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9th Edition by Larry K. Gaines

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Contents in Brief
Preface xv
Part One : The Criminal Justice System
1 Criminal Justice Today 2

2 Causes of Crime 36
3 The Crime Picture: Offenders and Victims 68
4 Inside Criminal Law 98
part two : The Police and Law Enforcement
5 Law Enforcement Today 132

6 Problems and Solutions in Modern Policing 168
7 Police and the Constitution: The Rules of Law
Enforcement 212
part three : Criminal Courts
8 Courts and the Quest for Justice 248

9 Pretrial Procedures: The Adversary System in Action 278
10 The Criminal Trial 312

11 Punishment and Sentencing 346
part four : corrections
12 Probation, Parole, and Intermediate Sanctions 386

13 Prisons and Jails 418
14 The Prison Experience and Prisoner Reentry 450
part five : special Issues
15 The Juvenile Justice System 484

16 Today’s Challenges: Security vs. Liberty, Cyber Crime,
and White-Collar Crime 518
APPENDIX A: THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES A-1

APPENDIX B: DISCRETION IN ACTION CASE STUDIES B-1
APPENDIX C: TABLE OF CASES C-1
GLOSSARY G-1
NAME INDEX N-1
SUBJECT INDEX I-1
v
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Contents
Preface xv
Part One : The Criminal Justice System
1 Criminal Justice Today 2 Life Lessons and Criminal Behavior 51

What Is Crime? 5 Family, Friends, and the Media: Social Processes
Determining Criminal Behavior 5 of Crime 52
An Integrated Definition of Crime 6 Looking Back to Childhood: Life Course Theories
Types of Crime 7 of Crime 54
The Purpose of the Criminal Justice The Link between Drugs and Crime 55
System 10 The Criminology of Drug Use 57
Maintaining Justice 10 Drug Addiction and Dependency 58
Protecting Society 11 Crime and Health: The Landscape of Drug Abuse 59
The Structure of the Criminal Justice Marijuana Law Trends 60
System 11 Criminology from Theory to Practice 61
The Importance of Federalism 11 Criminology and the Chronic Offender 61
The Criminal Justice Process 14 Criminology and the Criminal Justice System 62
Discretion and Ethics 16
Informal Decision Making 16 3 The Crime Picture:
Ethics and Justice 17 Offenders and Victims 68
Criminal Justice Today 19 Classification of Crimes 71
Crime and Law Enforcement: The Bottom Line 19 Civil Law and Criminal Law 71
Illegal Drugs in the United States 22 Felonies and Misdemeanors 72
Homeland Security and Domestic Terrorism 23 Mala in Se and Mala Prohibita 73
The Emergence of Victims’ Rights 25 Measuring Crime in the United States 74
Inmate Population Trends 26 The Uniform Crime Report 75
Criminal Justice and the Mentally Ill 27 Part I Offenses 75
Chapter One Appendix 35 Part II Offenses 76
The UCR: A Flawed Method? 77
2 Causes of Crime 36 The National Incident-Based Reporting System 77
The Role of Theory 39 Victim Surveys 78

Correlation and Cause 39 Self-Reported Surveys 80
Criminological Theories 39 Victims of Crime 80
The Brain and the Body 40 Legal Rights of Crime Victims 80
Crime and Free Will: Choice Theories of Crime 40 Victim Services 81
“Born Criminal”: Biological and Psychological Theories The Risks of Victimization 82
of Crime 42 Crime Trends in the United States 84

Bad Neighborhoods and Other Economic Looking Good: Crime in the 1990s and 2000s 84
Disadvantages 46 Crime, Race, and Poverty 86
Sociological Theories of Crime 46 Women and Crime 89
Social Conflict Theories 50 Mental Illness and Crime 91
vii
4 Inside Criminal Law 98
Criminal Act: Actus Reus 107
Mental State: Mens Rea 109
The Development of American Criminal
Concurrence 112
Law 101
Causation 113
The Conception of Law 101
Attendant Circumstances 114
English Common Law 101
Harm 115
Written Sources of American Criminal Law 102
The Purposes of Criminal Law 105 Defenses under Criminal Law 115
Criminal Responsibility and the Law 115
Protect and Punish: The Legal Function of the Law 105
Justification Criminal Defenses and the Law 120
Maintain and Teach: The Social Function of the
Law 106
Procedural Safeguards 122
The Bill of Rights 123
The Elements of a Crime 107
Due Process 124
part two : The Police and Law Enforcement
5 Law Enforcement Today 132 6 Problems and Solutions

The Responsibilities of the Police 135 in Modern Policing 168
Enforcing Laws 135 The Role of Discretion in Policing 171
Providing Services 136 Justification for Police Discretion 171
Preventing Crime 137 Factors of Police Discretion 171
Preserving the Peace 137 Police Organization and Field Operations 173
A Short History of the American Police 138 The Structure of the Police Department 173
The Evolution of American Law Enforcement 138 Police on Patrol: The Backbone of the Department 174
Policing Today: Intelligence, Terrorism, and Detective Investigations 177
Technology 142 Aggressive Investigation Strategies 177
Recruitment and Training: Becoming a Police Clearance Rates and Cold Cases 178
Officer 145 Forensic Investigations and DNA 179
Basic Requirements 145 Police Strategies: What Works 182
Training 146 Calls for Service 183
Women and Minorities in Policing Today 147 Patrol Strategies 186
Antidiscrimination Law and Affirmative Action 148 Predictive Policing and Crime Mapping 186
Working Women: Gender and Law Enforcement 149 Arrest Strategies 188
Minority Report: Race and Ethnicity in Law Community Policing and Problem Solving 189
Enforcement 150 Problem-Oriented Policing 190
Public and Private Law Enforcement 152 “Us versus Them”: Issues in Modern
Municipal Law Enforcement Agencies 152 Policing 191
Sheriffs and County Law Enforcement 152 Police Subculture 191
State Police and Highway Patrols 153 The Physical Dangers of Police Work 192
Federal Law Enforcement Agencies 155 Stress and the Mental Dangers of Police Work 193
Private Security 161 Authority and the Use of Force 195
viii Contents
Police Misconduct and Ethics 197 Electronic Surveillance 227
Racial and Ethnic Biases in Policing 198 Cell Phones and the Fourth Amendment 228
Police Corruption 199 Stops and Frisks 230
Police Accountability 200 The Elusive Definition of Reasonable Suspicion 230
Ethics in Law Enforcement 202 A Stop 231
A Frisk 231
7 Police and the Constitution: Race and Reasonable Suspicion 232
The Rules of Law Arrests 233
Enforcement 212 Elements of an Arrest 233

Arrests with a Warrant 235
The Fourth Amendment 215
Arrests without a Warrant 236
Reasonableness 215
The Interrogation Process and Miranda 236
Probable Cause 215
The Legal Basis for Miranda 236
The Exclusionary Rule 217
When a Miranda Warning Is Required 237
Lawful Searches and Seizures 218
When a Miranda Warning Is Not Required 239
The Role of Privacy in Searches 219
The Weakening of Miranda 240
Search and Seizure Warrants 220
False Confessions 240
Searches and Seizures without a Warrant 222
The Identification Process 242
Searches of Automobiles 224
Essential Procedures 242
The Plain View Doctrine 226
Nontestimonial Evidence 243
part three : Criminal Courts
8 Courts and the Judges in the Court System 263

Quest for Justice 248 The Roles and Responsibilities of Trial Judges 263
Functions of the Courts 251 Selection of Judges 266
Due Process and Crime Control in the Courts 251 Diversity on the Bench 268
The Rehabilitation Function 252 The Courtroom Work Group 270
The Bureaucratic Function 252 Members of the Courtroom Work Group 270
The Basic Principles of the American Judicial Formation of the Courtroom Work Group 271
System 252 The Judge in the Courtroom Work Group 272
Jurisdiction 253 The Adversary System 272
Trial and Appellate Courts 255
The Dual Court System 256 9 Pretrial Procedures:
State Court Systems 257 The Adversary System
Courts of Limited Jurisdiction 257 in Action 278
Trial Courts of General Jurisdiction 258 The Prosecution 281
State Courts of Appeals 259 Prosecutorial Duties 281
The Federal Court System 259 The Office of the Prosecutor 282
U.S. District Courts 260 The Prosecutor as Elected Official 282
U.S. Courts of Appeals 260 The Prosecutor as Crime Fighter 283
The United States Supreme Court 261
Contents ix
The Defense Attorney 285 Motion for a Directed Verdict 330
The Responsibilities of the Defense Attorney 285 The Defendant’s Case 331
Defending the Guilty 285 Rebuttal and Surrebuttal 332
The Public Defender 286 Closing Arguments 333
The Attorney-Client Relationship 289 The Final Steps of the Trial and Postconviction
Attorney-Client Privilege 290 Procedures 334
Pretrial Detention 291 Jury Instructions 334
The Initial Appearance 291 Jury Deliberation 334
Bail 291 The Verdict 335
Gaining Pretrial Release 293 Appeals 336
Bail and Community Safety 295 Wrongful Convictions 338
Establishing Probable Cause 296
The Preliminary Hearing 296 11 Punishment
The Grand Jury 296 and Sentencing 346
The Prosecutorial Screening Process 298 The Purpose of Sentencing 349
Case Attrition 299 Retribution 349
Prosecutorial Charging and the Defense Attorney 300 Deterrence 349
Pleading Guilty 301 Incapacitation 351
Plea Bargaining in the Criminal Justice System 302 Rehabilitation 352
Motivations for Plea Bargaining 302 Restorative Justice 352
Plea Bargaining and the Adversary System 303 The Structure of Sentencing 354
Pleading Not Guilty 305 Legislative Sentencing Authority 354
Administrative Sentencing Authority 356
10 The Criminal Trial 312 Judicial Sentencing Authority 356
Special Features of Criminal Trials 315 The Sentencing Process 357
A “Speedy” Trial 315 Factors of Sentencing 358
The Role of the Jury 316 Inconsistencies in Sentencing 361
The Privilege against Self-Incrimination 317 Sentencing Disparity 361
The Presumption of a Defendant’s Innocence 318 Sentencing Discrimination 362
A Strict Standard of Proof 318 Sentencing Reform 364
Jury Selection 319 Sentencing Guidelines 365
Initial Steps: The Master Jury List and Venire 319 Mandatory Sentencing Guidelines 367
Voir Dire 320 Victim Impact Evidence 368
Race and Gender Issues in Jury Selection 322 Capital Punishment 370
Alternate Jurors 324 Methods of Execution 370
The Trial 324 The Death Penalty and the Supreme Court 371
Opening Statements 325 Death Penalty Sentencing 372
The Role of Evidence 325 Debating the Sentence of Death 376
The Prosecution’s Case 329 The Future of the Death Penalty 378
Cross-Examination 329
x Contents
part four : corrections
12 Probation, Parole, and Inmate Population Trends 434

