c01FunctionsAndGraphs Holiday Homework

1 Functions and graphs
LEARNING SEQUENCE
1.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................................................................2
1.2 Linear functions ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Solving systems of equations ......................................................................................................................... 11
1.4 Quadratic functions ............................................................................................................................................ 18
1.5 Cubic functions .................................................................................................................................................... 28
1.6 Higher degree polynomials .............................................................................................................................. 40
1.7 Other algebraic functions ................................................................................................................................. 50
1.8 Combinations of functions ............................................................................................................................... 66
1.9 Modelling and applications ..............................................................................................................................77
1.10 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Fully worked solutions for this topic are available online.

1.1 Overview
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1.1.1 Introduction
Solving algebraic problems is one of the oldest processes in
mathematics; however, it wasn’t until the fifteenth century
that the practical notation we use today was created. Before
this, all equations were written out in words. As far back as
ancient Egypt and Babylon, people were solving linear and
quadratic equations, and the current solving processes are
similar to the original methods. It took until the sixteenth
century for a group of Italian mathematicians to solve the
general cubic equation.
Polynomials have many applications in a range of industries:
in engineering, a polynomial might be used to model the
curves of rollercoasters or bridges; in economics, a combination of polynomial functions might be used to do
cost analyses; and in physics, polynomials are used to describe energy, inertia and voltage difference, as well as
the trajectories of moving objects.
KEY CONCEPTS
This topic covers the following key concepts from the VCE Mathematics Study Design:
• graphs of the following functions: power functions, y = xn , n ∈ Q; exponential functions, y = ax , a ∈ R+ ,

• graphs of polynomial functions and their key features
in particular y = ex ; logarithmic functions, y = loge (x) and y = log10 (x); and circular functions,
y = sin (x) , y = cos (x) and y = tan (x) and their key features
• graphs of sum, difference, product and composite functions involving functions of the types specified
above (not including composite functions that result in reciprocal or quotient functions)
• modelling of practical situations using polynomial, power, exponential and logarithmic functions,
simple transformation and combinations of these functions, including simple piecewise (hybrid)
functions
• solution of polynomial equations with real coefficients of degree n having up to n real solutions,
• solution of equations of the form f (x) = g (x) over a specified interval, where f and g are functions of
including numerical solutions
the type specified in the ‘Functions, relations and graphs’ area of study, by graphical, numerical and
algebraic methods, as applicable
• solution of simple systems of simultaneous linear equations, including consideration of cases where no
solution or an infinite number of possible solutions exist (geometric interpretation only required for two
equations in two variables).
Note: Concepts shown in grey are covered in other topics.
Source: VCE Mathematics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.
2 Jacaranda Maths Quest 12 Mathematical Methods VCE Units 3 & 4 Third Edition
1.2 Linear functions
LEARNING INTENTION
At the end of this subtopic you should be able to:
• define a function
• sketch and determine a linear function
• determine the midpoint and distance between two points.
1.2.1 Functions
A function is a set of ordered pairs in which each x-value is paired to a unique y-value. A vertical line will
intersect the graph of a function at most once. This is known as the vertical line test for a function.
A horizontal line may intersect the graph of a function once, in which case the function has a one-to-one
correspondence, or the horizontal line may intersect the graph more than once, in which case the function has
a many-to-one correspondence.
The domain of a function is the set of x-values in the ordered pairs, and the range is the set of the y-values of
the ordered pairs.
As a mapping, a function is written f ∶ D → R, f (x) = . . . , where the ordered pairs of the function f are formed
set R according to the function rule f (x) = . . . Not all of the available y-values may be required for a particular
using each of the x-values in the domain D and pairing them with a unique y-value drawn from the co-domain
mapping; this is dependent on the function rule.
notation for the straight line y = 2x is f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 2x.

For any polynomial function, the implied or maximal domain is R. For example, the mapping or function
Under this mapping, the image of 3, or the value of f at 3, is f (3) = 2 × 3 = 6, and the ordered pair (3, 6) lies on
the line of the function.
If only that part of the line y = 2x where the x-values are positive was required, then this straight line function
g ∶ R+ → R, g (x) = 2x.
would be defined on a restricted domain, a subset of the maximal domain, and this would be written as
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Recognising functions
Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the diagram. y

a. Explain why the graph is a function and state the type of
correspondence. (3, 9)
b. State the domain and range.
d. Calculate the value of y when x = − 2.

c. Express the given parabola using function notation.
√
(–2, 4)
y = x2
(0, 0) x
TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 3

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Use the vertical line test to explain why the a. This is a function because any vertical line that
graph is of a function. intersects the graph does so in exactly one place.
2. State the type of correspondence. A horizontal line could cut the graph in up to two
places. The correspondence is many-to-one.
b. 1. State the domain. b. Reading from left to right horizontally in the x-axis
direction, the domain is (−2, 3].
2. State the range. Reading from bottom to top vertically in the y-axis
direction, the range is [0, 9].
f : (−2, 3] → R, f (x) = x2 .
c. Use the domain and the function rule to form the c. Let the function be f. As a mapping, it is
mapping.
= x2
Let x = − 2.
d. Calculate the required value. d. f (x)√
f − 2 = − 2
( √ ) ( √ )2
=2
1.2.2 The linear polynomial function

Two points are needed in order to determine the equation of a line. When sketching an oblique line by hand,
usually the two points used are the x- and y-intercepts. If the line passes through the origin, then one other point
needs to be determined from its equation.
y2 − y1
Gradient
The gradient, or slope, of a line may be calculated from m =
x2 − x1
.
This remains constant between any pair of points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) on the line.
y
A
The linear function either increases or decreases steadily. (x1, y1)
perpendicular lines is equal to −1. That is:

Parallel lines have the same gradient, and the product of the gradients of
B (x2, y2)
0 x
y2 − y1
Gradient
m=
x2 − x1
m1 = m2 for parallel lines

and m1 m2 = −1 for perpendicular lines.
gradient by the relationship m = tan (𝜃). The angle 𝜃 is acute if the gradient is positive and obtuse if the gradient
The angle of inclination of an oblique line with the positive direction of the x-axis can be calculated from the
is negative.
Equation of a line
The equation of a straight line can be expressed in the form y = mx + c, where m is the gradient of the line and
c is the y-value of the intercept the line makes with the y-axis.
If a point (x1 , y1 ) and the gradient m are known, the equation of a line can be calculated from the point–gradient
form, y − y1 = m (x − x1 ).
Oblique lines are one-to-one functions.
Horizontal lines run parallel to the x-axis and have the equation y = c. These are many-to-one functions.
Vertical lines rise parallel to the y-axis and have the equation x = k. These lines are not functions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Sketching a linear graph
Consider the line L where L = {(x, y) ∶ 2x + 3y = 12}.

a. Sketch the line.
b. Calculate the gradient of the line.
a. 2x + 3y = 12
THINK WRITE
y-intercept: let x = 0.
a. 1. Calculate the x- and y-intercepts.
3y = 12
y=4
x-intercept: let y = 0.
The y-intercept is (0, 4).
2x = 12
x=6
The x-intercept is (6, 0).
2. Sketch the graph. y
(0, 4) 2x + 3y = 12
(6, 0)
0 x
b. Rearrange the equation in the form y = mx + c b. 2x + 3y = 12

3y = −2x + 12
−2x
y= +4
and state the gradient.
m=
Note: The gradient could also be calculated using
The gradient is m = − .
rise 3
from the diagram. 2
run
3
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Determining linear equations
Determine the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, for the line:

a. passing through the point (2, 3) and parallel to the line with equation y − 3x + 5 = 0
b. passing through the point (−1, 6) and perpendicular to the line with equation 2y + 4x = −10.
a. 1. Convert the equation into the form y = mx + c a. y − 3x + 5 = 0

THINK WRITE
y = 3x − 5
∴ m=3
and state the gradient of the parallel line. This
is also the gradient of the desired line.

