Summary of Lecture #2: identical particles

Goals and Requirements:

• Get a clear picture of the Fock space:

direct sum of identical particle Hilbert spaces for all possible particle numbers.
F = H0 ⊕ H 1 ⊕ H 2 ⊕ . . . .

• Get a clear picture of the many-body Hilbert space of fermions and bosons:
(Anti-)Symmetrized tensor product space.

– n-body Hilbert space for identical particles Hn is a subspace of (H1 )⊗n .

– Hn is the image of the multi-linear (anti-)symmetrization mapping:

S: (H1 )⊗n 7→ Hn .

– The (anti-)symmetrization mapping is defined on a tensor product basis as

S : |ψ1 i . . . |ψn i 7→ √1n! σ∈Sn |ψσ(1) i . . . |ψσ(n) i ≡ |ψ1 , . . . , ψn i, for boson;
P

S : |ψ1 i . . . |ψn i 7→ √1n! σ∈Sn (−1)σ |ψσ(1) i . . . |ψσ(n) i ≡ |ψ1 , . . . , ψn i, for fermion.
P

– NOTE: the above picture is rather inconvenient, and will not be used in practice.

• Be familiarized with the second quantization language:

creation & annihilation operators, and their (anti-)commutation relations.
Be able to use it to understand/formulate many-body Hamiltonians.

• Be familiarized with several simple(‘free particle’) many-body wavefunctions:

e.g. boson coherent states, fermion product states, BCS states.

– They are the “vacuum” of certain single particle “annihilation” operators.

References:
J.J. Sakurai, Modern Quantum Mechanics, Chapter 6.
P.A.M. Dirac, The Principle of Quantum Mechanics, Chapter IX.
L.D. Landau, E.M. Lifschitz, Quantum Mechanics: Non-relativistic Theory, Chapter IX.
A. Altland, B.D. Simons, Condensed Matter Field Theory, Chapter 2.

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 I THE FOCK SPACE

I. THE FOCK SPACE

A. Trivia about the Permutation Group Sn

 
1 2 ··· n
• A permutation σ =   means replacing 1 by σ(1), 2 by σ(2), · · · ,
σ(1) σ(2) · · · σ(n)
n by σ(n), where σ(1), σ(2), · · · , σ(n) is a rearrangement of 1, 2, · · · , n.

• Product of permutations σ and µ (in one convention): (σ · µ)(i) = σ(µ(i)).

• Transposition (i, j): exchange i and j while keeping the others fixed.

• Any permutation can be represented as a product of transpositions.

In fact only transpositions of neighbors (i, i + 1) are needed.
 
1 2 3 4
– Example:   = (2, 3)(3, 4)(1, 2) = (1, 3)(2, 3)(3, 4) = . . .
3 1 4 2

• The parity of a permutation: parity of the number of transpositions.

Even(Odd) permutation: product of even(odd) number of transpositions.

• The sign (signature) of a permutation (−1)σ [ also denoted by sgn(σ) ]:

+1 for even permutations; −1 for odd permutations.

 +1, x > 0;
σ
Q
– An explicit formula: (−1) = i<j sgn[σ(j) − σ(i)]. Here sgn[x] =
−1, x < 0.

– (−1)σ·µ = (−1)σ · (−1)µ . Namely, (even perm.)·(even perm.)=(even perm.), . . . .

• The permutation group has only two 1-dimensional “representations”:

trivial representation: R(σ) = 1; and “alternating representation”: R(σ) = (−1)σ .

B. Identical Particle: Traditional Treatment using Wavefunctions

• The configuration of n identical(indistinguishable) particles

x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) should be equivalent to (all permutations of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).

• n-body state ψ(x) = ψ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) should be ‘invariant’ under permutations of xi .

– The wavefunction may get complex phase, the density matrix should be the same.

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 I THE FOCK SPACE

• Assume: the n-body wavefunction is a one-dimensional representation of the permu-

tation group Sn , then there are only two possibilities: bosons and fermions.

– Being a 1D representation means, for a permutation σ ∈ Sn ,

ψ(xσ(1) , xσ(2) , . . . , xσ(n) ) = R(σ) · ψ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), where R(σ) is a complex
number of unit modulus, and R(σ · µ) = R(σ) · R(µ).

– Note that pairwise exchange(transposition) σi,j (xi ↔ xj ) is its own inverse,

(σi,j )2 = 1, then [R(σi,j )]2 = 1, namely R(σi,j ) = ±1.

∗ σi0 ,j 0 = σi,i0 σj,j 0 σi,j σi,i0 σj,j 0 , therefore R(σi0 ,j 0 ) = R(σi,j ).

– Bosons: a pairwise exchange (any permutation) has no effect on the wavefunction.

Trivial representation of permutation group.

– Fermions: a pairwise exchange changes the sign of the wavefunction.