Intermediate Sanctions 386 Factors in Prison Population Growth 434
The Justifications for Community Decarceration 435
Corrections 389 The Consequences of America’s High Rates of
Reintegration 389 Incarceration 436
Diversion 389 The Emergence of Private Prisons 437
The “Low-Cost Alternative” 390 Why Privatize? 437
Probation: Doing Time in the Community 391 The Argument against Private Prisons 438
Sentencing and Probation 391 The Future of Private Prisons 439
Conditions of Probation 393 Jails 439
The Supervisory Role of the Probation Officer 394 The Jail Population 440
Revocation of Probation 396 Jail Administration 442
Does Probation Work? 398 New-Generation Jails 443
The Parole Picture 399
Comparing Probation and Parole 400 14 The Prison Experience
Discretionary Release 401 and Prisoner Reentry 450
Parole Guidelines 403 Prison Culture 453
Victims’ Rights and Parole 404 Adapting to Prison Society 453
Intermediate Sanctions 405 Who Is in Prison? 454
Judicially Administered Sanctions 405 Rehabilitation and Prison Programs 455
Day Reporting Centers 407 Prison Violence 457
Intensive Supervision Probation 408 Violence in Prison Culture 458
Shock Incarceration 408 Riots 458
Home Confinement and Electronic Monitoring 409 Prison Rape 459
Widening the Net 411 Issues of Race and Ethnicity 459
The Paradox of Community Corrections 412 Prison Gangs and Security Threat Groups (STGs) 460
Correctional Officers and Discipline 462
13 Prisons and Jails 418 Prison Employment 463
A Short History of American Prisons 421 Discipline 464
English Roots 421 Female Correctional Officers 467
Walnut Street Prison: The First Penitentiary 421 Protecting Prisoners’ Rights 467
The Great Penitentiary Rivalry: Pennsylvania versus Inside a Women’s Prison 469
New York 422 Characteristics of Female Inmates 470
The Reformers and the Progressives 423 The Motherhood Problem 470
The Reassertion of Punishment 423 The Culture of Women’s Prisons 471
The Role of Prisons in Modern Society 424 Return to Society 472
Prison Organization and Management 425 Types of Prison Release 472
Prison Administration 426 The Challenges of Reentry 473
Types of Prisons 428 The Special Case of Sex Offenders 475
Contents xi
part five : special Issues
15 The Juvenile Pretrial Diversion 504

Justice System 484 Transfer to Adult Court 505
The Evolution of American Juvenile Detention 506
Justice 487 Trying and Punishing Juveniles 507
The Child-Saving Movement 487 Adjudication 507
The Illinois Juvenile Court 487 Disposition 508
Status Offending 488 Juvenile Corrections 509
Juvenile Delinquency 488
Constitutional Protections and the Juvenile Court 489 16 Today’s Challenges: Security
Determining Delinquency Today 491 vs. Liberty, Cyber Crime, and
The Age Question 491 White-Collar Crime 518
The Culpability Question 491 Security vs. Liberty 521
Trends in Juvenile Delinquency 493 National Security and Privacy 521
Delinquency by the Numbers 493 Mass Surveillance 523
The Rise and Fall of Juvenile Crime 494 National Security and Speech 526
Girls in the Juvenile Justice System 494 Cyber Crime 528
School Violence and Bullying 495 Computer Crime and the Internet 529
Factors in Juvenile Delinquency 497 Cyber Crimes against Persons and Property 530
The Age-Crime Relationship 498 Cyber Crimes in the Business World 533
Substance Abuse 499 Fighting Cyber Crime 535
Child Abuse and Neglect 499 White-Collar Crime 539
Gangs 500 What Is White-Collar Crime? 539
First Contact: The Police and Pretrial Regulating and Policing White-Collar Crime 541
Procedures 502 White-Collar Crime in the 2000s 543
Police Discretion and Juvenile Crime 502
Intake 504
APPENDIX A: THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES A-1

APPENDIX B: DISCRETION IN ACTION CASE STUDIES B-1
APPENDIX C: TABLE OF CASES C-1
GLOSSARY G-1
NAME INDEX N-1
SUBJECT INDEX I-1
xii Contents
Special Features
Chapter Opening Anecdotes Whole-Life Tariffs Ch 11, p 351

Swedish Day-Fines Ch 12, p 406
Ch 1 Deadly Force in Ferguson 4
Racial tension surrounds a police shooting Prison Lite Ch 13, p 433
Ch 2 The Hater 38 The Great Firewall of China Ch 16, p 536
A loner’s online ranting turns deadly
Ch 3 Video Evidence 70 Careers in CJ
The nation turns its attention to domestic violence
F. W. Gill, Gang Investigator Ch 1, p 8
Ch 4 When Dogs Attack 100
How does criminal law respond to canine killings? Robert Agnew, Criminologist Ch 2, p 49
Ch 5 Starting Over 134 Anne Seymour, National Victim Advocate Ch 3, p 89