2. State the gradient–point form of a straight y − y1 = m (x − x1 )
y − 3 = 3 (x − 2)
line equation.
y − 3 = 3x − 6
3. Substitute the given point (2, 3) and the
y = 3x − 3
gradient, and simplify.
y = 3x − 3
ax + by + c = 0. y − 3x + 3 = 0
4. Rearrange the formula into the required form,
b. 1. Convert the equation into the form y = mx + c b. 2y + 4x = −10

2y = −4x − 10
y = −2x − 5
and state the gradient of the perpendicular
∴ m = −2
line.
m1 × m2 = −1
−2 × m2 = −1
2. Calculate the gradient of the desired line.
∴ m2 =
1
2

line equation.
y−6 = (x + 1)
1
4. Substitute the given point (−1, 6) and the
y−6 = x+
gradient, and simplify. 2
1 1
y = x+
2 2
1 13
2 2
y = x+
1 13
ax + by + c = 0.
5. Rearrange the formula into the required form,
2y = x + 13
2 2
2y − x − 13 = 0
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Gradients and linear equations
line that passes through the points (−3, −2) and (4, 1).
a. Calculate, correct to 1 decimal place, the angle made with the positive direction of the x-axis by the
b. Determine the equation of the line that passes through the point (5, 2) at an angle of 45°.
y2 − y1
THINK WRITE
a. m =
x2 − x1
a. 1. Determine the gradient of the line passing
1+2
=
between the given points.
4+3
=
3
7
tan (𝜃) = m
tan (𝜃) =
2. State the relationship between the angle and
the gradient. 3
7
3. Calculate 𝜃, correct to 1 decimal place. 𝜃 = tan

( )
−1 3
= 23.2°
7
b. tan (𝜃) = m
m = tan (45°)
b. 1. Determine the gradient from the given angle.
=1
y − 2 = 1 (x − 5)
line equation.
y−2 = x−5
3. Substitute the given point (5, 2) and the
y = x−3
gradient, and simplify.
1.2.3 Midpoint and distance between two points

Midpoint between two points
The midpoint, M, of a line cuts the line exactly in half, so M is equidistant y
from points A and B. (x2, y2) B
The coordinates of M are found by averaging the x- and y-coordinates of
points A and B. M
Midpoint between two points A
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
(x1, y1)
M= ,
( ) x
0
2 2
Distance between two points

The distance between two points is the length of that line segment. y
y2 − y1 and horizontal length x2 − x1 . Applying Pythagoras’ theorem, the

Essentially, a right-angled triangle can be constructed with vertical height B (x2, y2)
formula for the distance between two points is as follows. y2 – y1
A x2 – x1
Distance between two points (x1, y1)
d= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
√
0 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Calculating the midpoint and distance between two points
Given the points (−3, 5) and (4, −6), calculate:

a. the midpoint, M, between the two points
b. the distance between the two points.
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
THINK WRITE
a. M = ,
( )
a. 1. Write the formula for finding the midpoint between
−3 + 4 5 − 6
2 2
M= ,
two points. ( )
Substitute the x- and y-coordinates and simplify.
( 2 ) 2
= ,−
Note: It doesn’t matter which is point 1 and which is
point 2. 1 1
2 2
b. d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
√
b. 1. Write the distance formula.
d= (4 + 3)2 + (−6 − 5)2

√
2. Substitute the two points into the equation and simplify.
= 72 + (−11)2
√
Note: It doesn’t matter which is point 1 and which is
= 49 + 121
point 2. √
= 170
√
√
3. State the final answer. The distance is 170 units.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Equations from point–gradient and gradient–y-intercept form (int-2551)
Midpoint of a line segment and the perpendicular bisector (int-2553)
1.2 Exercise
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1. WE1 Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the diagram.

Technology free y
(–4, 16)
a. Explain why the graph shows a function and state the type of
correspondence.
b. State the domain and range. y = x2
d. Calculate the value of y when x = −2

c. Express the given parabola using function notation.
√
3. (2, 4)
0 x
2. For each of the following, state:
i. the type of correspondence
ii. the domain and the range
iii. whether or not the relation is a function.
a. b. y
(– –32 , 7( y
(–3, 5) (0, 4)
(1, 0)
0 x
(0, 0) x
(6, –6)
(–92 , –9(
c. y d. y
(0, 2)
(0, 2)
(3, 0)
(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
0 x
(0, –2)
e. y f. y
(2, 8)
(0, 2)
0 x
0 x
(–2, –8)
3. WE2 Consider the line L where L = {(x, y) ∶ 3x − 4y = 12} .

a. Sketch the line.
b. Calculate the gradient of the line.
4. Sketch the following linear functions and state the range of each.
a. f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 9 − 4x b. g ∶ (−3, 5] → R, g(x) =

3x
c. 2x + y = 4, x ∈ [−2, 4) d. y = + 5, x ∈ [−1, 5]
5
2x
3
a. with a gradient of −3 and passing through the point (2, 6)

5. Determine the equation of the line:
b. passing through the points (−2, −4) and (1, 5).

Determine the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, for the line:
a. passing through the point (−1, 4) and parallel to the line with equation y + 2x − 3 = 0
6. WE3
b. passing through the point (2, 3) and perpendicular to the line with equation 3y − 6x = 4.
Technology active
7. WE4 Determine:
a. the angle made with the positive direction of the x-axis by the line that passes through the points (2,1) and
(8,−4) correct to 1 decimal place
b. the equation of the line that passes through the point (−2, 4) at an angle of 45°.
8. a. WE5 Given the points (2, 0) and (6, −4), calculate:

i. the midpoint, M, between the two points
b. Given the points (−3, −2) and (4, 3), calculate:

ii. the distance between the two points.
i. the midpoint, M, between the two points

ii. the distance between the two points.
9. Determine the value of a when:
a. the midpoint of (a, 4) and (10, −2) is (8, 1) b. the midpoint of (6, a) and (−3, −2) is ,
( )
3 5
d. the distance between (a, 4) and (−2, −2) is 45.

2 2
√ √
c. the distance between (1, a) and (4, 6) is 73
10. Consider the three points A (5, −3), B (7, 8) and C (−2, p). The line through A and C is parallel to
9x + 7y = 24.
a. Calculate the value of p.
b. Determine the equation of the line through B that is perpendicular to AC.
c. Calculate the shortest distance from B to AC, expressing the value to 1 decimal place.
1.2 Exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark) TECH-ACTIVE
( (1, −5) to
Source: VCE 2013, Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 2, Section 1, Q2; © VCAA.
d+1 3 1−d 7 d−4

The
( midpoint of
) the line segment that joins ) (d, 2) is
,− ,− ,0
MC
( )
A. B. C.
1−d 5+d
2 2 2 2 2
,2
( ) ( )
D. 0, E.
3 2
The linear function f ∶ D → R, f (x) = 4 − x has range [−2, 6).