Odd permutations(odd # of pair exchanges) changes the sign of the wavefunction.
Alternating representation of permutation group.

– In two-dimensional space, braiding group instead of permutation group should

be considered. There are particles(anyons) beyond bosons and fermions.
See e.g. C. Nayak et al., Rev. Mod. Phys. 80, 1083 (2008).

C. The Structure of Many-body Hilbert Space

• Fock space: the Hilbert space of identical particles with indefinite particle number, is
the direct sum of 0-particle & 1-particle & . . . Hilbert spaces. F = H0 ⊕ H1 ⊕ . . . .

– generic states in Fock space: ‘linear superpositions’ of 0-particle state(‘vacuum’),

and 1-particle state ψN =1 (r 1 ), and 2-particle state ψN =2 (r 1 , r 2 ), and . . . .

• 0-particle Hilbert space H0 : Hilbert space containing only the “vacuum” state.

– The “vacuum” state is usually denoted by |vaci or |0i.

– About the “vacuum”: roughly speaking, it means that no particle (that we

are considering) is in the coordinate space of 1-particle wavefunctions in H1 .
Example: for this particle confined in the left well,
the state is |ψileft ⊗ |vaciright

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 I THE FOCK SPACE

• 1-particle Hilbert space H1 : linear space of 1-body wavefunctions,

can be of finite or infinite dimension. Denote the 1-body states by e.g. |ψi.

• n(≥ 2)-particle Hilbert space Hn : a subspace of the tensor product (H1 )⊗n
= H1 ⊗ H1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ H1 , with (anti-)symmetrization between the factor H1 s.

(Anti-)Symmetrization is for identical particles so that they are indistinguishable.

• Consider the (anti-)symmetrization operation, which maps H1⊗n to Hn ,

S: H1⊗n 7→ Hn , |ψ1 i ⊗ |ψ2 i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |ψn i 7→ |ψ1 , ψ2 , · · · , ψn i.

– S is multi-linear, namely linear with respect to each factor |ψi i.

– Permutations of ψi produce the same n-body state, up to an overall phase.

– If ψi are orthonormal, |ψ1 , . . . , ψn i is normalized (for both bosons and fermions).

• Bosons: permutations of ψi are trivial.

√1
P
– S : |ψ1 i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |ψn i 7→ |ψ1 , . . . , ψn i ≡ n! σ∈Sn |ψσ(1) i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |ψσ(n) i.

– |ψσ(1) , · · · , ψσ(n) i = |ψ1 , · · · , ψn i, ∀σ ∈ Sn .

• Fermions: permutations of ψi produces the sign of permutation.

– Exclusion principle: if ψi = ψj (i 6= j), fermion state |ψ1 , · · · , ψn i = 0.

(by W. Pauli ).

– “Fermion exchange sign”: | · · · ψi · · · ψj · · · i = −| · · · ψj · · · ψi · · · i.

∗ “Proof”: 0 = | · · · (ψi + ψj ) · · · (ψi + ψj ) · · · i

= | · · · ψi · · · ψi · · · i + | · · · ψj · · · ψj · · · i + | · · · ψi · · · ψj · · · i + | · · · ψj · · · ψi · · · i
= 0 + 0 + | · · · ψi · · · ψj · · · i + | · · · ψj · · · ψi · · · i.

– S : |ψ1 i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |ψn i 7→ |ψ1 , . . . , ψn i ≡ √1n! σ∈Sn (−1)σ |ψσ(1) i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |ψσ(n) i

P

– |ψσ(1) , · · · , ψσ(n) i = (−1)σ |ψ1 , · · · ψn i, ∀σ ∈ Sn .

D. Basis of Many-body Hilbert Space

• The wavefunction is the expansion coefficient in the coordinate eigenstate basis.

This time the coordinate basis are the tensor product states |x1 i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |xn i.
The (un-normalized) wavefunction is ψ(x1 , · · · , xn ) = (|x1 i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |xn i, |ψ1 , · · · , ψn i).

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 I THE FOCK SPACE

• Bosons: ψ(x1 , · · · , xn ) = √1n! σ∈Sn hx1 |ψσ(1) i · · · hxn |ψσ(n) i

P

= √1n! σ∈Sn ψσ(1) (x1 ) · · · ψσ(n) (xn ) = √1n! perm[ψj (xi )].
P

P Q
– Permanent of a square matrix Aij : perm[A] ≡ σ∈Sn i Ai,σ(i) .
P Q
– hφ1 , . . . , φn |ψ1 , . . . , ψn i = perm[hφi |ψj i] = σ∈Sn i hφi |ψσ(i) i. Exercise.

• Fermions: ψ(x1 , · · · , xn ) = √1n! σ∈Sn (−1)σ hx1 |ψσ(1) i · · · hxn |ψσ(n) i

P

= √1n! σ∈Sn (−1)σ ψσ(1) (x1 ) · · · ψσ(n) (xn ) = √1n! det[ψj (xi )].
P

This is the Slater determinant.