What happens when a city can no longer afford to fight crime? Diana Tabor, Crime Scene Photographer Ch 4, p 113
Ch 6 The Camera’s Eye 170 Arnold E. Bell, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Agent Ch 5, p 158
What is the impact of officer-worn video cameras on American Martha Blake, Forensic Scientist Ch 6, p 180
law enforcement?
William Howe, Police Detective Ch 7, p 216
Ch 7 Sniff Search 214
Shawn Davis, Bailiff Ch 8, p 271
The United States Supreme Court overturns a marijuana bust
Annika Carlsten, Public Defender Ch 9, p 288
Ch 8 Business as Usual 250
A foreign terrorist suspect comes to America Collins E. Ijoma, Trial Court Administrator Ch 10, p 323
Ch 9 Trading Paint 280 Ellen Kalama Clark, Superior Court Judge Ch 11, p 359
Should a race track death result in criminal charges? Peggy McCarthy, Lead Probation Officer Ch 12, p 395
Ch 10 The Love Defense 314 Berry Larson, Prison Warden Ch 13, p 427
A mother justifies the killing of her eight-year-old son Julie Howe, Halfway House Program Manager Ch 14, p 476
Ch 11 A Long Time Gone 348 Carl McCullough, Sr., Resident Youth Worker Ch 15, p 511
Do we punish nonviolent drug offenders too harshly?
Paul Morris, Customs and Border Protection Agent Ch 16, p 538
Ch 12 Family Ties 388
Probation or prison for a drunk driver who caused the death of
her cousin? A Question of Ethics
Ch 13 A Trend Indeed? 420 With a Vengeance Ch 3, p 82
The movement to reduce America’s massive inmate population Due Justice? Ch 4, p 125
Ch 14 The “Wildest Show in the South” 452 The “Dirty Harry” Problem Ch 6, p 203
The ethics of a prison rodeo in Louisiana
Fake Friends Ch 7, p 220
Ch 15 Life Lessened 486
The Right Decision? Ch 9, p 286
Should juvenile murderers spend the rest of their lives behind
bars? The Strip Search Ch 13, p 442
Ch 16 Teen Dreams 520 Buyer Beware Ch 16, p 541
A nineteen-year-old would-be terrorist, the FBI, and national
security
Landmark Cases
Brown v Entertainment Merchants Association (EMA)
Comparative Criminal Justice Ch 2, p 53
No Hate Allowed Ch 1, p 6 Maryland v King Ch 6, p 183
Free Trade Ch 2, p 60 Miranda v Arizona Ch 7, p 238
Back to School Ch 8, p 269 Roper v Simmons Ch 11, p 375
Japan’s All-Powerful Prosecutors Ch 9, p 298 Brown v Plata Ch 14, p 456
Double Trouble Ch 10, p 337 In re Gault Ch 15, p 490
Special Features xiii
Eyewitness Identification Ch 8, p 259
Mastering Concepts
Bail Out? Ch 9, p 295
Crime Control Model versus Due Process Model Ch 1, p 20 A Battered Woman Ch 9, p 301
The Causes of Crime Ch 2, p 56 Local Hero Ch 10, p 318
Civil Law versus Criminal Law Ch 3, p 73 Murder or Suicide? Ch 10, p 332
The Elements of a Crime Ch 4, p 108 Life or Death? Ch 11, p 374
The Difference between a Stop and an Arrest Ch 7, p 234 A Judgment Call Ch 12, p 397
The Selection of State and Federal Judges Ch 8, p 268 Cause for Compassion? Ch 12, p 404
Sentencing Philosophies Ch 11, p 353 Spitting Mad Ch 14, p 466
The Bifurcated Death Penalty Process Ch 11, p 373 Juvenile Drunk Driving Ch 15, p 506
Probation versus Parole Ch 12, p 401 Bragging about Bombing Ch 16, p 527
The Main Differences between Prisons and Jails Ch 13, p 440
The Juvenile Justice System versus the Criminal Justice System
Myth vs Reality
Ch 15, p 508
Race Stereotyping and Drug Crime Ch 3, p 87
Are Too Many Criminals Found Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity?
CJ & Technology
Ch 4, p 118
BOSS (Biometric Optical Surveillance System) Ch 1, p 21 Women Make Bad Cops Ch 5, p 150
Brain Science and Crime Ch 2, p 44 Consent to Search Automobiles Ch 7, p 223
Engine Immobilizer Systems Ch 3, p 86 Does Putting Criminals in Prison Reduce Crime? Ch 13, p 436
Revenge Porn Ch 4, p 105
High-Tech Cops Ch 5, p 140
CJ in Action
Gunshot Detection Systems Ch 6, p 184
Gun Control versus Gun Rights Ch 1, p 29
Through-the-Wall Sensors Ch 7, p 227
Legalizing Marijuana Ch 2, p 63
Lie Detection in Court Ch 8, p 265
Victims of Domestic Violence Ch 3, p 93
Untested Rape Kits Ch 9, p 284
Hate Crime Laws Ch 4, p 128
Wireless Devices in the Courtroom Ch 10, p 335
Affirmative Action in Law Enforcement Ch 5, p 163
Global Positioning System (GPS) Ch 12, p 411
Militarizing Local Police Ch 6, p 205
Tracking Inmates Ch 13, p 431
Racial Profiling and the Constitution Ch 7, p 244
Contraband Cell Phones Ch 14, p 462
Electing Judges Ch 8, p 274
Cyberbullying Ch 15, p 497
The Plea Bargain Puzzle Ch 9, p 307
Encrypted Smartphones Ch 16, p 537
Rape Shield Laws Ch 10, p 341
The Morality of the Death Penalty Ch 11, p 380
Discretion in Action
Involuntay Commitment of the Mentally Ill Ch 12, p 413
Stirring the Pot Ch 1, p 18 Solitary Confinement: Senseless Suffering? Ch 13, p 445
“Yes” Means “Yes” Ch 3, p 91 A Second Look at Residency Laws Ch 14, p 479
Murder or Manslaughter? Ch 4, p 111 Police in Schools Ch 15, p 513
Soft Power Ch 5, p 136 Hacking for Open Access Ch 16, p 544
High-Speed Force Ch 6, p 197
A Valid Pretext? Ch 7, p 226
xiv Special Features
Preface
Continuing a tradition established by its eight predeces- or other CJ participant and make a difficult decision.
sors, the Ninth Edition of Criminal Justice in Action provides As revised, the feature emphasizes the pivotal role that
students with all the facts, analyses, and real-life examples discretion plays in the criminal justice system, a subject
they will need to be successful in this course. Relying on that we have expanded upon over the past several edi-
the help and advice of the many criminal justice professors tions of Criminal Justice in Action.
who have adopted this best-selling textbook over the years, This expanded coverage of ethics, policy, and discre-
we are confident that we have established an invaluable tion allows us to present a panoramic view of important
introduction to the field. criminal justice issues. Chapter 6, for example, opens with
Pushed by the constantly changing, constantly chal- a description of the extent to which the nation’s local law
lenging world of crime and justice, however, we feel that we enforcement agencies are using body-worn cameras to
have upped the ante for ourselves and for those who study record the actions of police officers. Throughout the chap-
and teach this book. In this edition, we offer the criminal ter, the issue is revisited as we discuss policies that limit a
justice system not simply as a subject to be learned and police officer’s discretion regarding the operation of body-
taught, but as a crucial American institution to be critiqued worn cameras, how such cameras may influence a police
and held to the highest moral and ethical standards. officer’s ethical decision making, the role of the cameras in
ensuring police accountability, and the legal ramifications
Ethics, Discretion, of use-of-force evidence gathered by this new technology.
and Public Policy
Criminal Justice in Action provides students not only with Careers in Criminal Justice
We are well aware that many students using this text are
the tools to understand how the criminal justice system
interested in a criminal justice career. Consequently, as in
does work, but also the opportunity to express their opin-
previous editions, each chapter of Criminal Justice in Action,
ions on how the criminal justice system should work. This
Ninth Edition, includes a Careers in CJ feature in which a
opportunity presents itself primarily in three components
criminal justice practitioner presents a personal account of
new to the Ninth Edition:
his or her profession.
• Ethics Challenges. Each chapter contains three of Furthermore, it is evident that social media are crucial
these short challenges, placed at the end of a section. to the twenty-first-century job search. Accordingly, each
Besides reinforcing an important concept from that sec- Career in CJ feature includes a Social Media Career Tip
tion, the challenges allow students to explore their own to help students succeed in today’s difficult labor market.
values in the context of the criminal justice system. Sub- These tips will help students use Web sites such as Facebook
jects covered include the use of deception during police and LinkedIn to find potential employers, network, and pre
interrogations (Chapter 7), for-profit bail (Chapter 9), sent themselves as viable candidates for employment.
and the ability of juvenile suspects to understand their
Miranda rights (Chapter 15).
Further Changes
• CJ Policy—Your Take. This chapter-specific margin to the Ninth Edition
feature engages students by asking them to critique Each chapter in the Ninth Edition begins with a new
a hot-button criminal justice policy issue. Examples “ripped from the headlines” vignette that introduces the
include Oregon’s Death with Dignity Act (Chapter 1), themes to be covered in the pages that follow. Further-
state “stand-your-ground” self-defense laws (Chapter 4), more, the text continues to reflect the ever-changing
and the disenfranchisement of ex-convicts (Chapter 13). nature of our topic, with with hundreds of new references
• Discretion in Action. A remodeled version of the to research involving crime and criminal behavior and
popular You Be the _______, this feature asks students real-life examples describing actual crimes. The Ninth
to step into the shoes of a criminal justice professional Edition also includes dozens of new features and figures,
xv
as well as discussions of every relevant United States vignette and introduce themes important to the upcom-
Supreme Court decision that has been handed down ing chapter. Other critical-thinking tools in Criminal
since the previous edition. Justice in Action, Ninth Edition, include:
Three other extensive changes to the Ninth Edition • Learning Objectives. At the beginning of each chapter,
involve topics crucial to the American criminal justice students are introduced to up to ten learning objec-
system: tives (LOs) for that chapter. For example, in Chapter
• Mental Illness. Starting with an overview of the sub- 10, “The Criminal Trial,” Learning Objective 2 (LO2)
ject in Chapter 1, we have significantly increased our asks students to “Explain what ‘taking the Fifth’ really
coverage of the challenges facing the criminal justice means.” The area of text that furnishes the information
systems involving the mentally ill. Seven chapters of is marked with a square LO2 graphic, and, finally, the
Criminal Justice in Action now include in-depth discus- correct answer is found in the chapter-ending materi-
sions of this subject, covering a variety of issues such als. This continuous active learning will greatly expand
as the link between mental illness and offending and students’ understanding of dozens of crucial criminal
victimization, and the impact of mentally ill inmates on justice topics.
American prisons and jails. • CJ in Action Features. Each of the chapter-ending CJ in
• Public Trust in Law Enforcement. A series of high- Action features introduces students to a controversial
profile incidents in which law enforcement agents have topic from the chapter and provides them with “for” and
either injured or killed unarmed civilians has led to “against” arguments related to that topic. Then, using
increased public scrutiny of police use of force. We information and knowledge gained from the chapter,
examine this controversial topic from the point of view the student is asked to write a short essay giving her
of community members who feel they are unfairly tar- or his opinion on the controversy. These features not
geted by police violence, and from the point of view of only help students improve their writing and critical-
police officers who feel they are placed in a “no win” sit- thinking skills, but they also act as a review for the
uation when it comes to use-of-force law and practice. material in the chapter. Topics covered in these chapter-
• Privacy versus Security. Chapter 16 of the Ninth Edi- ending features include gun control, racial profiling, and
tion includes a new section that covers the controver- police officers in schools.
sies surrounding the federal government’s efforts
to balance civil liberties and homeland security.
The section focuses on complex issues of mass sur- Chapter-by-Chapter
veillance and privacy in the age of terrorism, and Organization of the Text
discusses how far we, the people, should allow the
This edition’s sixteen chapters blend the principles of
government to stretch the Fourth Amendment when it
criminal justice with current research and high-interest
comes to collecting our personal data.
examples of what is happening in the world of crime and
crime prevention right now. What follows is a summary of
Concentrated Critical Thinking each chapter, along with a description of some of the revi-
sions to the Ninth Edition.
As with previous editions, the Ninth Edition of Criminal
Justice in Action focuses on developing critical thinking.
Almost every feature and photo caption in the textbook Part 1: The Criminal
includes a critical thinking question, and students are Justice System
provided with five additional such questions at the end of Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the criminal jus-
each chapter. Chapter-opening vignettes are followed by tice system’s three major institutions: law enforcement,
three critical analysis questions, which relate back to the the courts, and corrections. The chapter also answers
xvi Preface
conceptual questions such as “what is crime?” and “what • An expanded focus on the crime of sexual assault and
are the values of the American criminal justice system?” its victims includes a new discussion of the ramifica-
• Students are introduced to an “un-American” set of tions of the federal government’s decision to change the
criminal justice values in a new Comparative Criminal official definition of rape and a new Discretion in Action
Justice feature (“No Hate Allowed”) describing a Swed- feature (“‘Yes’ Means ‘Yes’”) explores legislative efforts to
ish law that criminalizes hate speech. reduce sexual assault on college campuses.
• The chapter closes with a new discussion of the dis- Chapter 4 lays the foundation of criminal law. It addresses
proportionate number of inmates suffering from constitutional law, statutory law, and other sources of
mental illness in our prisons and jails. This discussion American criminal law before shifting its focus to the legal
serves as an introduction to the topic of criminal justice framework that allows the criminal justice system to deter-
and the mentally ill, which will be revisited throughout mine and punish criminal guilt.
the textbook. • What happens when technology moves faster than
Chapter 2 focuses on criminology, giving students insight criminal law? A new CJ & Technology feature (“Revenge
into why crime occurs before shifting their attention Porn”) addresses this issue in the context of a particu-
toward how society goes about fighting it. The chap- larly unpleasant form of online misbehavior.
ter addresses the most widely accepted and influential • A new Question of Ethics feature (“Due Justice?”)
criminological hypotheses, including choice theories, trait explains the debate surrounding the federal govern-
theories, sociological theories, social process theories, and ment’s decision to kill a U.S. citizen in Yemen without
social conflict theories. following the procedure of criminal law.
• The three new Ethics Challenges in this chapter ask stu-
dents to give their views on the punishment of women
suffering from postpartum depression who harm their Part 2: The Police
children, the sale of violent video games to minors, and and Law Enforcement
the treatment of drug addicts by providing them with Chapter 5 acts as an introduction to law enforcement in the
free heroin. United States today. This chapter offers a detailed descrip-
• A new discussion on the nation’s changing legal and tion of the country’s numerous local, state, and federal law
moral treatment of marijuana includes a comparison enforcement agencies and examines the responsibilities
of legalization and decriminalization laws in various and duties that come with a career in law enforcement.
states and an explanation of how the federal govern- • An updated section on diversity in law enforcement
ment has reacted to these trends. includes a new discussion of recruiting efforts to
Chapter 3 furnishes students with an understanding of two increase the number of women and members of
areas fundamental to criminal justice: (1) the practical defini- minority groups in American police forces.
tions of crime, such as the difference between felonies and • A new CJ Policy—Your Take margin feature asks stu-
misdemeanors and different degrees of criminal conduct, dents to consider the interaction between criminal law
and (2) the various modes of measuring crime, including and immigration law: should the federal government
the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports and the U.S. Department of focus its energies on removing all undocumented immi-
Justice’s National Crime Victimization Survey. grants from this country, or only those who have com-
• A new chapter-opening vignette (“Video Evidence”) mitted serious crimes?
utilizes the controversial case of former professional Chapter 6 puts students on the streets and gives them a
football player Ray Rice to explore the often fraught gritty look at the many challenges of being a law enforce-
relationship between victims of domestic violence and ment officer. It starts with a discussion of the importance
the criminal justice system. of discretion in law enforcement and then moves on to
Preface xvii
policing strategies and issues in modern policing, such as Identification”), which places students in the shoes of
use of force, corruption, and the “thin blue line.” a judge who must decide whether it is fair to uphold a
• Throughout the chapter, the emergent issue of police conviction based entirely on a single eyewitness identi-
accountability is given panoramic coverage, including fication. In making her or his decision, the student must
a new chapter-opening vignette (“The Camera’s Eye”) consider the extent to which this practice has led to
on body-worn cameras for law enforcement officers, wrongful convictions in the United States.
an updated discussion on how police use of force has • A new CJ Policy—Your Take margin feature explores
impacted relations with minority communities across the question of whether politicians should make a con-
the country, and a new chapter-ending CJ in Action certed effort to appoint more women and members of
feature (“Militarizing Local Police”) that focuses on the minority groups as judges.
public outcry over aggressive policing tactics. Chapter 9 provides students with a rundown of pretrial
• A new Landmark Cases feature (“Maryland v. King”) procedures and highlights the role that these procedures
summarizes the United States Supreme Court’s recent play in America’s adversary system. Thus, pretrial proce-
ruling regarding state laws that allow the collection of dures such as establishing bail and plea bargaining are pre-
DNA samples from those who have been arrested for, sented as part of the larger “battle” between the prosecution
but not convicted of, committing a crime. and the defense.
Chapter 7 examines the sometimes uneasy relationship • To help students understand how a suspect is formally
between law enforcement and the U.S. Constitution by explain- accused of committing a crime, a new chapter-opening
ing the rules of being a police officer. Particular emphasis is vignette (“Trading Paint”) explains why NASCAR driver
placed on the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments, giving Tony Stewart avoided manslaughter charges despite
students an understanding of crucial concepts such as prob- causing the death of fellow racer Kevin Ward, Jr.
able cause, reasonableness, and custodial interrogation. • An updated discussion on the operation of grand juries
• A new section on cell phones and the Fourth Amend- uses the example of the St. Louis County (Missouri)
ment features discussions of the legality of law enforce- grand jury that failed to indict police officer Darren
ment efforts to track these devices and the Supreme Wilson for the shooting death of unarmed suspect
Court’s recent decision that police officers need a war- Michael Brown. The discussion also includes a new CJ
rant to search the content of a suspect’s cell phone. Policy—Your Take margin feature on the topic of grand
• A new section discusses the role that police interroga- jury secrecy.
tion tactics may play in the troubling phenomenon of Chapter 10 puts the student in the courtroom and gives
false confessions. her or him a strong understanding of the steps of the crimi-
nal trial. The chapter also attempts to answer the fascinat-
Part 3: Criminal Courts ing but ultimately frustrating question, “Are criminal trials
Chapter 8 takes a big-picture approach in describing the in this country fair?”
American court system, giving students an overview of the • Three new figures use excerpts from actual court
basic principles of our judicial system, the state and federal records to give students a first-hand understand-
court systems, and the role of judges in the criminal justice ing of three crucial aspects of the criminal trial: jury
system. selection, the opening statement, and the art of the
• The court system’s ability to live up to societal expec- cross-examination.
tations of truth and justice, a running theme of the • An updated discussion of the most common causes
third part of this textbook, is explored in the chap- of wrongful convictions emphasizes on steps taken by
ter’s new Discretion in Action feature (“Eyewitness prosecutors and judges to reverse this troubling trend.
xviii Preface
Chapter 11 links the many different punishment options • Continuing our focus on mentally ill offenders and the
for those who have been convicted of a crime with the theo- criminal justice system, we include an updated dis-
retical justifications for those punishments. The chapter cussion on the challenges facing jail administrators
also examines punishment in the policy context, weigh- because of high rates of mental illness among inmates.
ing the public’s desire for ever-harsher criminal sanctions • Three new Ethics Challenges ask students to comment
against the consequences of such governmental strategies. on ethical issues surrounding low wages for inmate
• The subject of mandatory minimum sentencing arises employment, health care in private prisons, and the
several times in this chapter. First, a new chapter- practice of charging pretrial detainees for their meals
opening vignette (“A Long Time Gone”) introduces the behind bars.
growing national concern caused by such sentences for Chapter 14 is another example of our efforts to get stu-
nonviolent offenders. Then, a new discussion of efforts dents “into the action” of the criminal justice system, this
to repeal state mandatory minimum sentencing laws time putting them in the uncomfortable position of being
shows how these laws have fallen into some disrepute. behind bars. It also answers the question, “What happens
• An updated overview of the declining use of the death when the inmate is released back into society?”
penalty in the United States includes new discussions • A new CJ & Technology feature (“Contraband Cell
of problems surrounding lethal injection drugs and the Phones”) focuses on the difficulties facing prison admin-
Supreme Court’s recent decision concerning capital istrators when it comes to keeping cell phones out of the
punishment of the mentally ill. hands of inmates and the consequences of cell phone
use behind bars.
Part 4: Corrections • A new section entitled “What Works in Reentry”