MC
The domain D of the function is

A. [−2, 6) B. [−2, 2) C. R D. (−2, 6] E. [−6, 2)
The gradient of a line perpendicular to the line that passes through (3, 1) and (0, −5) is
C. − D. −6 E. −2
MC
1 1
A. B. 2
2 2
More exam questions are available online.
1.3 Solving systems of equations
LEARNING INTENTION
• solve simultaneous equations with two and three variables.
1.3.1 Solving simultaneous equations with two variables

Three possible scenarios exist when we are dealing with two linear simultaneous equations. There may be one
solution only, there may be no solutions, or there may be infinitely many solutions.
One solution If the two straight lines intersect each other at only y
one place, we have one solution. This indicates that
the gradients of the two equations are different.
0 x
No solution If the two straight lines have the same gradient, y

they are parallel lines, so they never meet.
Therefore, there are no solutions to the
simultaneous equations. Although the gradients of
the lines are the same, the y-intercepts are different.
0 x
Infinitely If the two straight lines have the same equation, y

many one line lies on top of the other and there are
solutions infinitely many solutions. Both the gradients and
the y-intercepts are identical.
0 x

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Solving systems of equations (int-2549)
Intersecting, parallel and identical lines (int-2552)
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Determining unique solutions
Determine the value of k for which the following simultaneous equations have a unique solution.
kx + 3y = 1
4x + 3ky = 0
kx + 3y = 1
THINK WRITE
4x + 3ky = 0
1. Label the equations. [1]
[2]
[1] ⇒ kx + 3y = 1
3y = 1 − kx
2. There will be a unique solution for all values
1 − kx
y=
of k, except when the gradients of the two lines
equations in the general form, y = mx + c.

are the same. To find the gradient, write the
∴ m=−
3
k
[2] ⇒ 4x + 3ky = 0
3
3ky = −4x
−4x
y=
∴ m=−
3k
4
3k
− =−
k 4
3. Equate the gradients and solve for k.
3k2 = 12
3 3k
k2 = 4
k = ±2
k ∈ R \ {−2, 2}
This solution tells us that if k = ± 2, the
4. Write the solution.
equations will have the same gradient, so for

any other value of k, there will be a unique
solution.
1.3.2 Simultaneous equations with three variables

An equation with two variables defines a line. An equation with three variables defines a plane. If an equation
has three variables, there needs to be three different equations for us to be able to solve for the point at which the
three planes intersect (if in fact they do intersect at a single point).
There are a number of different possible outcomes when planes intersect.
No solution One unique solution Infinitely many solutions
The planes are identical.
Planes are parallel to one another.
There is a single point at which all

three planes intersect. The planes intersect along a line.
There is no common point of
intersection.
When solving three simultaneous equations without technology, the strategy is to eliminate one of the variables
and reduce the three equations with three unknowns to two equations with two unknowns.
Solving simultaneous equations with technology becomes a straightforward problem in CAS by using the inbuilt
functions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Solving simultaneous equations with three unknowns
Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.
2x − 3y + 2z = −5
x − 5y + z = 1
2x + 3y + z = −2
2x − 3y + 2z = −5
THINK WRITE
x − 5y + z = 1
1. Label the equations and determine which [1]
2x + 3y + z = −2
of the three pronumerals you are going to [2]
eliminate. [3]
Either x or z would be appropriate choices, as
the coefficients in all three equations are either
the same or a multiple of the other.
[3] − [2] ⇒ x + 8y = −3 [4]

Let us eliminate z.
2. Subtract equation [2] from [3] to eliminate z
[3] × 2 ⇒ 4x + 6y + 2z = −4 [5]
and label this equation [4].
3. We need another equation without z. In order
to subtract equation [1] from [3], multiply
[5] − [1] ⇒ 2x + 9y = 1
equation [3] by 2. Label this equation [5].
4. Subtract equation [1] from the newly formed [6]
[5] to eliminate z and label this equation [6].

x + 8y = −3 [4]
2x + 9y = 1
5. We now have two equations with only x and y.
[4] × 2 ⇒ 2x + 16y = −6 [7]

[6]
6. The standard elimination method will be
used to solve this pair of simultaneous
equations. Multiply equation [4] by 2 so that
the coefficients of x are the same. Label this
[7] − [6] ⇒ 7y = −7
equation [7].
y = −1
7. Subtract equation [6] from [7] and solve for y.
8. Substitute y = −1 back into the system of Substitute y = −1 into [4]:

equations in order to find x. Choose one of the x − 8 = −3
x=5
9. Substitute the values for x and y into one of the Substitute y = −1 and x = 5 into [2]:
equations containing only x and y.
5+5+z = 1
10 + z = 1
original equations and solve for z.
z = −9
10. Write the final solution. Alternatively, CAS x = 5, y = −1, z = −9
can be used to solve the three simultaneous
equations if the question is technology active.
TI | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE CASIO | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE

1. On a Calculator page, press 1. On a Main screen,
MENU, then select: complete the entry
Solve ({2x − 3y + 2z = −5,

3: Algebra line as:
x − 5y + z = 1,
7: Solve System of Equations
2x + 3y + z = −2},
1: Solve System of Equations . . .
⎛ 2x − 3y + 2z = −5 {x, y, z}
Complete the entry line as:
solve ⎜{x − 5y + z = 1 , {x, y, z}⎟

⎞
⎝ 2x + 3y + z = −2
⎜ ⎟ then press EXE.
⎠
then press ENTER.
2. The answer appears on the screen. x = 5, y = −1, z = −9 2. The answer appears on x = 5, y = −1, z = −9
the screen.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Equations in 3 variables (int-2550)
1.3.3 Simultaneous equations involving parameters
can describe the set of solutions through the use of a parameter. Conventionally, the parameter chosen is 𝜆.
When there are infinitely many solutions to a system of equations, such as when planes intersect along a line, we
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Solving simultaneous equations using a parameter
The simultaneous equations shown have infinitely many solutions.
2x + y − 4z = 2
x + y + 3z = −1
b. Let z = 𝜆 and solve the equations in terms of 𝜆.

a. Eliminate y by subtracting the second equation from the first equation.
c. Explain what this solution represents.
a. 2x + y − 4z = 2
THINK WRITE
x + y + 3z = −1
a. 1. Label the equations. [1]
[1] − [2] ⇒ x − 7z = 3
[2]
2. Subtract equation [2] from equation [1].
b. 1. Substitute z = 𝜆 and solve for x. z=𝜆

x − 7𝜆 = 3
b.
x = 3 + 7𝜆
2. Substitute z = 𝜆 and x = 3 + 7𝜆 into equation Substitute z = 𝜆 and x = 3 + 7𝜆 into [2]:

3 + 7𝜆 + y + 3𝜆 = −1
y + 10𝜆 + 3 = −1
[2] and solve for y.
y = −4 − 10𝜆
Note: Equation [1] could have also been
x = 3 + 7𝜆, y = −4 − 10𝜆, z = 𝜆
chosen.
3. Write the solution.
c. Interpret the solution. c. This solution describes the line along which
the two planes intersect.

b. 1. Ona Calculator page, press b. 1. Ona Main screen,
MENU, then select: complete the entry line
solve ({2x + y − 4z = 2,
3: Algebra as:
x + y + 3z = −11,
7: Solve System of Equations
z = 𝜆}, {x, y, z}
1: Solve System of Equations . . .
⎛ 2x + y − 4z = 2
Complete the entry line as:
solve ⎜ {x + y + 3z = −1, {x, y, z} ⎟ Note: The 𝜆 symbol can

⎞ then press EXE.
⎝ z=𝜆
⎜ ⎟
⎠ be found in the Keyboard
Note: The 𝜆 symbol can be found then selecting 𝛼𝛽𝛾.

then press ENTER. menu by selecting abc
by pressing ctrl+
answer appears on the screen. x = 7𝜆 + 3, x = 7𝜆 + 3,

y = −2 (5𝜆 + 2) , y = −10𝜆 − 4,
2. The 2. The answer appears on
z=𝜆 z=𝜆
the screen.