– Determinant of a square matrix Aij : det[A] ≡ σ∈Sn (−1)σ i Ai,σ(i) .

P Q

– hφ1 , . . . , φn |ψ1 , . . . , ψn i = det[hφi |ψj i] = σ∈Sn (−1)σ i hφi |ψσ(i) i. Exercise.

P Q

• Suppose H1 has complete orthonormal basis |ei i. For simplicity, assume a m(finite)-
dimensional H1 (i = 1, . . . , m). The goal is to construct a basis for Hn .

• Bosons: basis are |ei1 , ei2 , · · · , ein i, for all 1 ≤ i1 ≤i2 ≤· · · ≤in ≤ m.

– These basis are orthogonal, but not normalized.

m+n−1

(m+n−1)!
– The number of basis (dimension of Hn ) is n
= n!(m−1)!
.

• Fermions: basis are |ei1 , ei2 , · · · , ein i, for all 1 ≤ i1 <i2 <· · · <in ≤ m.

– Obviously, if n > m, there is no legitimate n-body state (exclusion principle).

– These basis are orthonormal.

m m!


– The number of basis (dimension of Hn ) is n
= n!(m−n)!
.

• Occupation number representation:

denote the above basis |ei1 , ei2 , · · · , ein i as |en1 1 , en2 2 , · · · , enmm i,
where nj is the number of appearance of ej . Note that n1 + n2 + · · · nm = n.
The occupation basis |n1 , n2 , · · · , nm i is the state |en1 1 , en2 2 , · · · , enmm i normalized:
|n1 , n2 , · · · , nm i = (n1 !)−1/2 (n2 !)−1/2 · · · (nm !)−1/2 |en1 1 , en2 2 , · · · , enmm i.

– For fermions, nj = 0 or 1, the normalization factor is trivial.

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 II SECOND QUANTIZATION

II. SECOND QUANTIZATION

A. Creation and Annihilation Operators

• The goal is to define linear operators which creates(destroys) a particle of the 1-body
state ψ, in the Fock space.

– The creation operator ψ̂ † maps Hn to Hn+1 .

The annihilation operator ψ̂ maps Hn to Hn−1 (vanishes on “vacuum” H0 ).

• Creation operator: (“add a 1-body state as a new factor”)

ψ̂ † : Hn → Hn+1 , |ψ1 , · · · , ψn i 7→ |ψ, ψ1 , · · · , ψn i.

– In occupation basis (exercise: check these by definition):

√
for bosons, ê†i | · · · , ni , · · · i = ni + 1| · · · , (ni + 1), · · · i;
Pi−1
for fermions, ê†i | · · · , ni = 0, · · · i = (−1) j=1 nj
| · · · , ni = 1, · · · i.

• Annihilation operator: (“try to remove a 1-body state from each factor respectively”)
ψ̂ : Hn → Hn−1 , |ψ1 , · · · , ψn i 7→ ni=1 (±1)i−1 hψ|ψi i |ψ1 , · · · , ψi−1 , ψi+1 , · · · , ψn i,
P

where +1 is for bosons and −1 is for fermions.

– In occupation basis (exercise: check these by definition):

√
for bosons, êi | · · · , ni , · · · i = ni | · · · , (ni − 1), · · · i;
Pi−1
nj
for fermions, êi | · · · , ni = 1, · · · i = (−1) j=1 | · · · , ni = 0, · · · i.

• Occupation basis |n1 , · · · , nm i = (n1 !)−1/2 · · · (nm !)−1/2 (ê†1 )n1 · · · (ê†m )nm |0i.

• (Anti-)Commutation relations: Bosons: [ψ̂, ψ̂ † ] = 1. Fermions: {ψ̂, ψ̂ † } = 1.

And mode occupation number operator: n̂ψ = ψ̂ † ψ̂, for normalized 1-particle state ψ,

– [n̂ψ , ψ̂ † ] = ψ̂ † , namely ψ̂ † increases eigenvalue of n̂ψ by 1.

[n̂ψ , ψ̂] = −ψ̂, namely ψ̂ decreases eigenvalue of n̂ψ by 1.
Exercise: check these statements for both bosons and fermions.

– Eigenvalues of n̂ψ are non-negative integers: n̂ψ is hermition, positive semi-

definite (because ψ̂ † is indeed the hermitian conjugate of ψ̂, see later)

– Occupation basis |n1 , · · · , nm i are eigenstates of n̂ei with eigenvalue ni .

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 II SECOND QUANTIZATION

• (Anti-)Commutation relations between annihilation/creation operators of different

modes (exercise: check these by definition):
Bosons: [ψ̂, ψ̂ 0† ] = hψ|ψ 0 i, [ψ̂, ψ̂ 0 ] = 0 = [ψ̂ † , ψ̂ 0† ].
Fermions: {ψ̂, ψ̂ 0† } = hψ|ψ 0 i, {ψ̂, ψ̂ 0 } = 0 = {ψ̂ † , ψ̂ 0† }.