Chapter 12 makes an important point, and one that is describes strategies developed by corrections officials
often overlooked in the larger discussion of the American to help ex-convicts succeed following release from
corrections system: not all of those who are punished need prison, including reentry courts and various laws
to be placed behind bars. This chapter explores the com- designed to aid offenders in the difficult task of finding
munity corrections options, from probation to parole to post-incarceration employment.
intermediate sanctions such as intensive supervision and
home confinement. Part 5: Special Issues
• A new chapter-opening vignette (“Family Ties”) compares Chapter 15 examines the juvenile justice system, giving
two possible sentencing options—prison or probation— students a comprehensive description of the path taken
for a young women who killed her cousin while driving by delinquents from first contact with police to trial and
drunk. punishment. The chapter contains a strong criminologi-
• Recognizing trends of innovative thinking among cor- cal component as well, scrutinizing the various theories of
rections officials, we include an updated discussion of why certain juveniles turn to delinquency and what steps
risk assessment tools and “swift and certain” punish- society can take to stop them from doing so before it is
ments designed to keep probationers from recidivating. “too late.”
Chapter 13 focuses on prisons and jails. Record-high • Tracking the consequences of two recent Supreme
rates of incarceration have pushed these institutions to the Court decisions restricting life-without-parole sen-
forefront of the criminal justice system, and this chapter tences for juvenile offenders, a new chapter-opening
explores the various issues—such as overcrowding and the vignette (“Life Lessened”) features the first Florida
emergence of private prisons—that have resulted from the inmate to have his sentence reduced because of the
prison population boom. Court’s rulings and a new CJ Policy—Your Take margin
Preface xix
feature asks students their opinions on the continuing Mastering Concepts: Some criminal justice topics
use of lengthy sentences for young, violent offenders. require additional explanation before they become crystal
• A new Discretion in Action feature (“Juvenile Drunk clear in the minds of students. This feature helps students
Driving”) asks students to decide whether a seventeen- to master many of the essential concepts in the textbook.
year-old who commits vehicular homicide should be • In Chapter 7, this feature helps students understand the
charged as a juvenile or as an adult. legal differences between a police stop and a police arrest.
Chapter 16 concludes the text by taking an expanded look
at three crucial criminal justice topics: (1) privacy in the age Discretion in Action: This revised feature puts students
of terrorism, (2) cyber crime, and (3) white-collar crime. in the position of a criminal justice actor in a hypothetical
case or situation that is based on a real-life event. The facts
• Starting with a discussion of four decades worth of
of the case or situation are presented with alternative pos-
crucial antiterrorism legislation, a new section entitled
sible outcomes, and the student is asked to take the part
“Security vs. Liberty” gives students a comprehensive
of the criminal justice professional or lay participant and
look at the current state of civil liberties in the context
make a decision. Students can then consult Appendix B at
of homeland security. The section includes discussions
the end of the text to learn what actually happened in the
of the constitutionality of governmental mass surveil-
offered scenario.
lance techniques and the use of Internet speech to
ensnare potential “known wolf ” domestic terrorists. • “Murder or Manslaughter?” (Chapter 4), a new feature,
requires students to play the role of prosecutor and
• A new Question of Ethics feature (“Buyer Beware”)
charge a defendant who killed his girlfriend under
examines whether practices by employees at auto com-
murky circumstances with first degree murder, second
panies such as General Motors and Toyota that lead to
degree murder, or involuntary manslaughter.
the deaths of drivers should be considered white-collar
crimes and punished accordingly.
CJ & Technology: Advances in technology are constantly
transforming the face of criminal justice. In these features,
Special Features which appear in nearly every chapter, students learn of one
Supplementing the main text of Criminal Justice in Action, such emergent technology and are asked to critically evalu-
Ninth Edition, are more than one hundred eye-catching, ate its effects.
instructive, and penetrating special features. These fea- • This new feature in Chapter 7 describes how law
tures, described below with examples, have been designed enforcement officers are using through-the-wall sen-
to enhance the student’s understanding of a particular sors to determine the movements of suspects, and the
criminal justice issue. constitutional ramifications of their ability to do so.
Careers in CJ: As stated before, many students reading this Comparative Criminal Justice: The world offers a
book are planning a career in criminal justice. We have pro- dizzying array of different criminal customs and codes,
vided them with an insight into some of these careers by offer- many of which are in stark contrast to those accepted
ing first-person accounts of what it is like to work as a criminal in the United States. This feature provides dramatic and
justice professional. Each Career in CJ feature also includes a sometimes perplexing examples of foreign criminal justice
Social Media Career Tip to help students succeed in today’s practices in order to give students a better understanding of
competitive labor market for criminal justice professionals. our domestic ways.
• In Chapter 15, Carl McCullough, a former professional • “The Great Firewall of China” (Chapter 16), an updated
football player, provides an inside look at his duties as a feature, describes China’s recent efforts to limit and
resident youth worker at a juvenile detention center in control the use of the Internet through criminal laws to
Hennepin County, Minnesota. an extent that is unimaginable to most Americans.
xx Preface
A Question of Ethics: Ethical dilemmas occur in every to expect in the pages ahead, as well as a quick source
profession, but the challenges facing criminal justice profes- of review when needed.
sionals often have repercussions beyond their own lives and • Dozens of key terms and a running glossary focus
careers. In this feature, students are asked to place them- students’ attention on major concepts and help them
selves in the shoes of police officers, prosecutors, defense master the vocabulary of criminal justice. The chosen
attorneys, and other criminal justice actors facing ethical terms are boldfaced in the text, allowing students to
dilemmas: Will they do the right thing? notice their importance without breaking the flow
• In “The ‘Dirty Harry’ Problem” (Chapter 6), a police of reading. On the same page that a key term is high-
detective is trying to save the life of a young girl who lighted, a margin note provides a succinct definition of
has been buried alive with only enough oxygen to sur- the term. For further reference, a glossary at the end of
vive for a few hours. Is he justified in torturing the one the text provides a full list of all the key terms and their
person—the kidnapper—who knows where the girl is definitions. This edition includes nearly twenty new
buried? key terms.
• Each chapter has at least six figures, which include
Landmark Cases: Rulings by the United States Supreme graphs, charts, and other forms of colorful art that
Court have shaped every area of the criminal justice system. reinforce a point made in the text. This edition includes
In this feature, students learn about and analyze the most twenty new figures.
influential of these cases.
• Hundreds of photographs add to the overall readabil-
• In Chapter 14’s “Brown v. Plata” (2011), the Supreme ity and design of the text. Each photo has a caption,
Court ordered California corrections officials to reduce and most of these captions include a critical-thinking
the state’s prison population after deciding that over- question dealing with the topic at hand. This edition
crowding was denying inmates satisfactory levels of includes nearly one hundred new photos.
health care.
• At the end of each chapter, students will find five Ques-
tions for Critical Analysis. These questions will help
Myth vs Reality: Nothing endures like a good myth.
the student assess his or her understanding of the just-
In this feature, we try to dispel some of the more endur-
completed chapter, as well as develop critical-thinking
ing myths in the criminal justice system while at the
skills.
same time asking students to think critically about their
consequences.
• “Are Too Many Criminals Found Not Guilty by Reason of Acknowledgments
Insanity?” (Chapter 4) dispels the notion that criminal Throughout the creation of the nine editions of this text, we
justice is “soft” because it lets scores of “crazy” defen- have been aided by hundreds of experts in various criminal
dants go free due to insanity. justice fields and by professors throughout the country,
as well as by numerous students who have used the text.
We sincerely thank all who participated on the revision of
Extensive Study Aids Criminal Justice in Action. We believe that the Ninth Edition
Criminal Justice in Action, Ninth Edition, includes a number of is even more responsive to the needs of today’s criminal jus-
pedagogical devices designed to complete the student’s active tice instructors and students alike because we have taken
learning experience. These devices include the following: into account the constructive comments and criticisms
• Concise chapter outlines appear at the beginning of of our reviewers and the helpful suggestions of our survey
each chapter. The outlines give students an idea of what respondents.
Preface xxi
We continue to appreciate the extensive research efforts of A special word of thanks must also go to those respon-
Shawn G. Miller and the additional legal assistance of Wil- sible for creating the MindTap that accompanies Criminal
liam Eric Hollowell. Product Manager Carolyn Henderson- Justice in Action, including content developer Jessica Alder-
Meier supplied crucial guidance to the project through her man. We are also grateful to Jessica for ensuring the timely
suggestions and recommendations. At the production end, publication of supplements, along with content develop-
we once again feel fortunate to have enjoyed the services of ment services manager Joshua Taylor. A final thanks to
our content project manager, Ann Borman, who oversaw all of the great people in marketing who helped to get the
virtually all aspects of this book. Additionally, we wish to word out about the book, including marketing manager
thank the designer of this new edition, Jeanne Calabrese, Kara Kindstrom, who has been tireless in her attention to
who has created what we believe to be the most dazzling this project.
and student-friendly design of any text in the field. We are Any criminal justice text has to be considered a work
also thankful for the services of all those at Lachina who in progress. We know that there are improvements that we
worked on the Ninth Edition, particularly Molly Montanaro. can make. Therefore, write us with any suggestions that you
The eagle eyes of Sue Bradley and Beverly Peavler, who may have.
shared the duties of copyediting and proofreading, were L. K. G.
invaluable. R. L. M.
xxii Preface
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Lives of the apostles of Jesus Christ
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Title: Lives of the apostles of Jesus Christ
Author: David Francis Bacon
Release date: October 16, 2023 [eBook #71888]
Language: English
Original publication: New Haven: L. H. Young, 1836
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIVES OF