1.3 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE6 Determine the value of k for which the following simultaneous equations have a unique solution.
2x + ky = 4
(k − 3) x + 2y = 0
2. Determine the value of m for which the following simultaneous equations have infinitely many solutions.
mx − 2y = 4
x + (m − 3) y = m
3. Determine the value of m for which the following simultaneous equations have no solution.
x + my = 3
4mx + y = 0
4. Determine the value of k for which the following simultaneous equations have a unique solution.
x + 3ky = 2
(k − 1) x − 1 = −6y
5. Calculate the value of m for which the following simultaneous equations have:
a. a unique solution
b. no solution
c. an infinite number of solutions.
−2x + my = 1
(m + 3) x − 2y = −2m
Technology active
6. WE7 Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.
2m − 4n − p = 1
4m + n + p = 5
3m + 3n − 2p = 22
7. Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.
2d − e − f = −2
3d + 2e − f = 5
d + 3e + 2f = 11
2x + y − z = 12 m+n−p = 6
8. Solve the following systems of simultaneous equations.
−x − 3y + z = −13 3m + 5n − 2p = 13
a. b.
−4x + 3y − z = −2 5m + 4n − 7p = 34
c. u + 2v − 4w = 23 a+b+c = 4
3u + 4v − 2w = 37 2a − b + 2c = 17
d.
3u + v − 2w = 19 −a − 3b + c = 3
9. The measure of the largest angle of a triangle is 20° more than the smallest angle, and the sum of the
largest and smallest angles is 60° more than the third angle. Calculate the angle sizes of the triangle using
simultaneous equations.
w − 2x + 3y − z = 10
2w + x + y + z = 4
−w + x + 2y − z = −3
3w − 2x + y = 11
11. Solve the following system of simultaneous equations in terms of a.
2x − y + az = 4
(a + 2) x + y − z = 2
6x + (a + 1) y − 2z = 4
12. WE8 The simultaneous equations shown have infinitely many solutions.
x + 2y + 2z = 1
2x − 2y + z = 2
b. Let z = 𝜆 and solve the equations in terms of 𝜆.

a. Eliminate y by adding the second equation to the first equation.
c. Explain what this solution represents.
13. Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations through the use of the parameter 𝜆.
x + 2y + 4z = 2
x − y − 3z = 4
x + y − 2z = 5
x − 2y + 4z = 1
−2x + y + z = −2
x − 3z = 0
16. Determine the values of m and n for which the equations below have:
a. a unique solution
b. an infinite number of solutions
3x + 2y = −1
c. no solution.
mx + 4y = n

1.3 Exam questions
The simultaneous linear equations ax − 3y = 5 and 3x − ay = 8 − a have no solution for

a=3
MC
a = −3
A.
both a = 3 and a = −3
B.
a ∈ R \ {3}
C.
a ∈ R \ [−3, 3]
D.
E.

MC The simultaneous linear equations
−2x − my = −4 and
(m − 1) x + 6y = 2 (m − 1) ,
A. m = 4 or m = −3
where m is a real constant, have a unique solution for
B. m = 4 only
C. m ∈ R\ (4, −3)
D. m ≠ 4
E. m = −3 only

MC A unique solution for solving a system of three simultaneous equations in three variables represents
A. three planes intersecting along a line.
B. three planes intersecting along a plane.
C. three planes intersecting at a point.
D. three planes having no common intersection.
E. three planes intersecting at a point, a line or a plane.
1.4 Quadratic functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• factorise and solve quadratic functions
• sketch quadratic functions in different forms.
1.4.1 Factorisation
Review of quadratic expressions
• Perfect squares: a2 ± 2ab + b2 = (a ± b)2

The following techniques are used to factorise quadratic expressions.
• Difference of perfect squares: a2 − b2 = (a − b) (a + b)

• Product and sum (trinomials): To factorise ax2 + bx + c, we look for two numbers that multiply to give ac
and add to form the middle term, b.
For example, in the trinomial x2 − x − 6, ac = −6 and b = −1. The two numbers are −3 and 2.
x2 − 3x + 2x − 6
x2 − 3x + 2x − 6
Therefore, we split the middle term:
x(x − 3) + 2(x − 3)
Then pair and factorise:
(x − 3)(x + 2)
• Completing the square: The method of completing the square will work for any quadratic that can be
factorised.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Factorising quadratic expressions
a. 9a2 − 24ab + 16b2 b. 6x2 − 17x + 7 c. 2t2 + 8t − 14

Use an appropriate technique to factorise each of the following quadratic expressions.
a. 9a2 − 24ab + 16b2 = (3a) − 2 (3a) (4b) + (4b)

THINK WRITE
2 2
= (3a − 4b)2
a. The first and last terms are perfect squares, so
check if the expression fits the perfect square
b. 1. Factorise by product and sum before applying b. 6x2 − 17x + 7

formula.
ac = 42, b = −17
The two numbers are −14 and −3.
the method of completing the square.
2. Find two numbers that have a product of ac
6x2 − 3x − 14x + 7
and a sum of b.
3. Split the middle term.
6x2 − 3x − 14x + 7
3x(2x − 1) − 7(2x − 1)
4. Pair and factorise.
(3x − 7)(2x − 1)
6x2 − 17x + 7 = (3x − 7) (2x − 1)

c. 2t2 + 8t − 14 = 2 t2 + 4t − 7
5. Write the answer.
( )
c. 1. Take out the common factor of 2.
= 2 t2 + 4t + (2)2 − (2)2 − 7
( )
= 2 (t + 2)2 − 4 − 7
2. Product and sum is not an appropriate method
( )
here, as the only factors of 7 are 1 and 7,
= 2 (t + 2)2 − 11
and these cannot be combined to give a ( )
= 2 t + 2 − 11 t + 2 + 11
middle coefficient of 4. Thus, the method of ( √ )( √ )
completing the square is required.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Perfect square form of a quadratic (int-2558)
Completing the square (int-2559)
1.4.2 Solving quadratic equations

Polynomial equations, whether they be quadratics, cubic polynomials, quartic polynomials or polynomials of
a higher degree, can be solved using the Null Factor Law (that is, if the product of two numbers is zero, one of
them must equal zero).

For example,
0 = x2 − 5x + 6
Factorising gives
0 = (x − 3) (x − 2)
Applying the Null Factor Law,
x = 3 or x = 2
The quadratic formula

Quadratic equations of the form 0 = ax2 + bx + c can also be solved by using the quadratic formula.
Solving quadratic equations

−b ± b2 − 4ac
√
x=
2a
The discriminant = Δ
= b2 − 4ac
If Δ > 0, there are two real solutions to the equation.
If Δ = 0, there is one real solution to the equation.
If Δ < 0, there are no real solutions to the equation.
Generally, we check if the discriminant is a perfect square; if it is not, the quadratic formula is required.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Solving quadratic equations
a. 6x2 − 7x − 3 = 0 b. x2 + 8x + 1 = 0
Solve the following equations for x.
a. 6x2 − 7x − 3 = 0
THINK WRITE
(3x + 1) (2x − 3) = 0
a. 1. First try to factorise by two brackets.
x=− ,
2. Apply the Null Factor Law to solve for x.
1 3
b. Δ = b2 − 4ac
3 2
= 82 − 4 × 1 × 1
b. 1. First try to factorise by two brackets. If this
= 60
doesn’t work, check the discriminant.
Δ > 0, ∴ 2 solutions
As the discriminant is not a perfect square,
the quadratic formula must be used to solve
the equation.
−b ±
b2 − 4ac
x=
√
2. Apply the quadratic formula.
−8 ±
√2a
=
60
−8 ± 2 15
2 √
=
2
x = −4 ± 15
√

b. 1. On a Calculator page, b. 1. On a Main screen,
solve x2 + 8x + 1 = 0, x
press MENU, then select: complete
( the entry line as:
)
3: Algebra
1: Solve then press EXE.
Complete the entry
solve x2 + 8x + 1 = 0, x
line as:
( )
then press ENTER.
x = − 15 − 4, x = 15 − 4 The answer appears on the x = − 15 − 4, x = 15 − 4