– For the 1-body orthonormal basis ei , corresponding operators satisfy:

Bosons: [êi , ê†j ] = δij . Fermions: {êi , ê†j } = δij .

– For coordinate eigenstates |xi, denote corresponding operators by ψ(x)d and ψd † (x):

Bosons: [ψ(x),
d ψd † (x0 )] = δ(x − x0 ). Fermions: {ψ(x),
d ψd † (x0 )} = δ(x − x0 ).

NOTE: these are not related to some state ψ, symbols like φ may also be used.

– (Anti-)Commutation relations of momentum eigenstate operators ψ(p) † (p)

d & ψd

are similar.

• Basis change: ψ̂ † = i hei |ψi ê†i , sum is over a complete orthonormal basis.
P

In particular ψ̂ † = ψ(x)ψd
R
† (x) dx, where ψ(x) = hx|ψi is the wavefunction.

– If ei and e0i are two sets of complete orthonormal 1-body basis, then
ê0 i = j he0i |ej iêj , or column vector ê0 = U · ê,
P

where Uij = he0i |ej i is a unitary matrix.

– Exercise: check the converse of the above statement.

For orthonormal boson(fermion) basis êi satisfying [êi , ê†j ] = δij ({êi , ê†j } =
P
δij ), the transformed operators ê0 i = j Uij · êj satisfy the same form of

commutation(anti-commutation) relations, [ê0i , ê0† 0 0†

j ] = δij ({êi , êj } = δij ), namely

that ê0 i also form orthonormal basis, if U is a unitary matrix.

ê†i Mij êj

P
– (USEFUL) This can be used to “diagonalize” bilinear operators M̂ = i,j

= ê† · M · ê = ê0† · U · M · U † · ê0 . By choosing the unitary matrix Uij =

he0i |ej i, the matrix U · M · U † may become diagonal with eigenvalues λi on the
major diagonal. Then M̂ = i λi ê0† 0 0 0
P P
i êi = i λi n̂i , and ei occupation basis are

normalized eigenstates of M̂ in the entire Fock space.

• “vacuum”: ψ̂|0i = 0 for any “annihilation” operator ψ̂,

and h0|ψ̂ † = 0 for any “creation” operator ψ̂ † .

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 II SECOND QUANTIZATION

1. Creation and Annihilation Operators: Consistency Check

• Check that ψ̂ † is indeed (ψ̂)† : show that

(ψ̂ † |ψ1 , . . . , ψn−1 i, |φ1 , . . . , φn i) = (|ψ1 , . . . , ψn−1 i, ψ̂|φ1 , . . . , φn i),
for any n-body state |φ1 , . . . , φn i and (n − 1)-body state |ψ1 , . . . , ψn−1 i.

– Bosons: (check Laplace expansion of permanent)

(ψ̂ † |ψ1 , . . . , ψn−1 i, |φ1 , . . . , φn i) = hψ, ψ1 , . . . , ψn−1 |φ1 , . . . , φn i
P
= σ∈Sn hψ|φσ(1) ihψ1 |φσ(2) i . . . hψn−1 |φσ(n) i.
(|ψ1 , . . . , ψn−1 i, ψ̂|φ1 , . . . , φn i) = ni=1 hψ|φi ihψ1 , . . . , ψn−1 |φ1 , . . . , φn without φi i
P

= ni=1 hψ|φi i permutation σ0 of (1,. . . ,n, without i) hψ1 |φσ0 (1) i . . . hψn−1 |φσ0 (n−1) i,
P P

σ 0 (1), . . . , σ 0 (n − 1) is a rearrangement of n − 1 numbers (1, . . . , n, without i),

therefore the sequence i, σ 0 (1), . . . , σ 0 (n − 1) is a permutation σ of 1, . . . , n,
the two final results are summations over the same n! terms.

– Fermions: (check Laplace expansion of determinant). Exercise.

• Note that ψ̂1† · · · ψ̂n† |0i = |ψ1 , · · · , ψn i, by definition of creation operators.

– Action of creation operator ψ̂ † : ψ̂1† · · · ψ̂n† |0i 7→ ψ̂ † ψ̂1† · · · ψ̂n† |0i,

consistent with ψ̂ † : |ψ1 , · · · , ψn i 7→ |ψ, ψ1 , · · · , ψn i.