THE APOSTLES OF JESUS CHRIST ***
Lives of the Apostles of
Jesus Christ
Transcriber’s Notes
The cover image was provided by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.
Punctuation has been standardized.
Most of the non-common abbreviations used to save space in printing have been
expanded to the non-abbreviated form for easier reading.
The text may show quotations within quotations, all set off by similar quote marks. The
inner quotations have been changed to alternate quote marks for improved readability.
This book was written in a period when many words had not become standardized in their
spelling. Words may have multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the
text. These have been left unchanged unless indicated with a Transcriber’s Note.
The symbol ‘‡’ indicates the description in parenthesis has been added to an illustration.
This may be needed if there is no caption or if the caption does not describe the image
adequately.
Transcriber’s Notes are used when making corrections to the text or to provide additional
information for the modern reader. These notes are identified by ♦♠♥♣ symbols in the
text and are shown immediately below the paragraph in which they appear.
Painted by Raphael. Engᵈ by A. Daggett.
CHRIST’S CHARGE TO PETER.
Matthew XVI 18, 19

LIVES
OF
THE APOSTLES
OF
JESUS CHRIST.
NEW HAVEN: L. H. YOUNG.
1836.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835,
By David Francis Bacon, Author,
in the office of the Clerk of the District Court of the District of Connecticut.
William Storer, Jr. Print

New-Haven, Ct
PREFACE.
The fair and just fulfilment of the promise made to the public, in the previous
announcement of this work, would require that it should contain, simply, “a distinct, plain,
historical narrative of the life of each of the apostles, illustrated by such aids as could be
drawn from the works of various authors, of former ages, and of other countries, which
hitherto, in the inaccessible forms of a dead or foreign tongue, have been too long covered
from the eyes of thousands, who might be profited by their more open
communication;――from these sources, as well as from the sacred record, to draw the
materials of the narrative,――to throw occasionally the lights of historical, topographical,
and scientific, as well as exegetical illustrations on the word of truth,――and from all, to
learn how we may live, labor, and die, as did these first champions of Christ crucified.” A
hope was also expressed by the author, that the facilities of his situation would enable him,
by research among the long-hidden treasures of large and costly libraries, to bring forth, in
direct illustration of this narrative, much of those treasures of scriptural knowledge, which,
by their size and rarity, are beyond the reach and the means of a vast number of Biblical
students, who would derive great advantage and pleasure from their perusal; and that even
clergymen and students of theology, might find in this work many things, drawn from these
valuable materials, that would make this a desirable book for them. Yet far from promising
the combined results of all the labors of the learned on these subjects, the author then
distinctly professed his main object to be, the collection and combination of such facts and
illustrations as would make the work acceptable and interesting to readers of all
classes,――to popular, as well as to learned readers; and he accordingly engaged to
present all the contents of the book, clear and plain, even to those whose minds have not
been accustomed to deep research in Biblical study.
With these objects constantly in view, the author has long been steadily and laboriously
devoted to the preparation and composition of this book. In presenting this result of his
labors, he is not conscious of having actually failed to comply with the general terms of his
published engagement; yet the critical eyes of many among his readers will doubtless light
upon parts of the work, which have been materially affected in their character by the very
peculiar circumstances under which the labor has been undertaken and prosecuted;
circumstances so very peculiar, that, in accordance with the universal custom of those who
have completed such tasks, he is justified in referring to some important details of the
history of the writing. The first summons to the task found him engrossed in pursuits as
foreign to the investigations necessary for this work, as any department of knowledge that
can be conceived; and though the study of critical and exegetical theology had, at a former
period, been to him an object of regular attention, the invitation to this work seemed so
uncongenial to his adopted pursuits, that he rejected it decidedly; nor was it until after
repeated and urgent solicitations, that he consented to undertake it. But even then, so little
aware was he of the inexhaustible richness of his noble subject, that he commenced his
researches with oft-expressed doubts, whether it would admit of such ample disquisition as
was hoped by the original proposer. How just those doubts were, may be best learned from
the hurried and brief notice which many important points in this great theme have
necessarily received within such narrow limits.
Begun under these unfavorable auspices, the work was an object of pursuit with him
through a long period of time; nor did his investigations proceed far, before he was fully
assured that it was vast, beyond his highest expectations; and from that time the difficulty
has been, not to meet the expectation of a large book, but to bring these immense materials
within this limited space. Growing thus in his hands, through months and years, his subject
soon increased also in its interest to him, till in the progress of time and various other
contemporaneous ♦occupations, it rose from the character of a task to that of a delightful, a
dignified, and dignifying pursuit; and he was soon disposed to look on it not as a labor, but
as a recreation from avocations less congenial to his taste. It called him first from the study
of a profession, sickening and disgusting in many of its particulars; and was his frequent
resource for enjoyment in many a season of repose. His attention was often distracted from
it, by calls to diverse and opposite pursuits; by turns to the public labors and responsibilities
of an editor and an instructor,――but in the midst of these it was his solace and
refreshment, till at last it wholly drew him away from everything besides itself, and became
for months his sole, constant, absorbing and exhausting occupation. Too often, indeed,
were the pursuits with which it was at first varied and interchanged, the occasion of
disturbances and anxieties that did anything but fit him for the comfortable pursuit of his
noble task; yet these evils themselves became the means of inspiring him with a higher and
purer regard for it, because they drove him to this as an only consolation. As was most
eloquently and beautifully said by the evangelical George Horne, at the conclusion of a
similar task,――“And now, could the author flatter himself, that anyone would take half the
pleasure in reading the work, which he hath taken in writing it, he would not fear the loss of
his labor.” Well would it be, both for the writer and his work, if he could truly add in the
melodious sentence which Horne subjoins, that “the employment detached him from the
bustle and hurry of life, and the noise of folly;”――that “vanity and vexation flew away for a
season,――care and disquietude came not nigh his dwelling.”
♦ “occcupations” replaced with “occupations”