√ √ √ √
2. The answer appears on 2.
the screen. screen.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities The discriminant (int-2560)
The quadratic formula (int-2561)
1.4.3 Graphing quadratic functions

The function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0, is the quadratic polynomial function. If
a > 0, the graph of the function is a concave-up parabola with a minimum turning point; if a < 0, the graph of the
General form, y = ax2 + bx + c

function is a concave-down parabola with a maximum turning point.
As the x-intercepts of the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c are the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, there
may be zero, one or two x-intercepts as determined by the discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac.
Δ<0 Δ=0 Δ>0
a>0 y y y
0 x 0 x 0 x
(continued)

Δ<0 Δ=0 Δ>0
(continued)
a<0 y y y
0 x 0 x 0 x
The discriminant
The quadratic function is either positive or negative, depending whether a > 0 or a < 0 respectively.
If Δ < 0, there are no x-intercepts.
If Δ = 0, there is one x-intercept, a turning point where the graph touches the x-axis.
If Δ > 0, there are two distinct x-intercepts and the graph crosses the x-axis at these places.
Axis of symmetry
−b ± b2 − 4ac
√
As the roots of the quadratic equation are given by x =
−b
, the axis of symmetry of the
parabola has the equation x =

2a
.
2a
This is also the x-coordinate of the turning point, so by substituting this value into the parabola’s equation, the
y-coordinate of the turning point can be calculated.
Turning point form, y = a(x − h)2 + k

The simplest parabola has the equation y = x2 . Its turning point is the origin, (0, 0), which is unaltered by
a dilation from the x-axis in the y-direction. However, if the graph of this parabola undergoes a horizontal
translation of h units and a vertical translation of k units, the turning point moves to the point (h, k).
Thus, y = a(x − h)2 + k is the equation of a parabola with turning point (h, k) and axis of symmetry x = h.
If y = a(x − h)2 + k is expanded, then the general form y = ax2 + bx + c is obtained. Conversely, when the
technique of completing the square is applied to the equation y = ax2 + bx + c, the turning point form is obtained.
x-intercept form, y = a (x − x1 ) (x − x2 )
x = x1 and x = x2 can be obtained by inspection. The axis of symmetry lies midway between the intercepts, so the
When the equation of a quadratic function is expressed as the product of its two linear factors, the x-intercepts at
x + x2
equation for this axis must be x = 1 , and this gives the x-coordinate of the turning point. The y-coordinate
2
of the turning point can be calculated from the equation once the x-coordinate is known.
Expanding the equation y = a (x − x1 ) (x − x2 ) will return it to general form, and factorising the general equation
y = ax2 + bx + c will convert it to x-intercept form.
Key features of the graph of a quadratic function
When sketching the graph of a parabola by hand, identify:
• the y-intercept
• any x-intercepts
• the turning point
• the axis of symmetry, if it is helpful to the sketch
• any end-point coordinates if the function is given on a restricted domain.
The methods used to identify the key features of a graph will depend on the form in which the equation of the
graph is expressed.
Similarly, when determining the equation of a parabola given a key feature, you should select the form of the
• If the turning point is given, use the y = a(x − h)2 + k form.

equation that emphasises that key feature.
• If the x-intercepts are given, use the y = a (x − x1 ) (x − x2 ) form.

• Otherwise, use the y = ax2 + bx + c form.
Three pieces of information are always required to determine the equation, as each form involves 3 constants or
parameters.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Sketching a quadratic graph
Sketch the graph of y = 9 − (2x + 1)2 and state its domain and range.
THINK WRITE
y = 9 − (2x + 1)2
y = −(2x + 1)2 + 9
1. Rewrite the equation so it is in a standard
form (turning point form).
or
y = − 2 x+ +9
( ( ))2
1
2
y = −4 x + +9
( )2
1
2
− ,9 .
( )
1
2. State the coordinates and type of turning The graph has a maximum turning point at
2
point.
y = 9 − (1)2
3. Calculate the y-intercept.
y=8
4. Calculate any x-intercepts. As the graph has a maximum turning point with a
Let y = 0.
positive y-value, there will be x-intercepts.
9 − (2x + 1)2 = 0
(2x + 1)2 = 9
2x + 1 = ±3
2x = −4 or 2
x = −2 or 1
The x-intercepts are (−2, 0) and (1, 0).

5. Sketch the graph.
)–1–2, 9) y
(0, 8)
y = 9 – (2x + 1)2
(–2, 0) (1, 0)
0 x
6. State the domain and range. The domain is R and the range is (−∞, 9].

1. On a Graphs page, 1. On a Graph & Table screen,
complete the entry complete the entry line for
f 1 (x) = 9 − (2x + 1)2 y1 = 9 − (2x + 1)2

line for function 1 as: y1 as:
then press ENTER. then press EXE.

Select the Graph icon to
draw the graph.
2. To find the x-intercepts, 2. To find the x-intercepts,

press MENU, then select: select:
6: Analyze Graph • Analysis
1: Zero • G-Solve
Move the cursor to the left • Root
of the x-intercept when With the cursor on the first
prompted for the lower x-intercept, press EXE. Use
bound, then press ENTER. the left/right arrows to move
Move the cursor to the to the other x-intercept, then
right of the x-intercept press EXE.
when prompted for the
upper bound, then press
ENTER.
Repeat this step to find the
other x-intercept.
3. To find the y-intercept, 3. To find the y-intercept,
5: Trace • Analysis
1: Graph Trace • G-Solve
Type 0, then press ENTER • Y-Intercept
twice. then press EXE.
4. To find the maximum, 4. To find the maximum,
3: Maximum • G-Solve
Move the cursor to the left • Max
of the maximum when then press EXE.
prompted for the lower
bound, then press ENTER.
Move the cursor to the
right of the maximum
when prompted for the
upper bound, then press
ENTER.
5. The domain and range can The domain ] is R and the range 5. The domain and range can The domain is R]and the
be read from the graph. is (−∞, 9 . be read from the graph. range is (−∞, 9 .
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Determining the equation of a quadratic graph
Determine the equation of the given graph and hence obtain y

the coordinates of the turning point.
(–5, 0) 0 (8, 0) x
(0, –4)
THINK WRITE
1. Select a form of the equation. As the two x-intercepts are known, the x-intercept
y = a (x − x1 ) (x − x2 )
form of the equation will be used.
There is an x-intercept at x = −5.

⇒ (x + 5) is a factor.
2. Use the key features to partially determine
There is an x-intercept at x = 8.
the equation.
⇒ (x − 8) is a factor.
The equation is y = a (x + 5) (x − 8).
The point (0, −4) lies on the graph. Substitute this

point in y = a (x + 5) (x − 8).
3. Use the third piece of information to fully
−4 = a (5) (−8)
determine the equation.
−4 = −40a
a=
1
The equation is y = (x + 5) (x − 8).

10
1
10

4. Determine the equation of the axis of The axis of symmetry lies midway between the
−5 + 8
symmetry. x-intercepts.
∴x=
=
2
3
2
3
5. Calculate the coordinates of the turning point. The x-coordinate of the turning point is .
Substitute x = in the equation of the graph.