– Action of annihilation operator ψ̂:

∗ Bosons: ψ̂1† · · · ψ̂n† |0i 7→ ψ̂ ψ̂1† · · · ψ̂n† |0i

= [ψ̂, ψ̂1† · · · ψ̂n† ]|0i + ψ̂1† · · · ψ̂n† ψ̂|0i = ψ1† · · · [ψ̂, ψi† ] · · · ψn† |0i + 0
P
i

= i hψ|ψi iψ1† · · · ψi−1 † †

· · · ψn† |0i,
P
ψi+1
consistent with the definition of ψ̂ and commutation relation.
∗ Fermions: ψ̂1† · · · ψ̂n† |0i 7→ ψ̂ ψ̂1† · · · ψ̂n† |0i
= i (−1)i−1 ψ1† · · · {ψ̂, ψi† } · · · ψn† |0i + (−1)n ψ̂1† · · · ψ̂n† ψ̂|0i
P

= i (−1)i−1 hψ|ψi iψ1† · · · ψi−1 † †

· · · ψn† |0i,
P
ψi+1
consistent with the definition of ψ̂ and anti-commutation relation.

– Under coodinate basis: ψ̂ † = ψ(x)ψd

R R ∗
† (x) dx, ψ̂ = ψ (x)ψ(x)
d dx.
† RR ∗
∗ Bosons: [ψ̂, ψ̂ 0 ] = ψ (x)ψ 0 (x0 ) [ψ(x),
d ψd † (x0 )] dxdx0
RR ∗
ψ (x)ψ 0 (x0 ) δ(x − x0 ) dxdx0 = ψ ∗ (x)ψ 0 (x) dx = hψ|ψ 0 i.
R
=
Anti-commutation relation of fermions is similar.

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 II SECOND QUANTIZATION

2. Creation and Annihilation Operators: Some Calculation Tricks

• For orthonormal basis of creation(annihilation) operators ê†i (êi ), the commutator

[ê†i êj , ê†k ] = δjk ê†i . This is true for both bosons and fermions. Exercise: check this.

• By the above fact, ê†i êj · ê†i1 . . . ê†in |vaci = sum of ê†i0 . . . ê†i0n |vaci, where the sequence

1

(i01 , . . . , i0n ) is (i1 , . . . , in with one appearance of j replaced by i) .



For example: ê†1 ê2 · ê†1 ê†2 ê†2 ê†3 |vaci = ê†1 ê†1 ê†2 ê†3 |vaci + ê†1 ê†2 ê†1 ê†3 |vaci.

B. The Second Quantization

• The goal: use the creation & annihilation operators to simplify the presentations of
operators for identical particles in Fock space.

• The rule of thumb: to get a many-body term (defined on the Fock space),
replace the 1-body wavefunctions ψ(x) [ ψ ∗ (x) ] in the expectation value formula for a
† (x) ], remove the summations over particle indices.
product states by operator ψ̂(x) [ ψd
Some ‘normal ordering’ may be needed.

• Generic 1-body term Ô(x):

– Ô(x) can be ‘taking derivatives with respect to x’ and ‘multiplication by a func-

tion of x’ and so on. Here x is the particle’s coordinate.

– For n identical particles with coordinates x1 , . . . , xn , the corresponding many-

body term in the ‘first quantized’ language is ni=1 Ô(xi ).
P

– In a (anti-)symmetrized tensor product state |ψ1 , . . . ψn i, the expectation value

would be ni=1 ψi∗ (xi ) Ô(xi ) ψ(xi ) dxi .
P R

R
– The corresponding second quantized form is ψd † (x) Ô(x) ψ(x)d dx.

2 2
• Example: 1-body kinetic energy term: i ψi∗ (x)(− h̄2m∂x )ψi (x) dx.
P R
2 2 2
† (x)(− h̄ ∂x )ψ(x) † (p)( p )ψ(p)
R d dx = R ψd
Corresponding many-body term is ψd 2m 2m
d dp

V (x) ψi∗ (x)ψi (x) dx.

P R
• Example: 1-body potential term: i
R
† (x)ψ(x)
Corresponding many-body term is V (x) ψd d dx.

Exercise: convert this into momentum eigenstate representation.

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 II SECOND QUANTIZATION

R d d
• Example: total particle number operator: N̂ = ψ † (x)ψ(x) dx.
It is difficult to write down the corresponding ‘first quantized’ form.

• Generic 2-body term Ô(x, x0 ): x and x0 are the two particles’ coordinates.

– For n identical particles with coordinates x1 , . . . , xn , the corresponding many-

body term in the ‘first quantized’ language is 12 i,j,i6=j Ô(xi , xj ). Here the factor
P

1
2
is to remove the double-counting of the same pair (xi , xj ).

– In a (anti-)symmetrized tensor product state |ψ1 , . . . ψn i, the expectation value

RR ∗
would be 21 i,j,i6=j ψi (xi )ψj∗ (xj ) Ô(xi , xj ) ψj (xj )ψi (xi ) dxi dxj .
P

– The corresponding second quantized form is

1
ψ † (x)ψ † (x0 ) Ô(x, x0 ) ψ(x d dxdx0 .
RR d d d0 )ψ(x)
2

V (x, x0 ) ψi∗ (x)ψi (x) ψj∗ (x0 )ψj (x0 ) dxdx0 .