THE LIVES OF THE APOSTLES.
The word apostle has been adopted into all the languages of Christendom,
from the Greek, in which the earliest records of the Christian history are given to
us. In that language, the corresponding word is derived from a verb which means
“send,” so that the simplest primary meaning of the derivative is “one sent;” and in
all the uses of the word this meaning is kept in view. Of its ordinary meanings, the
most frequent was that of “a person employed at a distance to execute the
commands, or exercise the authority, of the supreme power,” in which sense it was
appropriated as the title of an embassador, a messenger, or a naval commander;
and it is used to designate all these officers in the classic Grecian writers. In
reference to its general, and probably not to any technical meaning, it was applied
by Jesus Christ to those of his followers whom he chose as the objects of his most
careful instruction, and as the inheritors of his power; whom thus indued, he sent
into all the world, to preach the gospel to every creature. The use of the term in
connection with this high and holy commission, did not give it such a character of
peculiar sanctity or dignity, as to limit its application among Christians of the early
ages, to the chosen ministers of Christ’s own appointment; but it is applied even in
the writings of the New Testament, as well as by the Grecian and Latin fathers of
the churches, to other persons of inferior rank, that might be included under its
primary meaning. It was also extended, in the peculiar sense in which Christ first
applied it, from the twelve to other eminent and successful preachers of the gospel
who were contemporary with them, and to some of their successors.
[It will be noticed that, throughout this book, the text is, on many pages, broken by matters thrown in at the
ends of paragraphs, in smaller type. The design is, that these notes, thus running through the body of the
work, shall contain all such particulars as would too much break the thread of the story if made a part of the
common text, and yet are of the highest importance as illustrations, explanations, and proofs of passages in
the history. In many places, there will be need of references to history, antiquities, topography, and various
collateral helps, to make the story understood. All these things are here given in minute type, proportioned to
the minuteness of the investigations therein followed. Being separated in this way, they need be no hindrance
to those who do not wish to learn the reasons and proofs of things, since all such can pass them by at once,
and keep the thread of the narrative, in the larger type, unbroken.
This first note being a mere exegesis of a single word, is the least attractive of all to a common reader; and
some, perhaps, will object to it as needlessly protracted into minute investigations of points not directly
important to the narrative; and the writer may have been led beyond the necessity of the case, by the
circumstance of his previous occupations having drawn his attention particularly to close etymological and
lexicographical research in the Greek language; but he is consoled by the belief that there will be some among
his readers who can appreciate and enjoy these minutiæ.]
Apostle.――The most distant theme, to which this word can be traced in Greek, is the verb Στελλω, stello,
which enters into the composition of Αποστελλω, apostello, from which apostle is directly derived.
As to the primary meaning of Στελλω, there appears to be some difference of opinion among
lexicographers. All the common lexicons give to the meaning “send” the first place, as the original sense from
which all the others are formed, by different applications of the term. But a little examination into the history of
the word, in its uses by the earlier Greeks, seems to give reason for a different arrangement of the meanings.
In searching for the original force of a Greek word, the first reference must, of course, be to the father of
Grecian song and story. In Homer, this word, στελλω, is found in such a variety of connections, as to give the
most desirable opportunities for reaching its primary meaning. Yet in none of these passages does it stand in
such a relation to other words, as to require the meaning of “send.” Only a single passage in Homer has ever
been supposed to justify the translation of the word in this sense, and even that is translated with equal force
and justice, and far more in analogy with the usages of Homer, by the meaning of “equip,” or “prepare,” which
is the idea expressed by it in all other passages where it is used by that author. (See Damm, sub voc.) This is
the meaning which the learned Valckenaer gives as the true primary signification of this word, from which, in
the revolutions of later usage, the secondary meanings have been derived. In this opinion I have been led to
acquiesce, by the historical investigation of the earlier uses of the term, and by the consideration of the natural
transition from the primary meaning of “fix,” “equip,” or “fit out,” to that of “send,” and other secondary
meanings, all which occur only in the later authors. Pindar limits it like Homer. Herodotus never uses the word
in the sense of “send,” but confines it to the meaning of “equip,” “furnish,” “clothe.” Æschylus gives it the
meaning of “go,” but not of “send.” Sophocles and Euripides also exclude this application of the term.
This brief allusion to these early authorities will be sufficient, without a prolonged investigation, to show that
the meaning of “send” was not, historically, the first signification. But a still more rational ground for this opinion
is found in the natural order of transition in sense, which would be followed in the later applications of the
word. It is perfectly easy to see how, from this primary meaning of “fix,” or “equip,” when applied to a person, in
reference to an expedition or any distant object, would insensibly originate the meaning of “send;” since, in
most cases, to equip or fix out an expedition or a messenger, is to commission and send one. In this way, all
the secondary meanings flow naturally from this common theme, but if the order should be inverted in respect
to any one of them, the beautiful harmony of derivation would be lost at once. There is no other of the
meanings of στελλω which can be thus taken as the natural source of all the rest, and shown to originate them
in its various secondary applications. The meanings of “array,” “dress,” “adorn,” “take in,” &c., are all deducible
from the original idea conveyed by στελλω, and are, like “send,” equally incapable of taking the rank of the
primary meaning.
In tracing the minute and distant etymology of this word, it is worth noticing that the first element in στελλω
is the sound st, which is at once recognized by oriental scholars as identical with the Sanscrit and Persian root
st, bearing in those and in many combinations in the various languages of their stock, the idea of “fixity.” This
idea is prominent in the primary meaning of στελλω given by Passow, who, in his Greek lexicon, (almost the
only classical one that properly classifies and deduces the meanings of words,) gives the German word stellen
as the original ground-meaning of the term before us. This is best expressed in English by “fix,” in all its
vagueness of meaning, from which, in the progress of use, are deduced the various secondary senses in
which στελλω is used, which here follow in order:
1. Equip, Fit out, Arrange, Prepare. In this sense it is applied to armaments, both to hosts and to
individuals, and thus in reference to warlike preparations expresses nearly the idea of “Arm.” This is, it seems
to me, the meaning of the word in the verse of Homer already alluded to. The passage is in the Iliad xii. 325,
where Sarpedon is addressing Glaucus, and says, “If we could hope, my friend, after escaping this contest, to
shun forever old age and death, I would neither myself fight among the foremost, nor prepare you for the
glorious strife.” (Or as Heyne more freely renders it, hortarer, “urge,” or “incite.”) The inappropriateness of the
meaning “send,” given in this place by Clark, (mitterem) and one of the scholiasts, (πεμποιμι) consists in the
fact, that the hero speaking was himself to accompany or rather lead his friend into the deadly struggle, and of
course could not be properly said to send him, if he went with him or before him. It was the partial
consideration of this circumstance, no doubt, which led the same scholiast to offer as an additional probable
meaning, that of “prepare,” “make ready,” (παρασκευαζοιμι,) as though he had some misgiving about the
propriety of his first translation. For a full account of these renderings, see Heyne in loc. and Stephens’s
Thesaurus sub voc. In the latter also, under the second paragraph of Στελλω, are given numerous other
passages illustrating this usage, in passive and middle as well as active forms, both from Homer and later
writers. In Passow’s Griechisch Wörterbuch, other useful references are given sub voc.; and in Damm is found
the best account of its uses in Homer.
2. In the applications of the word in this first meaning, the idea of equipment or preparation was always
immediately followed by that of future action, for the very notion of equipment or preparation implies some
departure or undertaking immediately subsequent. In the transitive sense, when the subject of the verb is the
instrument of preparing another person for the distant purpose, there immediately arises the signification of
“send,” constituting the second branch of definition, which has been so unfortunately mistaken for the root, by
all the common lexicographers. In the reflexive sense, when the subject prepares himself for the expected
action, in the same manner originates, at once, the meaning “go,” which is found, therefore, the prominent
secondary sense of the middle voice, and also of the active, when, as is frequent in Greek verbs, that voice
assumes a reflexive force. The origin of these two definitions, apparently so incongruous with the rest and with
each other, is thus made consistent and clear; and the identity of origin here shown, justifies the arrangement
of them both together in this manner.
The tracing out of the other meanings of this word from the ground-meaning, would be abundantly
interesting to many; but all that can be here allowed, is the discussion of precedence between the first two,
here given. Those who desire to pursue the research, have most able guides in the great German
lexicographers, whose materials have been useful in illustrating what is here given. For abundant references
illustrating these various meanings, see H. Stephens’s Thesaurus, Scapula’s, Damm’s, Schneider’s,
Passow’s, Donnegan’s, Porti’s, and Jones’s Lexicons.
The simple verb στελλω, thus superabundantly illustrated, among its numerous combinations with other
words, is compounded with the preposition απο, (apo,) making the verb Αποστελλω, (apostello.) This
preposition having the force of “away,” “from,” when united with a verb, generally adds to it the idea of motion
off from some object. Thus αποστελλω acquires by this addition the sense of “away,” which however only gives
precision and force to the meaning “send,” which belongs to the simple verb. By prefixing this preposition, the
verb is always confined to the definition “send,” and the compound never bears any other of the definitions of
στελλω but this. The simple verb without the prefix expresses the idea of “send” only in certain peculiar
relations with other words, while the compound, limited and aided by the preposition, always implies action
directed “away from” the agent to a distance, and thus conveys the primary idea of “send,” so invariably, that it
is used in no passage in which this word will not express its meaning. From this compound verb thus defined,
is directly formed the substantive which is the true object and end of this protracted research.
Αποστολος, (Apostolos) is derived from the preceding verb by changing the penult vowel Ε into Ο, and
displacing the termination of the verb by that of the noun. The change of the penult vowel is described in the
grammars as caused by its being derived from the perfect middle, which has this peculiarity in its penult. The
noun preserves in all its uses the uniform sense of the verb from which it is derived, and in every instance
maintains the primary idea of “a person or thing sent.” It was often used adjectively with a termination varying
according to the gender of the substantive to which it referred. In this way it seems to have been used by
Herodotus, who gives it the termination corresponding to the neuter, when the substantive to which it refers is
in that gender. (See Porti Dictionarium Ionicum Græco Latinum.) Herodotus is the earliest author in whom I am
able to discover the word, for Homer never uses the word at all, nor does any author, as far as I know,
previous to the father of history. Though always preserving the primary idea of the word, he varies its meaning
considerably, according as he applies it to a person or a thing. With the neuter termination αποστολον,
(apostolon,) referring to the substantive πλοιον, (ploion,) it means a “vessel sent” from place to place. In Plato,
(Epistle 7,) it occurs in this connection with the substantive πλοιον expressed, which in Herodotus is only
implied. For an exposition of this use of the term, see H. Stephens’s Thesaurus, (sub voc. αποστολος.) With the
masculine termination, Herodotus, applying it to persons, uses it first in the sense of “messenger,”
“embassador,” or “herald,” in Clio, 21, where relating that Halyattes, king of Lydia, sent a herald (κηρυξ,) to
treat for a truce with the Milesians, he mentions his arrival under this synonymous term. “So the messenger
(αποστολος, apostolos,) came to Miletus.” (Ὁ μεν δη αποστολος ες την Μιλητον ἦν.) In Terpsichore, 38, he uses
the same term. “Aristagoras the Milesian went to Lacedæmon by ship, as embassador (or delegate) from the
assembly of Ionic tyrants,” (Αποστολος εγινετο.) These two passages are the earliest Greek in which I can find
this word, and it is worth noticing here, that the word in the masculine form was distinctly applied to persons, in
the sense given as the primary one in the text of this book. But, still maintaining in its uses the general idea of
“sent,” it was not confined, in the ever-changing usage of the flexible Greeks, to individual persons alone. In
reference to its expression of the idea of “distant destination,” it was applied by later writers to naval
expeditions, and in the speeches of Demosthenes, who frequently uses the word, it is entirely confined to the
meaning of a “warlike expedition, fitted out and sent by sea to a distant contest.” (References to numerous
passages in Demosthenes, where this term is used, may be found in Stephens’s Thesaurus, on the word.)
From the fleet itself, the term was finally transferred to the naval commander sent out with it, so that in this
connection it became equivalent to the modern title of “Admiral.”
Besides these political and military uses of the word, it also acquired in the later Greek a technical meaning
as a legal term, and in the law-writers of the Byzantine school, it is equivalent to “letters of appeal” from the
decision of a lower tribunal to a higher one. But this, as well as the two previous meanings, must be
considered as mere technical and temporary usages, while the original sense of “messenger,” “herald,”
“embassador,” remained in constant force long after the word had received the peculiar application which is
the great object of this long investigation. Yet various as are these meanings, it should be noticed that all those
which refer to persons, have this one common idea, that of “one sent to a distance to execute the commands
of a higher power.” This sense is likewise preserved in that sacred meaning, which the previous inquiry has
now somewhat prepared the reader as well as the writer to appreciate in its true force.
The earliest passage in the sacred records of Christianity, in which the word apostle is used, is the second
verse of the tenth chapter of Matthew, where the distinct nomination of the twelve chief disciples is first
mentioned. They are here called apostles, and as the term is used in connection with their being sent out on
their first mission, it seems plain that the application of the name had a direct reference to this primary
signification. The word, indeed, which Jesus uses in the sixteenth verse, (when he says ‘Behold! I send you
forth as sheep in the midst of wolves,’) is αποστελλω, (apostello), and when in the fifth verse, Matthew, after
enumerating and naming the apostles, says “These twelve Jesus sent forth,” the past tense of the same verb
is used, (απεστειλεν, apesteilen.) Mark also, in his third chapter, relating the appointment and commissioning of
the twelve, uses this verb, in verse 14. “And he appointed twelve, that they might be with him, and that he
might send them forth to preach,” (αποστελλη, apostellé.) Luke merely mentions the name apostle, in giving
the list of the twelve, in chapter 6, verse 13; and in chapter 9, verse 2, gives the verb in the same way as
Matthew. The term certainly is of rare occurrence in all the gospels; those persons who are thus designated
being commonly mentioned under the general title of disciple or learner, (μαθητης,) and when it is necessary to
separate them from the rest of Christ’s followers, they are designated from their number “the twelve.” John
never uses it in this sense, nor does Mark in giving the list, though he does in vi. 30, and the only occasion on
which it is applied to the twelve by Matthew, is that of their being sent forth on their brief experimental mission
through the land of Israel, to announce the approach of the Messiah’s reign. The simple reason, for this
remarkable exclusion of the term from common use in the gospel story, is that only on that one occasion just
mentioned, did they assume the character of apostles, or persons sent forth by a superior. This circumstance
shows a beautiful justness and accuracy in the use of words by the gospel writers, who in this matter, at least,
seem to have fully apprehended the true etymological force of the noble language in which they wrote. The
twelve, during the whole life of Jesus, were never sent forth to proclaim their Lord’s coming, except once; but
until the Ascension, they were simple learners, or disciples, (μαθηται, mathetai,) and not apostles or
messengers, who had so completely learned the will of God as to be qualified to teach it to others. But
immediately after the final departure of Jesus, the sacred narrative gives them the title of apostles with much
uniformity, because they had now, by their ascending Lord, been solemnly commissioned in his last words,
and sent forth as messengers and embassadors to “all nations.” A common reader of the New Testament must
notice that, in the Acts of the Apostles, this title is the most usual one given to the chosen twelve, though even
there, an occasional use is made of the collective term taken from the idea of their number. It deserves notice,
however, that Luke, the author of the Acts, even in his gospel, uses this name more frequently than any other
of the evangelists; and his individual preference for this word may, perhaps, have had some influence in
producing its very frequent use in the second part of his narrative, though the whole number of times when it is
used in his gospel is only six, whereas in Acts it occurs twenty-seven times. So that on the whole it would
seem clear, that the change from the common use of the term “disciple,” in the gospels, to that of “apostle,”
in the history of their acts after the ascension, was made in reference to the corresponding change in the
character and duties of the persons thus named.
The lexicography of the word αποστολος, (apostolos,) I arrange as follows, after a full comparison and
investigation of all the standard authorities.
The primary idea or ground-meaning which runs through all the secondary significations, and is distinctly
recognizable in all their various applications, is as has already been remarked, that of “one sent forth,”
referring either to persons or things, but more commonly to persons. These secondary meanings being all
directly derived from the ground-stock, and not by a repetition of transformations in sense, it is hard to settle
any order of precedence among them; which might be easily done if a distinct gradation could be traced, as in
the definition of most words. I have chosen to follow what seems to be the historical order of application, as
already traced, although several very high authorities give a different arrangement.
I. A messenger, herald, embassador; a person sent with a message. This is the use made of the term by
Herodotus, above quoted, and being thus historically the earliest, as well as flowing naturally from the ground-
meaning, may therefore justly hold the first place. And when other variable meanings had been lost in the
revolutions of usage, this retained its place, being applied to many different persons whose offices included
the idea of being sent abroad by commission from a higher power. Under this meaning is most justly included
that peculiar Christian use of the word, which is the object of this investigation, and under this head therefore I
rank all the New Testament usages of αποστολος. 1. It is used in the simple sense here given, with the first
primary idea conveyed by the term. There is no Greek sentence extant which refers so forcibly to the ground-
meaning as that in John’s gospel, xiii. 16; where the words in the common English translation are “he that is
sent,” though in the original Greek the word is αποστολος, which might be more justly translated “messenger,”
in order to make a difference in English corresponding to that in Greek, between αποστολος and πεμψας,
(pempsas,) without giving the same word “send” for two different words in Greek. Still the common translation
gives the true meaning of each word, though not so simply and gracefully just, as it might be if the difference
of terms in the two members of the sentence was kept up in English. In this same general sense of
“messenger,” or “any person sent,” it is used in 2 Corinthians viii. 23, (in common English translation
“messenger,”) and in Philippians ii. 25, (common translation “messenger.”) 2. It is used to designate persons