2
3
2) (
y= +5 −8
( )
1 3 3
1 13 −13
10 2 2
y= × ×
10 2 2
y=−
169
,−
40 ( )
3 169
The turning point is .
2 40
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Quadratic functions (int-2562)
1.4 Exercise

Technology free
a. 15u2 − u − 2 b. 6d 2 − 28d + 16 c. 3j2 + 12j − 6 d. b2 − 1

1. WE9 Use an appropriate technique to factorise each of the following quadratic expressions.
a. f2 − 12f − 28 b. g2 + 3g − 4
2. Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following quadratic expressions.
a. 8x + 2x − 3 = 0 b. 2x2 − 4x + 1 = 0
3. WE10 Solve the following equations for x.
2
a. 81y2 = 1 b. 4z2 + 28z + 49 = 0 c. 5m2 + 3 = 10m d. x2 − 4x = −3

4. Fully factorise and solve the following quadratic equations over R.
a. 48p = 24p2 + 18 b. 39k = 4k2 + 77 c. m2 + 3m = 4 d. 4n2 = 8 − 5n

5. Fully factorise and solve the following quadratic equations over R.
6. WE11 Sketch the graph of y = 2(3x − 2)2 − 8 and state its domain and range.
7. a. Given the function f ∶ (−2, 2] → R, f (x) = 3(1 − x) + 2, state the range of the graph.
2
i. y = (x − 2) (2x + 3) , x ∈ [−2, 3]
b. Sketch the graphs of the following quadratic functions. State the range for each one.
ii. y = −x2 + 4x + 2, x ∈ R
iii. y = −2(x + 1) − 3, x ∈ (−3, 0]
2
iv. y = (2x − 3)2 − 1, x ∈ R

1
2
8. Consider the quadratic function f ∶ R+ ∪ {0} → R, f (x) = 4x2 − 8x + 7.

Technology active
a. Determine the number of intercepts the graph of y = f (x) makes with the x-axis.
b. Express the equation of the function in the form f (x) = a(x + b) + c.
c. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) and state its domain and range.
2
9. WE12 Determine the equation of the given graph and hence obtain the coordinates of the turning point.
(0, 2)
(4, 0)
1 0 x
(
–– , 0
2 (
a. The turning point has coordinates (−6, 12) and the graph of the function passes through the point (4, −3).
10. Determine the equations of the following quadratic functions.
b. The points (−7, 0), (0, −20) and −2 , 0 lie on the graph.
( )
1
c. The minimum value of the function is −5 and it contains the points (−8, 11) and (8, 11)
2
Express −x2 + 2x − 5 in the form a(x + b)2 + c.

Hence, state the coordinates of the turning point of the graph of y = −x2 + 2x − 5.
11. a.
Sketch the graph of y = −x2 + 2x − 5 and state its range.

b.
Use a graphical method to show that the graphs of y = x + 3 and y = −x2 + 2x − 5 never intersect.
c.
Determine the value of k so that the graphs of y = x + k and y = −x2 + 2x − 5 will touch exactly once.
d.
e.
12. Determine the possible values of k such that the graphs of y = 2x2 and y = kx − 2 do not intersect.
13. Determine the values of m for which the line y = −3 − 2mx intersects the parabola y = x2 − 1 twice.
14. Show that y = 2x − 3 is a tangent to the graph y = x2 − 2.
15. a. Find the values of k for which the equation kx2 − 3x + k = 0 has no solutions.
b. If kx2 + 4x − k + 2 = 0, show that the equation has a solution for all values of k.
5 − 2m
16. A quadratic equation has the rule (m − 1) x + x + 2m = 0. Find the value(s) of m for which the
( )
2
2
quadratic equation has two solutions.

1.4 Exam questions
The set of values of k for which x2 + 2x − k = 0 has two real solutions is

Source: VCE 2019, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section A, Q2; © VCAA.
A. {−1, 1} B. (−1, ∞) C. (−∞, −1)

MC
D. {−1} E. [−1, ∞)
The turning point of the parabola y = x2 − 2bx + 1 is closest to the origin when
A. b = 0 B. b = −1 or b = 1 C. b = − √ or b = √
MC
1 1
D. b = or b = − E. b = or b = −
2 2
1 1 1 1
2 2 4 4
The graphs of y = mx + c and y = ax2 will have no points of intersection for all values of m, c and a
MC
A. a > 0 and c > 0 B. a > 0 and c < 0 C. a > 0 and c > −

such that
m2
D. a < 0 and c > − E. m > 0 and c > 0

4a
m2
4a
1.5 Cubic functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• factorise and solve cubic equations
• sketch cubic functions in different forms.
1.5.1 Factorisation
For polynomials of degree 3, it is necessary to remember the perfect cube patterns as well as the sum and
difference of two cubes.
Cubic factorisations
Perfect cubes:
a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 = (a + b)3
a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3 = (a − b)3
Sum and difference of two cubes:

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Factorising cubic expressions
a. 27y3 − 27y2 + 9y − 1 b. x3 + 8
Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following cubic expressions.
c. 3y3 − 81 d. 8m3 + 60m2 + 150m + 125
a. 27y3 − 27y2 + 9y − 1
THINK WRITE
= (3y)3 − 3(3y)2 (1) + 3(3y)(1)2 − (1)3

a. This is a perfect cube pattern.
a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3 = (a − b)3 .

Check to see that it has the pattern of
= (3y − 1)3
b. x3 + 8 = x3 + 23
= (x + 2) x2 − 2x + 22
b. This is a sum of two cubes pattern.
( )
= (x + 2) x2 − 2x + 4
( )
c. 3y3 − 81 = 3 y3 − 27
( )
c. 1. Take out a common factor first.
= 3 y3 − 33
( )
= 3(y − 3) y2 + 3y + 32
2. Now factorise using the difference of two
cubes pattern. ( )
= 3(y − 3) y2 + 3y + 9
( )
d. 8m3 + 60m2 + 150m + 125

= (2m)3 + 3(2m)2 (5) + 3(2m)(5)2 + (5)3
d. This is a perfect cube pattern.
a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 = (a + b)3 .

Check to see that it has the pattern of
= (2m + 5)3
Factorising cubics using the technique of grouping

To factorise x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 12, start by grouping two groups of two terms in the following manner.
x3 – 3x2 + 4x – 12
TWO TWO
2
= x (x – 3) + 4(x – 3)
= (x – 3)(x2 + 4)
The other possible method is to group three and one. For example, to factorise x2 − z2 + 4x + 4, rearrange the
expression as shown.
x2 + 4x + 4 – z2
x2 + 4x + 4 – z2
THREE ONE
= (x + 2)2 – z2
= (x + 2 – z)(x + 2 + z)

WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Factorising cubic expressions
a. m2 − n2 − 36 − 12n b. p3 + 2p2 − 4p − 8
Fully factorise the following polynomials.
a. m2 − n2 − 36 − 12n
THINK WRITE
rearrange, taking out −1 as a common factor. = m2 − n2 − 12n − 36

a. 1. Group the polynomial one and three and
= m2 – (n2 + 12n + 36)
= m2 − (n + 6)2
ONE THREE
2. Factorise the group of three terms as a perfect
square.
= (m − (n + 6)) (m + (n + 6))
= (m − n − 6) (m + n + 6)
3. Apply the difference of perfect squares
method.
b. 1. Group the polynomial two and two. b. p3 + 2p2 – 4p – 8
p3 + 2p2 − 4p − 8
TWO TWO
= p2 (p + 2) − 4 (p + 2)
2. Factorise each pair.
= (p + 2) p2 − 4
( )
= (p + 2) (p − 2) (p + 2)
= (p + 2)2 (p − 2)
3. Finish the factorisation by applying the
difference of perfect squares method.
Factor theorem
When the previous methods are not appropriate for a third degree polynomial or a higher degree polynomial,
then knowledge of the factor theorem is essential. The factor theorem is an algebraic theorem that links the
zeros of a polynomial. It states the following:
Factor theorem
A polynomial, P(x), has a factor (x − a) if and only if P(a) = 0;
that is, if a is a root of the polynomial.
Consider the factorisation of x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15.