P R
• Example: 2-body potential term: (1/2) i6=j

Corresponding many-body term is V̂ = (1/2) V (x, x0 ) ψd

R
† (x)ψd† (x0 )ψ(x
d0 )ψ(x)
d dxdx

– Note the “normal ordering”: put all creation operators in front of annihilation
operators, be careful about the exchange sign in case of fermions.

– Exercise: convert this into momentum eigenstate representation, in case that

V (x, x0 ) = V (x − x0 ) depends only on the distance of two particles.

– In the ‘first quantized’ language, the 2-body potential term should be

P
V̂ : ψ(x1 , · · · , xn ) 7→ (1/2) i6=j V (xi , xj )ψ(x1 , · · · , xn ).

– Check: Assume the case of bosons.

Many-body states can generically be expanded in terms of |x1 , · · · , xn i as
R
ψ(x1 , · · · , xn )|x1 , · · · , xn i dx1 · · · dxn . Apply the many-body term to coordi-
nate basis state |x1 , · · · , xn i. The result is
(1/2) V (x, x0 ) ψd† (x)ψ̂ † (x0 ) 0 0
R P
i6=j δ(x − xi ) δ(x − xj ) |xi &xj removedi dxdx

= (1/2) i6=j V (xi , xj ) ψ̂ † (xi )ψ̂ † (xj )|xi &xj removedi

P
P
= (1/2) i6=j V (xi , xj ) |x1 , · · · , xn i.
The above result shows that the action of V̂ on many-body wavefunction
ψ(x1 , · · · , xn ) is the same as the ‘first quantized’ description.
Exercise: check the case of fermions, be careful about fermion exchange signs.

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 III SPECIAL MANY-BODY STATES

• Example: the Bose-Hubbard model.

X UX
Ĥ = −t (b̂†j b̂i + h.c.) + n̂i (n̂i − 1),
<ij>
2 i

where n̂i = b̂†i b̂i is the occupation number operator, h.c. means the Hermitian conjugate
of the previous term. [b̂i , b̂†j ] = δij and all other commutators between them vanish.

– On each site i of a lattice, there is one single-boson mode φi (x), and all φi form a
complete orthonormal basis of 1-body Hilbert space. b̂†i & b̂i are the corresponding
creation/annihilation operators.

– The Hamiltonian consists of a kinetic energy term and an interaction term. The
kinetic energy term makes a particle to ‘hop’ from site i to one of its neighbors
j, with a matrix element −t. The interaction term creates repulsion energy U
between each pair of particles on the same site.

– Example: consider only two sites i & j, use the occupation number basis, the
action of Ĥ on |ni = 3, nj = 1i is Ĥ |ni = 3, nj = 1i =
√ √ √
−t 3 2 |ni = 2, nj = 2i − t 4 |ni = 4, nj = 0i + 3 U |ni = 3, nj = 1i.

III. SPECIAL MANY-BODY STATES

A. Fermion “Product” State (Fermi Sea)

ψ̂i† |0i.
Qn
• |ψ1 , · · · , ψn i = i=1
p
Norm of this state is given by the Gram determinant det[hψi |ψj i].

• If ψi are linearly dependent, this state vanishes.

• Linearly independent ψi span a n-dimensional 1-body Hilbert space. Given a complete

orthonormal basis of this space ci , then |ψ1 , · · · , ψn i = det[hci |ψj i] · |c1 , · · · , cn i,

– Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization: the orthonormal basis can be constructed as

|c1 i ∝ |ψ1 i, e.g. |c1 i = √ |ψ1 i ,
hψ1 |ψ1 i

|c2 i ∝ |ψ2 i − |c1 ihc1 |ψ2 i = |ψ2 i − |ψ1 i hψ1 |ψ2 i

hψ1 |ψ1 i
,
|c3 i ∝ |ψ3 i − |c1 ihc1 |ψ3 i − |c2 ihc2 |ψ3 i, . . . .

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 III SPECIAL MANY-BODY STATES

• If ci (i = 1, · · · , m) form a complete orthonormal basis of 1-body Hilbert space,

the total particle number n̂ = i ĉ†i ĉi is invariant under basis change.
P

The state |ψ1 , · · · , ψn i is an eigenstate of n̂ with eigenvalue n.

Pn † Pm †
• The ‘parent’ Hamiltonian of this state: Ĥ = − i=1 ci ci + i=n+1 ci ci .

Namely the unique ground state of this Hamiltonian is this fermion product state.

1. Particle-hole Transformation of Fermions

• Particle-hole transformation of a single fermion mode: formally ĉi ↔ ĉ†i ,

note that this preserves the anti-commutation relations.

