Load Flow Study
Setting Up Study Case

Info Tab

Method: Usually we tend to go with Adaptive Newton-Rapson.

However, other methods can be opted if the load flow doesn’t
converge.

Calculate Flows For 1-Phase & Panel Systems should be

selected to run load flow through single phase equipment.

Apply Transformer Phase Shift: Activate the transformer

phase shift for realistic modeling of phase angles.

Equipment Cable: Opt for this option to include voltage drop

information from equipment cables in the report.

Loading Tab
Loading Category: These loading categories correspond to
options in the motor, static load, and lumped load components.
The Loading Category dropdown should be configured to
match the specific objectives of the study case, ensuring
accurate representation of load characteristics.

For example, in this case, since ½ Load loading category is

selected, ETAP will consider 50% of loading for the static load
shown above.

Load Diversity Factor:

Maximum and minimum load diversity factors can be configured independently
for each bus in the info tab. When selecting "Bus Minimum," ETAP will apply the
minimum load factor to all buses (e.g., 80% for the example bus). Conversely,
opting for "Bus Maximum" will result in ETAP using the maximum value for all
buses (e.g., 125% for the example bus).
Global Diversity Factor: Enter the diversity factors for all constant kVA, constant Z, generic, and constant I load.
When you select this option, ETAP will globally multiply all motors, static loads, constant current loads, and
generic loads of the selected Loading Category with the entered values for the respective load diversity factors.
Note: Keep in mind that global diversity factor is applied over the existing loading category. I.e., in this case, since “½
Load” is selected, if we give a global factor of 50% for constant impedance, ETAP will multiply 50% with 50% and give
resultant loading of 25% as static load is constant impedance load. Likewise, if the load was an induction motor, ETAP
will multiply 50% with 80% and the net loading will be 40%.
Generating Category:
This deals with the generators and utilities of the project. The parameters that can be adjusted within a
generating category is dependent on the operation mode selected. Refer to page on page 44 for a detailed
break down of different operating modes.
Since, in Loading Tab, Generating
Category is selected as “Unity Power
Factor”, this inverter will supply an
active power of 4MW at upf.

Generating Category
Unity Power Factor Supplying Q Absorbing Q PV + BESS

Adjustment Tab & Alert Tab

These should be adjusted as per project requirements. The Adjust Tab typically addresses equipment
tolerances, ensuring that the specified tolerances align with project specifications. In the "Alert" tab, boundary
set points can be configured to trigger alerts for overloading or undervoltage/overvoltage conditions.
Running the Analysis

The best way to set up and analyze

different situations is by using the Scenario
Wizard. With this tool, you can easily
create various scenarios based on project
needs. It lets you define different
configurations and study cases that
represent the different ways your system
operates.

Before running any analyses, it's recommended to

have a discussion with the client. This involves
talking about the various potential operating
scenarios in the facility. This communication
ensures that the analysis aligns with the client's
expectations and specific considerations, leading to
results that are both accurate and relevant to their
needs.

After running a scenario, you can use display options to showcase various results like power flow, voltage drop,
terminal voltage, current, etc. directly on the study one-line. Additionally, by incorporating alerts defined in the
study case's alert tab, equipment will be color-coded. This visual representation helps identify critical and
marginal equipment at a glance, aiding in a quick and intuitive understanding of the study outcomes.
Generating Result

Load Flow Analyzer

Utilize the Load Flow Analyzer option after running the analysis to examine study results. By adjusting the
Report Type, you can conveniently view all necessary outcomes presented in a tabulated form, allowing for
easy access and analysis of the study results.

Report manager

For a more comprehensive breakdown of results for each

equipment in the facility, utilize the Report Manager option to
generate detailed PDF outputs. The Report Manager Editor is
organized into four tabs: Complete, Input, Results, and
Summary, categorizing output report formats. Simply select a
report template and format, then click OK to view the desired
output report. The Complete report consolidates input, results,
and summary reports for a comprehensive overview.