Let P (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15.
is, to achieve P (x) = 0. If this is so, we have found one linear factor of the polynomial.
By substituting integer values of x that are factors of the constant term, we aim to achieve a zero remainder, that
P (1) = 13 + 3(1)2 − 13 (1) − 15

= 1 + 3 − 13 − 15
≠0
P (−1) = (−1)3 + 3(−1)2 − 13 (−1) − 15
= −1 + 3 + 13 − 15
=0
Thus, (x + 1) is a factor. The quadratic factor can then be found by long division or by inspection.
x2 + 2x − 15
)
x + 1 x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15
− (x3 + x2)
2x2 − 13x − 15
− (2x2 + 2x)
− 15x − 15
− (−15x − 15)
0
–15x + 2x
or x3 + 3x2 – 13x – 15 = (x + 1) (x2 + 2x – 15)
2x2 + x2
Completing the factorisation gives:
x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15 = (x + 1) x2 + 2x − 15
( )
= (x + 1) (x + 5) (x − 3)
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Factorising a cubic expression
Fully factorise 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3.
P (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3

THINK WRITE
P (1) = 2 − 3 − 8 − 3 ≠ 0
1. Let P (x) equal the cubic polynomial.
P (−1) = −2 − 3 + 8 − 3 = 0
2. Try P (1), P (−1), P (2) and so on to get a zero
remainder.
Therefore, x + 1 is a factor.
3. Use long division to obtain a quadratic factor.

2x2 − 5x − 3
)
x + 1 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3
− (2x3 + 2x2)
− 5x − 8x
− (− 5x − 5x)
− 3x − 3
− (3x − 3)
4. Complete the cubic factorisation by factorising P (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3

0
= (x + 1) 2x2 − 5x − 3
( )
= (x + 1) (2x + 1) (x − 3)
the quadratic factor into its two linear factors.

1. On a Calculator page, press 1. On a Main screen, select:
MENU, then select: • Action
3: Algebra • Transformation
2: Factor • factor
factor 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3

Complete • factor
( the entry line as:)
factor 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3

Complete
( the entry line as:)
then press ENTER.
then press EXE.
2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3 = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3 =

(x − 3) (x + 1) (2x + 1) (x + 1) (x − 3) (2x + 1)
2. The answer appears on the 2. The answer appears on the
screen. screen.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Long division of polynomials (int-2564)
The remainder and factor theorems (int-2565)
1.5.2 Solving polynomial equations

Consider again the cubic polynomial x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15.
x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15 = (x + 1) x2 + 2x − 15
( )
= (x + 1) (x + 5) (x − 3)
We will equate it to zero so that we have a cubic equation to solve.
x3 + 3x
( 2 − 13x − 15) = 0
(x + 1) x + 2x − 15 = 0
2
(x + 1) (x + 5) (x − 3) = 0
Applying the Null Factor Law, x = −1, x = −5 or x = 3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Solving a cubic equation
Solve 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3 = 0 for x.
0 = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3
THINK WRITE
= (x + 1) 2x2 − 5x − 3
1. The cubic expression was factorised in Worked example 15.
( )
= (x + 1) (2x + 1) (x − 3)
x = −1, − , 3
1
2. Use the Null Factor Law to solve the cubic equation for x.
2
Equality of polynomials
Two polynomials, P (x) and Q (x), are such that:
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + ... + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and
Q (x) = bn xn + bn−1 xn−1 + bn−2 xn−2 + ... + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 .
P (x) is identically equal to Q (x) for all values of x (that is, P (x) ≡ Q (x)) if and only if:
an = bn , an−1 = bn−1 , an−2 = bn−2 ..., a2 = b2 , a1 = b1 and a0 = b0 .
For instance, 3x3 + (m − 2) x2 + (m + n) x ≡ kx3 + x2 . You are required to find the values of m, n and k. As the
polynomials are equal to each other, we can equate coefficients to give:
k=3 m−2 = 1 m+n = 0

m=3 3+n = 0
n = −3
WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Equating coefficients
If (n − 3) x3 + (2n + p) x2 + (p + q) x ≡ −2x3 + x2 , find the values of n, p and q.
n − 3 = −2
THINK WRITE
n=1
3
1. Equate the coefficients of the x terms and
solve for n.
2n + p = 1
2+p = 1
2. Equate the coefficients of the x2 terms and
p = −1
solve for p.
p+q = 0
−1 + q = 0
3. Equate the coefficients of the x terms and solve
q=1
for q.
Note: As there is no x term on the right-hand
n = 1, p = −1, q = 1
side, the coefficient is zero.
1.5.3 Graphing cubic functions

The function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a, b, c, d ∈ R, a ≠ 0 is the cubic polynomial function. Although
the shape of its graph may take several forms, for its maximal domain the function has a range of R. Its
long-term behaviour is dependent on the sign of the coefficient of the x3 term.
If a > 0, then as x → ∞, y → ∞ and as x → −∞, y → −∞.
If a < 0, then as x → ∞, y → −∞ and as x → −∞, y → ∞.
This behaviour is illustrated in the graph of y = x3 , the simplest cubic function, and that of y = −x3 .
y y
y = x3 y = –x3
(1, 1) (–1, 1)
0 x 0 x
(–1, –1) (1, –1)

Cubic functions of the form y = a(x − h)3 + k
A significant feature of the graphs of y = x3 and y = −x3 is the stationary point of inflection at the origin. This
point is constant under a dilation but becomes the point (h, k) following a horizontal and vertical translation of
h and k units respectively.
Cubic functions of the form y = a(x − h)3 + k

These cubic functions have:
• a stationary point of inflection at (h, k)
• one x-intercept
• long-term behaviour dependent on the sign of a.
The coordinates of the stationary point of inflection are read from the equation in exactly the same way the
turning points of a parabola are read from its equation in turning point form.
Cubic functions expressed in factorised form

A cubic function may have one, two or three x-intercepts, and hence its equation may have up to three linear
factors. When the equation can be expressed as the product of linear factors, we can readily deduce the
behaviour of the function and sketch its graph without finding the positions of any turning points. Unlike
a quadratic function, the turning points in a cubic function are not symmetrically placed between pairs of
x-intercepts.
y
y = (x − m)(x − n)(x − p)
Cubic functions — factorised form
y = (x − m)(x − n)(x − p), the graph cuts the

• If there are three linear factors, that is
x-axis at x = m, x = n and x = p. m 0 n p x
other linear factor, that is y = (x − m)2 (x − n), the

• If there is one factor of multiplicity 2 and one
x = m and cuts the x-axis at x = n.

graph touches the x-axis at a turning point at
y = (x − m)2(x − n)
If the equation of the cubic function has one linear factor and one irreducible quadratic factor, it is difficult
graphs of y = (x + 3) x + 1 and y = x + 3 (x − 1).

to deduce its behaviour
( 2without
) either(technology
) or calculus. For example, the following diagram shows the
2
The intercepts made with the coordinate axes can be located y
we could not predict that y = x2 + 3 (x − 1) has no turning

and the long-term behaviour is ( known.) However, at this stage
y = (x2 + 3)(x – 1)
points or stationary point of inflection (it has a non-stationary (0, 3)
point of inflection). Nor could we predict, without numerical y = (x2 + 1)(x + 3)
point on the graph of y = (x + 3) x2 + 1 .