directly sent by God to men, and in this sense is frequently given to us in connection with “prophet,” as in Luke
xi. 49; Ephesians iii. 5; Revelation xviii. 20. In this sense also it is applied to Jesus, in Hebrews iii. 1, 3. It is
used as the title of several classes of persons, employed by Jesus in propagating the gospel. These are
[1] the twelve chief disciples, commonly distinguished above all others but one, by this name. Matthew x. 2;
Mark vi. 30; Luke vi. 13; ix. 10; xxii. 14; Acts i. 26; and in other places too numerous to be mentioned here, but
to which a good concordance will direct any curious investigator. [2] Paul, as the great messenger of truth to
the Gentiles, so called in many passages; and with him Barnabas is also distinctly included under this term, in
Acts xiv. 4, 14; and xv. 33. (Griesbach however, has changed this last passage from the common reading. See
his editions.) [3] Other persons, not of great eminence or fame; as Andronicus and Junius, Paul’s assistants,
Romans xvi. 7; the companions of Titus in collecting the contributions of the churches, 2 Corinthians viii. 23;
and perhaps also Epaphroditus, Philippians ii. 25. This seems to be as clear an arrangement of the New
Testament lexicography of the term as can be given, on a comparison of high authorities. Those who can refer
to Wahl, Bretschneider, Parkhurst and Schleusner, will find that I have not servilely followed either, but have
adopted some things from all.
The extensions and variations of the New Testament usage of the word, among the Grecian and Latin
Christian Fathers, were, 1, the application of it to the seventy disciples whose mission is narrated by Luke, x.
29. These are repeatedly called apostles. 2. The companions of Paul and others are frequently honored by
this title. Timothy and Mark are called apostles, and many later ministers also, as may be seen by the
authorities at the end of Cave’s Introduction to his Lives of the Apostles.
In application to persons, it is used by Athenian writers as a name for the commander of a naval
expedition, (See Demosthenes as quoted by Stephens,) but this seems to have come by transferring to the
man, the name of the expedition which he commanded, so that this cannot be derived from the definition
which is here placed first. This term in the later Greek is also applied to the “bride-man,” or bridegroom’s
friend, who on wedding festivals was sent to conduct the bride from her father’s house to her husband’s.
(Phavorinus quoted by Witsius in Vita Pauli.) This however is a very unusual sense, which I can find on no
other authority than that here given. None of the lexicons contain it.
II. The definition which occupies the first place in most of the arrangements of this word in the common
Greek lexicons, is that of a “naval expedition,” “apparatus classium,” “fleet.” There appears, however, to be no
good reason for this order, but there is historical argument, at least, as well as analogy, for putting those
meanings which refer to persons, before those which refer to things. This meaning, as far as I can learn,
seems to be confined to Demosthenes, and there is nothing to make us suppose that it is anterior in use to the
simple permanent sense which is here given first. Hesychius gives us only the meaning of “the commander of
a fleet,” which may indeed be derivable from this sense rather than the preceding personal uses, though it
seems to me not impossible that the name was transferred from the commander to the object of his command,
thus making the personal meanings prior to those of inanimate things. The adjective use of the word in
Herodotus and Plato, however, makes it certain that in that way it was early applied to a single vessel, and the
transition to its substantive use for a whole fleet is natural enough.
The legal use of it for “letters of appeal,” (literae dimissoriae,) of course comes under the head of the later
usages in application to things, and is the last modification of meaning which the word underwent before the
extinction of the ancient Greek language.
The corresponding Hebrew word, and that which was, no doubt, used by Christ in his discourse to his
apostles, was ‫ שלּוח‬or ‫( שליח‬sheluh, or shelih,) whose primary meaning, like that of the Greek word, is “one
sent,” and is derived from the passive Kal, participle of the verb ‫ שלח‬meaning “he sent,” This word is often used
in the Old Testament, and is usually translated in the Alexandrian Greek version, by the word αποστολος. A
remarkable instance occurs in 1 Kings xiv. 6; where the prophet Ahijah, speaking to the wife of Jeroboam,
says, ‫“ אליך אנכי שלוח‬to thee am I sent;” the Alexandrian version gives the noun αποστολος, so as to make it
literally “to thee I am an apostle,” or “messenger,” or truly, in the just and primary sense of this Greek word, “to
thee I am sent.” This passage is a valuable illustration of the use of the same Greek word in John xiii. 16; as
above quoted.
The Hebrews had another word also, which they used in the sense of an apostle or messenger. This was
‫( מלאך‬mal ak,) derived from a verb which means “send,” so that the primary meaning of this also is “one sent.”
It was commonly appropriated to angels, but was sometimes a title of prophets and priests. (Haggai i. 19;
Malachi ii. 7.) It was on the whole the more dignified term of the two, as the former was never applied to
angels, but was restricted to men. The two terms are very fairly represented by the two Greek words αποστολος
and αγγελος, in English “apostle” and “angel,” the latter, like its corresponding Hebrew term, being sometimes
applied to the human servants of God, as in John’s address to the seven churches.
The scope of the term, as used in the title of this book, is limited to the twelve
chosen disciples of Jesus Christ, and those few of their most eminent associates,
who are designated by the same word in the writings of the early Christians. These
persons fall under two natural divisions, which will be followed in the arrangement
of their lives in this work. These are, first, the twelve, or Peter and his
companions; and second, Paul and his companions, including also some to whom
the name apostle is not given by the New Testament writers, but who were so
intimate with this great preacher of Christ, and so eminent by their own labors, that
they may be very properly ranked with him, in the history of the first preachers of
Christianity.
The persons whose lives are given in this book are,
I. The Galilean apostles, namely,
Simon Peter, and Andrew his brother,
James, and John, the sons of Zebedee,
Philip, and Bartholomew,
Matthew, and Thomas,
James, the son of Alpheus, and Simon Zelotes,
Jude, the brother of James, and Judas Iscariot, in whose place was
afterwards chosen by the apostles, Matthias.
II. The Hellenist apostles, namely, Paul and Barnabas, with whom are included
their companions, Mark and Luke, the evangelists.
These two classes of Apostles are distinguished from each other, mainly, by the
circumstances of the appointment of each; the former being all directly appointed
by Jesus himself, (excepting Matthias, who took the forfeited commission of Judas
Iscariot,) while the latter were summoned to the duties of the apostleship after the
ascension of Christ; so that they, however highly equipped for the labors of the
office, had never enjoyed his personal instructions; and however well-assured of
the divine summons to preach the gospel to the Gentiles, theirs was not a distinct
personal and bodily commission, formally given to them, and repeatedly enforced
and renewed, as it was to the chosen ones of Christ’s own appointment. These
later apostles, too, with hardly one exception, were foreign Jews, born and brought
up beyond the bounds of the land of Israel, while the twelve were all Galileans,
whose homes were within the holy precincts of their fathers’ ancient heritage. Yet if
the extent of their labors be regarded, the later commissioned must rank far above
the twelve. Almost two thirds of the New Testament were written by Paul and his
companions; and before one of those commissioned by Jesus to go into all the
world on their great errand, had ever gone beyond the boundary of Palestine,
Paul, accompanied either by Barnabas, Mark, Silas, or Luke, had gone over Syria
and Asia, traversed the sea into Greece, Macedonia, and Illyria, bringing the
knowledge of the word of truth to tens of thousands, who would never have heard
of it, if they had been made to wait for its communication by the twelve. This he did
through constant toils, dangers and sufferings, which as far transcended all which
the Galilean Apostles had endured, as the mighty results of his labors did the
immediate effects of theirs. And afterwards, while they were struggling with the
paltry and vexatious, though not very dangerous tyranny of the Sanhedrim, within
the walls of Jerusalem, Paul was uttering the solemn truths of his high commission
before governors and a king, making them to tremble with doubt and awe at his
words; and, at last, bearing, first of all, the name of Jesus to the capital of the
world, he sounded the call of the gospel at the gates of Cæsar. The Galilean
apostles were indued with no natural advantages for communicating freely with
foreigners; their language, habits, customs and modes of instruction, were all
hindrances in the way of a rapid and successful progress in such a labor, and they
with great willingness gave up this vast field to the Hellenist preachers, while they
occupied themselves, for the most part, with the still immense labor which their
Lord had himself begun. For all the subtleties and mysticisms of their solemn foes,
they were abundantly provided; the whole training, which they had received, under
the personal instruction of their master, had fitted them mainly for this very warfare;
and they had seen him, times without number, sweep away all these refuges of
lies. But, with the polished and truly learned philosophers of Athens, or the
majestic lords of Rome, they would have felt the want of that minute knowledge of
the characters and manners of both Greeks and Romans, with which Paul was so
familiar, by the circumstances of his birth and education, in a city highly favored by
Roman laws and Grecian philosophy. Thus was it wisely ordained, for the
complete foundation and rapid extension of the gospel cause, that for each great
field of labor there should be a distinct set of men, each peculiarly well fitted for
their own department of the mighty work. And by such divinely sagacious
appointments, the certain and resistless advance of the faith of Christ was so
secured, and so wonderfully extended beyond the deepest knowledge, and above
the brightest hopes of its chief apostles, that at this distant day, in this distant land,
far beyond the view even of the prophetic eye of that age, millions of a race
unknown to them, place their names above all others, but one, on earth and in
heaven; and to spread the knowledge of the minute details of their toils and
triumphs, the laborious scholar should search the recorded learning of eighteen
hundred years, and bring forth the fruits in the story of their lives.
With such limitations and expansions of the term, then, this book attempts to
give the history of the lives of the apostles. Of some who are thus designated, little
else than their names being known, they can have no claim for a large space on
these pages; while to a few, whose actions determined the destiny of millions, and
mainly effected the establishment of the Christian faith, the far greater part of the
work will be given.
The materials of this work should be found in all that has been written on the
subject of New Testament history, since the scriptural canon was completed. But
“who is sufficient for these things?” A long life might find abundant employment in
searching a thousand libraries, and compiling from a hundred thousand volumes,
the facts and illustrations of this immense and noble subject; and then the best
energies of another long life would be needed to bring the mighty masses into
form, and give them in a narrative for the mind of the unlearned. What, then, is
here attempted, as a substitute for this immensity? To give a clear distinct narrative
of each apostle’s life, with such illustrations of the character of the era, and the
scene in which the incidents occurred, and such explanations of the terms in which
they are recorded, as may, consistently with the limits of this work, be drawn from
the labors of the learned of ancient and modern times, which are within the writer’s
reach. Various and numerous are the books that swell the list of faithful and honest
references; many and weighty the volumes that have been turned over, in the long
course of research; ancient and venerable the dust, which has been shaken into
suffocating clouds about the searcher’s head, and have obscured his vision, as he
dragged many a forgotten folio from the slumber of ages, to array the modern
plunderer in the shreds and patches of antique lore. Histories, travels,
geographies, maps, commentaries, criticisms, introductions, and lexicons, have
been “daily and nightly turned in the hand;” and of this labor some fruit is offered
on every page. But the unstained source of sacred history! the pure well-spring, at
which the wearied searcher always refreshed himself, after unrequited toils,
through dry masses of erudition, was the simple story of the Apostles and
Evangelists, told by themselves. In this same simple story, indeed, were found the
points on which the longest labor was required; yet these, at best only illustrated,
not improved, by all the labors of the learned of various ages, were the materials of
the work. These are the preparations of months and years; the execution must
decide on their real value,――and that is yet to come.
A list of the various works which have furnished the materials for this book might be proper here; but in
order to insure its completeness and accuracy, it is deferred to the end of the volume.
A view of the world, as it was at the when the apostles began the work of
spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, may be convenient to remind some readers,
and necessary to inform others, in what way its political organization operated to
aid or hinder the progress of the faith. The peculiarities of the government of the
regions of civilization, were closely involved in the results of this religious
revolution, and may be considered as having been, on the whole, most desirably
disposed for the triumphant establishment of the dominion of Christ.
From the shores of the Atlantic to the banks of the Euphrates, the sway of the
Roman Caesar was acknowledged, by the millions of Western and Southern
Europe, Northern Africa and South-western Asia. The strong grasp of warlike
power was a bond which held together in peace many nations, who, but for that
constraint, would, as their previous and subsequent history shows, have been
arrayed against each other, in contests, destructive alike of the happiness of the
contending parties and the comfort of their neighbors. The mighty force of Roman
genius had overcome the thousand barriers which nature and art had reared
between the different nations of the three continents in which it ruled, and the
passage from one end of that vast empire to the other, was without any hindrance
to those who traveled on errands of peace. The bloody strife which once distracted
the tribes of Gaul, Germany and Britain, had rendered those grand sections of
Europe impassable, and shut up each paltry tribe within a narrow boundary, which
could never be crossed but with fire and sword. The deadly and furious contests
among the nations of South-western Asia and South-eastern Europe, had long
discouraged the philosophical and commercial enterprise, once of old so rife and
free among them, and offered a serious hindrance to the traveler, whether
journeying for information or trade; thus greatly checking the spread of knowledge,
and limiting each nation, in a great measure, to its own resources in science and
art. The Roman conquest, burying in one wide tomb all the jealousies and strifes of
aspiring national ambition, thus put an end at once to all these causes of
separation; it brought long-divided nations into close union and acquaintance, and
produced a more extensive and equal diffusion of knowledge, as well as greater
facilities for commercial intercourse, than had ever been enjoyed before. The rapid
result of the conquerors’ policy was the consolidation of the various nations of that
vast empire into one people,――peaceful, prosperous, and for the most part
protected in their personal and domestic rights. The savage was tamed, the
wanderers were reclaimed from the forest, which fell before the march of
civilization, or from the desert, which soon rejoiced and blossomed under the
mighty beneficence of Roman power.
The fierce Gaul forsook his savage hut and dress together, robing himself in the
graceful toga of the Roman citizen, or the light tunic of the colonial cultivator, and
reared his solid and lofty dwelling in clustering cities or villages, whose deep laid
foundations yet endure, in lasting testimony of the nature of Roman conquest and
civilization. Under his Roman rulers and patrons, he raised piles of art, unequaled
in grandeur, beauty and durability, by any similar works in the world. Aqueducts
and theaters, still only in incipient ruin, proclaim, in their slow decay, the greatness
of those who reared them, in a land so lately savage.
The Pont du gard, at Nismes, and the amphitheaters, temples, arches, gates, baths, bridges, and
mausolea, which still adorn that city and Arles, Vienne, Rheims, Besancon, Autun and Metz, are the instances,
to which I direct those whose knowledge of antiquity is not sufficient to suggest these splendid remains.
Almost any well-written book of travels in France will give the striking details of their present condition. Malte-
Brun also slightly alludes to them, and may be consulted by those who wish to learn more of the proofs of my
assertion than this brief notice can give.
The warlike Numidian and the wild Mauritanian, under the same iron instruction,
had long ago learned to robe their primitive half-nakedness in the decent garments
of civilized man. Even the distant Getulian found the high range of Atlas no sure
barrier, against the wave of triumphant arms and arts, which rolled resistlessly over
him, and spent itself only on the pathless sands of wide Sahara. So far did that all-
subduing genius spread its work, and so deeply did it make its marks, beyond the
most distant and impervious boundary of modern civilization, that the latest march
of discovery has found far older adventurers before it, even in the great desert;
and within a dozen years, European travelers have brought to our knowledge walls
and inscriptions, which, after mouldering unknown in the dry, lonely waste, for
ages, at last met the astonished eyes of these gazers, with the still striking witness
of Roman power.
The travels of Denham and Clapperton across the desert, from Tripoli to Bornou,――of Ritchie and Lyon,
to Fezzan,――of Horneman and others, will abundantly illustrate this passage.
Egypt, already twice classic, and renowned through two mighty and distant
series of ages, renewed her fading glories under new conquerors, no less worthy
to possess and adorn the land of the Pharaohs, than were the Ptolemies. In that
ancient home of art, the new conquerors achieved works, inferior indeed to the still
lasting monuments of earlier greatness, but no less effectual in securing the
ornament and defense of the land. With a warlike genius far surpassing the most
triumphant energy of former rulers, the legionaries of Rome made the valley of the
Nile, from its mouth to the eighth cataract, safe and wealthy. The desert
wanderers, whose hordes had once overwhelmed the throne of the Pharaohs, and
baffled the revenge of the Macedonian monarchs, were now crushed, curbed, or
driven into the wilds; while the peaceful tiller of the ground, secure against their
lawless attacks, brought his rich harvests to a fair and certain market, through the
ports and million ships of the Mediterranean, to the gate of his noble conquerors,
within the capital of the world.
The grinding tyranny of the cruel despots of Pontus, Armenia and Syria, had,
one after another, been swept away before the republican hosts of Sylla, Lucullus
and Pompey; and the remorseless, stupid selfishness that has always
characterized oriental despotism, even to this day, had been followed by the mild
and generous exercise of that almost omnipotent sway, which the condition of the
people, in most cases, showed to have been administered, in the main, for the
good of its subjects.
The case of Verres will perhaps rise to the minds of some of my readers, as opposed to this favorable view
of Roman government; but the whole account of this and similar tyranny shows that such cases were looked
on as most remarkable enormities, and they are recorded and noticed in such terms of abhorrence, as to
justify us in quoting with peculiar force, the maxim, “Exceptio probat regulam.”
Towards the farthest eastern boundary of the empire, the Parthian, fighting as
he fled, held out against the advance of the western conquerors, in a harassing
and harassed independence. The mountains and forests of central Europe, and of
North Britain, too, were still manfully defended by their savage owners; yet, when
they at last met the iron hosts of Germanicus, Trajan, and Agricola, they, in their
turn, fell under the last triumphs of the Roman eagle. But the peace and prosperity
of the empire, and even of provinces near the scene, were not moved by these
disturbances. And thus, in a longitudinal line of four thousand miles, and within a
circuit of ten thousand, the energies of Roman genius had hushed all wars, and
stilled the nations into a long, unbroken peace, which secured the universal good.
So nearly true was the lyric description, given by Milton, of the universal peace
which attended the coming of the Messiah:
“No war or battle sound,
Was heard the world around;
The idle spear and shield were high uphung;
The hooked chariot stood,
Unstained with hostile blood,
The trumpet spake not to the armed throng;
And kings sat still with awful eye,
As if they surely knew their sovran lord was by.”
The efforts of the conquerors did not cease with the mere military subjugation of
a country, but were extended far beyond the extinction of the hostile force. The
Roman soldier was not a mere fighter, nor were his labors, out of the conflict,