– This corresponds to a unitary transformation on the Fock space:

†
Û = (ĉi + ĉ†i ) · (−1)
P
j6=i ĉj ĉj .
Exercise: check the following, Û † Û = 1, Û ĉi Û † = ĉ†i , Û ĉj Û † = ĉj for j 6= i.

– The unitary transformation on occupation number basis is

P
nj
| · · · , ni = 0, · · · i ↔ (−1) j>i | · · · , ni = 1, · · · i.
is to preserve the matrix elements of ψ̂j &ψ̂j† for j > i.
P
nj
Note: the factor (−1) j>i

– In particular, the new ‘vacuum’ is originally |0, · · · , ni = 1, · · · , 0i.

• Particle-hole transformation of all fermion modes: formally ĉi ↔ ĉ†i for all i.
Exercise: what is the corresponding unitary transformation?
what is the new ‘vacuum’ ?

• By particle-hole transformation,
 the fermion product state ĉ†1 · · · ĉ†n |0i can be viewed
 c† , 1 ≤ i ≤ n, ‘hole’ annihilation operators
0 i
as the ‘vacuum’ of ĉ i =
 c , n < i, ‘particle’ annihilation operators.
i

B. Fermion Pairing State (BCS State)

• Consider two orthonormal fermion modes c1 & c2 , the pairing state is

|λi = (1 + |λ|2 )−1/2 exp(λ ĉ†1 ĉ†2 ) |0i, where λ ∈ C is a complex number.

– This state is not an eigenstate of fermion number operator ĉ†1 ĉ1 + ĉ†2 ĉ2 .

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 III SPECIAL MANY-BODY STATES

– Bogoliubov transformation: define ‘Bogoliubov quasiparticles’,

γ̂1 = uĉ1 + vĉ†2 , γ̂2 = −vĉ†1 + uĉ2 ,
where u = (1 + |λ|2 )−1/2 and v = −λ (1 + |λ|2 )−1/2 .
The pairing state is vanished by γ̂1,2 , namely γ̂1,2 |λi = 0.
Exercise: check this statement, and check that {γ̂i , γ̂j† } = δij .

– A ‘parent’ Hamiltonian is Ĥ = γ̂1† γ̂1 + γ̂2† γ̂2 . Exercise: rewrite this in terms of ĉs.

• (Not required) Generic fermion pairing state |{fij }i ∝ exp( 12 fij ĉ†i ĉ†j )|0i,
P
i,j

where ĉi are some orthonormal basis, fij = −fji are complex numbers.

†
– By a orthogonal transformation ĉ†i → Oij ĉ0 j , where O is an orthogonal matrix,
the antisymmetric

f matrix can

be brought into a standard form
0 λ1 0 0 ···
 
−λ 0 0 0 · · ·
 1 
OT · f · O
 
 0
=

0 0 λ2 · · ·

,
 0
 0 −λ 2 0 · · ·
 . . . .. ..

.. .. .. . .
† † † † ˆ0 † ˆ0 † ˆ0 † ˆ0 †
the state becomes ∝ exp(λ1 ĉ0 1 ĉ0 2 + λ2 ĉ0 3 ĉ0 4 + . . . )|0i = eλ1 c 1 c 2 eλ2 c 3 c 4 . . . |0i.
Bogoliubov transformations can then be defined on ĉ0 2i−1 & ĉ0 2i .

C. Boson Coherent State

2 /2 †
• The coherent state from a single boson mode b̂ is |zi = e−|z| ezb̂ |0i,
where z ∈ C is a complex number.
Exercise: check the normalization of |zi.

– This state is not an eigenstate of boson number b̂† b̂.

– (USEFUL) This state is an eigenstate of b̂, b̂|zi = z|zi.

Therefore the coherent state is vanished by b̂0 = b̂ − z.
†
Exercise: check this statement, and that [b̂0 , b̂0 ] = 1.
†
– The ‘parent’ Hamiltonian is thus Ĥ = b̂0 b̂0 .

– Expectation value of ‘normal ordered’ polynomials of b̂† and b̂ (all b̂† s appear in
front of b̂s) in state |zi can be obtained by simply replacing b̂† by z ∗ and b̂ by z.
Example: hz|(b̂† b̂)2 |zi = hz|(b̂† b̂† b̂ b̂ + b̂† b̂)|zi = z ∗ z ∗ zz + z ∗ z = |z|4 + |z|2 .

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 III SPECIAL MANY-BODY STATES

D. Boson Pairing State

• Consider two orthonormal boson modes b̂1 & b̂2 , the boson pairing state is
|λi = (1 − |λ|2 )1/2 exp(λ b̂†1 b̂†2 ) |0i, where λ ∈ C is a complex number, and |λ| < 1.
Exercise: check the normalization of |λi.

– This state is not an eigenstate of boson number b̂†1 b̂1 + b̂†2 b̂2 .