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(eBook PDF) Criminal Justice in Action

9th Edition by Larry K. Gaines

Part One : The Criminal Justice System

1 Criminal Justice Today 2

4 Inside Criminal Law 98

part two : The Police and Law Enforcement

5 Law Enforcement Today 132

part three : Criminal Courts

8 Courts and the Quest for Justice 248

10 The Criminal Trial 312

part four : corrections

12 Probation, Parole, and Intermediate Sanctions 386

part five : special Issues

15 The Juvenile Justice System 484

APPENDIX A: THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES A-1

Part One : The Criminal Justice System

1 Criminal Justice Today 2 Life Lessons and Criminal Behavior 51

2 Causes of Crime 36 The National Incident-Based Reporting System 77

The Role of Theory 39 Victim Surveys 78

Criminological Theories 39 Victims of Crime 80

The Brain and the Body 40 Legal Rights of Crime Victims 80

Crime and Free Will: Choice Theories of Crime 40 Victim Services 81

“Born Criminal”: Biological and Psychological Theories The Risks of Victimization 82

of Crime 42 Crime Trends in the United States 84

Disadvantages 46 Crime, Race, and Poverty 86

Sociological Theories of Crime 46 Women and Crime 89

Social Conflict Theories 50 Mental Illness and Crime 91

part two : The Police and Law Enforcement

5 Law Enforcement Today 132 6 Problems and Solutions

7 Police and the Constitution: Race and Reasonable Suspicion 232

The Rules of Law Arrests 233

Enforcement 212 Elements of an Arrest 233

part three : Criminal Courts

8 Courts and the Judges in the Court System 263

12 Probation, Parole, and Inmate Population Trends 434

15 The Juvenile Pretrial Diversion 504

APPENDIX A: THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES A-1

Chapter Opening Anecdotes Whole-Life Tariffs Ch 11, p 351

Ch 5 Starting Over 134 Anne Seymour, National Victim Advocate Ch 3, p 89

xiv Special Features

Part 4: Corrections • A new section entitled “What Works in Reentry”

Title: Lives of the apostles of Jesus Christ

Author: David Francis Bacon

Release date: October 16, 2023 [eBook #71888]

Original publication: New Haven: L. H. Young, 1836

Credits: Richard Hulse and the Online Distributed Proofreading

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIVES OF

Punctuation has been standardized.

CHRIST’S CHARGE TO PETER.

Matthew XVI 18, 19

William Storer, Jr. Print

♦ “occcupations” replaced with “occupations”

The persons whose lives are given in this book are,

I. The Galilean apostles, namely,

Simon Peter, and Andrew his brother,

James, and John, the sons of Zebedee,

Philip, and Bartholomew,

Matthew, and Thomas,