– Bogoliubov transformation: define γ̂1 = ub̂1 + v b̂†2 , γ̂2 = ub̂2 + v b̂†1 ,

where u = (1 − |λ|2 )−1/2 and v = −λ (1 − |λ|2 )−1/2 .
Then |λi is vanished by γ̂1,2 , namely γ̂1,2 |λi = 0.
Exercise: check this statement, and check that [γ̂i , γ̂j† ] = δij .

– A ‘parent’ Hamiltonian is Ĥ = γ̂1† γ̂1 + γ̂2† γ̂2 . Exercise: rewrite this in terms of b̂s.

E. Summary of These Special Many-body States

• All these special states are “free particle” states, they can be defined as the ‘vacuum’
of a complete set of single-particle “annihilation” operators.
Free particle state complete set of “annihilation” operators

Fermion product state (particle-hole transformed) fermion annihilation operators

Boson coherent state boson annihilation operators shifted by constants

Boson(Fermion)pairing state Bogoliubov quasi-particles (superposition of particles and ‘holes’ )

• The Wick expansion: rough statement.

Expectation value of a product of single-particle creation/annihilation operators in
these states (except boson coherent states), can be expanded into a sum of products of
pair expectation values, over all pair combinations with appropriate sign for fermions.

• The Wick expansion:

Let |0i be the single-particle ‘vacuum’. Let Âi (i = 1, . . . , 2n) be a set of single-particle
operators, namely linear combinations of annihilation and creation operators. Then
h0|Â1 Â2 · · · Â2n |0i is the Hafnian(Pfaffian) of matrix h0|Âi Âj |0i for bosons(fermions).

– Hafnian of 2n × 2n symmetric matrix Mij is

Hf(M ) = n!1 σ∈S2n ,σ(1)<σ(2),σ(3)<σ(4),... Mσ(1)σ(2) Mσ(3)σ(4) · · · Mσ(2n−1)σ(2n) .
P

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 III SPECIAL MANY-BODY STATES

– Pfaffian of 2n × 2n anti-symmetric matrix Mij is

Pf(M ) = n!1 σ
P
σ∈S2n ,σ(1)<σ(2),σ(3)<σ(4),... (−1) Mσ(1)σ(2) Mσ(3)σ(4) · · · Mσ(2n−1)σ(2n) .

– NOTE: this is true only for such ‘free particle’ states |0i.

– NOTE: the matrix h0|Âi Âj |0i may not be symmetric or anti-symmetric. But the
above definition for Hafnian/Pfaffian still works for the Wick expansion.

– Example: hÂ1 Â2 Â3 Â4 i = hÂ1 Â2 ihÂ3 Â4 i + hÂ1 Â4 ihÂ2 Â3 i ± hÂ1 Â3 ihÂ2 Â4 i,
the ± sign is for boson or fermion cases respectively.

• The Wick expansion: sketch of a proof.

Consider boson case first. Use mathematical induction.
For the case of two operators, the Wick expansion is trivially true.
Suppose the expansion is correct for product of 2n and less operators.
Add two more operators, we just need to prove that
hÂ1 · · · Â2n · Â2n+1 Â2n+2 i = hÂ1 · · · Â2n ihÂ2n+1 Â2n+2 i
P
+ i,j,i6=j h(Â1 · · · Â2n without Âi , Âj )ihÂi Â2n+1 ihÂj Â2n+2 i.
Because of linearity, only need to consider four possible cases, with (Â2n+1 , Â2n+2 ) =
(I) both annihilation operators (ψ̂, φ̂), this is trivially 0 = 0;
(II) both creation operators (ψ̂ † , φ̂† ), try to move A2n+1 and A2n+2 to the left side by
commutation relations, hÂ1 · · · Â2n Â2n+1 Â2n+2 i
= hÂ2n+1 · Â1 · · · Â2n · Â2n+2 i + h[Â1 · · · Â2n , Â2n+1 ] · Â2n+2 i
P
= 0 + i h(Â1 · · · Â2n without Âi )[Âi , Â2n+1 ] · Â2n+2 i
(NOTE: [Âi , Â2n+1 ] is a c-number)
P
= i hÂ2n+2 · (Â1 · · · Â2n without Âi )i · [Âi , Â2n+1 ]
P
+ i h[(Â1 · · · Â2n without Âi ), Â2n+2 ]i · [Âi , Â2n+1 ]
P P
= 0 + i j,j6=i h(Â1 · · · Â2n without Âi , Âj )i · [Âi , Â2n+1 ][Âj , Â2n+2 ].
In this case, [Âi , Â2n+1 ] = hÂi Â2n+1 i, [Âj , Â2n+2 ] = hÂj Â2n+2 i, and hÂ2n+1 Â2n+2 i = 0.
So this extends the Wick expansion to 2n + 2 operator case.
(III) (ψ̂ † , φ̂), and (IV) (ψ̂, φ̂† ) are left for exercise.
Exercise: repeat the above reasoning for fermions.

Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Fall 2018 15/15