calculations, that there is a maximum
( and
) a minimum turning
(– 3, 0) (1, 0)
0 x
(0, –3)
Determining the equation of a cubic function from its graph
• If there is a stationary point of inflection given, use the y = a(x − h)3 + k form.
Depending on the information given, one form of the cubic equation may be preferable over another.
• If the x-intercepts are given, use the y = a (x − m) (x − n) (x − p) form, or the repeated factor form
y = a(x − m)2 (x − n) if there is a turning point at one of the x-intercepts.
• If an x-intercept occurs at x = , then x −
( )
b b
is a factor. Alternatively, the rational root theorem allows
this factor to be expressed as (cx − b).
c c
• Use the general form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d if, for example, neither x-intercepts nor a stationary point of
inflection are given.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 Sketching a cubic graph
Sketch the graph of y = 2(x − 1)3 + 8, labelling the intercepts with the coordinate axes with their exact
coordinates.
y = 2(x − 1)3 + 8
THINK WRITE
1. State the key feature that can be deduced from
the equation. This equation shows there is a stationary point of
inflection at (1, 8).
y = 2(−1)3 + 8
2. Calculate the y-intercept.
y=6
x-intercept: let y = 0.
2(x − 1)3 + 8 = 0
3. Calculate the x-intercept in exact form.
(x − 1)3 = −4
x − 1 = −4
√3
x = 1 + −4
√
3
x = 1− 4
√
3
The x-intercept is 1 − 4, 0 .
( √ )
3
4. Sketch the graph and label the intercepts with y

the coordinate axes. y = 2(x – 1)3 + 8
(1, 8)
(0, 6)
3
(1 – 4, 0)
0 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 19 Determining the equation of a cubic graph
Determine the function f whose graph is shown in the diagram, expressing its rule as the product of
linear factors with integer coefficients.
y
y = f (x)
(2, 0)
(–0.75, 0) 0 x
(0, –0.5)
The graph has an x-intercept at x = −0.75.

THINK WRITE
In fraction form, this is x = − .

1. Obtain a linear factor of the equation of the
graph that has integer coefficients. 3
Therefore, (4x + 3) is a factor.

4
The graph has a turning point on the x-axis at x = 2.

This means (x − 2)2 is a factor.
2. State a second factor.
3. State the form of the equation. The equation is of the form y = a (4x + 3) (x − 2)2 .
The point (0, −0.5) or 0, −

( )
1
4. Determine the equation fully. lies on the graph.
2
y = a (4x + 3) (x − 2)2 .
Substitute one point into
− = a (3) (−2)2
1
− = 12a
2
1
a=−
2
1
24
y = − (4x + 3) (x − 2)2 .
The graph has the equation
1
24
5. State the required function. The domain of the graph is R. Hence, the function f is
f ∶ R → R, f(x) = − (4x + 3) (x − 2)2 .

given by
1
24
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Cubic polynomials (int-2566)
x-intercepts of cubic graphs (int-2567)
1.5 Exercise

Technology free
a. 125a3 − 27b3 b. 2c3 + 6c2 d + 6cd 2 + 2d 3

1. WE13 Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following cubic expressions.
c. 40p3 − 5 d. 8x3 − 12x2 + 6x − 1
a. 27z3 − 54z2 + 36z − 8 b. m3 n3 + 64

2. Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following cubic expressions.
a. 3x − xy − 3x + y b. 3y3 + 3y2 z2 − 2zy − 2z3

3. WE14 Fully factorise the following polynomials.
2
a. 9a2 − 16b2 − 12a + 4 b. n2 p2 − 4m2 − 4m − 1

4. Fully factorise the following polynomials.
5. WE15 Fully factorise x3 − 2x2 − 21x − 18.
7r3 − 49r2 + r − 7 36v3 + 6v2 + 30v + 5

6. Factorise the following expressions.
2m3 + 3m2 − 98m − 147 2z3 − z2 + 2z − 1

a. b.
4x2 − 28x + 49 − 25y2 16a2 − 4b2 − 12b − 9

c. d.
v2 − 4 − w2 + 4w 4p2 − 1 + 4pq + q2
e. f.
g. h.
7. WE16 Solve 2x3 − x2 − 10x + 5 = 0 for x.

Technology active
a. b3 + 5b2 + 2b − 8 = 0 b. −2m3 + 9m2 − m − 12 = 0

8. Solve each of the following equations over R.
c. 2x3 − x2 − 6x + 3 = 0 d. 2x3 + 7x2 + 2x − 3 = 0
9. a. Show that 3t3 + 22t2 + 37t + 10 is divisible by (t + 5) and hence solve the equation 3t3 + 22t2 + 37t + 10 = 0.
b. Show that 3d3 − 16d2 + 12d + 16 is divisible by (d − 2) and hence solve the equation
3d3 − 16d2 + 12d + 16 = 0.
10. WE17 If Ax3 + (B − 1) x2 + (B + C ) x + D ≡ 3x3 − x2 + 2x − 7, determine the values of A, B, C and D.
11. If x3 + 9x2 − 2x + 1 ≡ x3 + (dx + e) +

2 8
, determine the values of d and e.
9

12. a. Given that P (z) = 5z3 − 3z2 + 4z − 1 and Q (z) = az3 + bz2 + cz + d, calculate the values of a, b, c and d if
P (z) ≡ Q (z).
b. Given that P (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x − 1 and Q(x) = x (x + a) − b, calculate the values of a and b if
P (x) ≡ Q (x).
2
13. If 2x3 − 5x2 + 5x − 5 ≡ a(x − 1) + b(x − 1) + c (x − 1) + d, determine the values of a, b, c and d and hence
express 2x3 − 5x2 + 5x − 5 in the form a(x − 1)3 + b(x − 1)2 + c (x − 1) + d.
3 2
14. Given (x + 3) and (x − 1) are factors of ax3 + bx2 − 4x − 3, calculate the values of a and b.
15. WE18 Sketch the graph of y = −4(x + 2)3 + 16, labelling the intercepts with the coordinate axes with their
exact coordinates.
16. Consider the function f ∶ [−2, 4] → R, f (x) = 4x3 − 8x2 − 16x + 32.
a. Factorise 4x3 − 8x2 − 16x + 32.
b. Sketch the graph of y = f (x).
c. State the maximum and minimum values of the function f.
17. Sketch the graphs of the following cubic functions without attempting to locate any turning points that do
a. y = x3 − x2 − 6x b. y = 1 − (x + 1)3 , x ∈ [−3, 2)
not lie on the coordinate axes.
1
c. y = 12(x + 1) − 3(x + 1)
8
2 3
18. WE19 Determine the function f whose graph is shown in the diagram, expressing its rule as the product of
linear factors with integer coefficients.
y
(2, 24)
y = f (x)
(0, 0) x
(0.8, 0) (1.5, 0)
19. Form a possible equation for the cubic graph shown.

y
(0, 10)
(–4, 0)
0 x
( 5–4 , 0)
20. a. Show that the graph of y = f (x) where f (x) = −2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17 has exactly one x-intercept.
b. Show that there is no stationary point of inflection on the graph.
c. State the long-term behaviour of the function.
d. Given the function has a one-to-one correspondence, draw a sketch of the graph.
1.5 Exam questions
Let p (x) = x3 − 2ax2 + x − 1 where a ∈ R. When p is divided by x + 2, the remainder is 5.

MC
B. − D. − E. −2
The value of a is
7 1 3
A. 2 C.
4 2 2
Question 2 (4 marks) TECH-FREE
Let f ∶ [−3, 0] → R, f (x) = (x + 2)2 (x − 1).

Source: VCE 2017, Mathematical Methods Exam 1, Q3; © VCAA.
a. Show that (x + 2) (x − 1) = x3 + 3x2 − 4.

2
(1 mark)
b. Sketch the graph of f on the axes below. Label the axis intercepts and any stationary points with their
coordinates. (3 marks)
y
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2
–2
–4
–6
A graph with rule f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + c, where c is a real number, has three distinct x-intercepts.
Source: VCE 2015, Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 2 Section 1, Q17; © VCAA.
MC
B. R+ C. {0, 4}
The set of all possible values of c is
A. R D. (0, 4) E. (−∞, 4)

1.6 Higher degree polynomials
LEARNING INTENTION
• factorise and solve quartic functions
• graph quartic functions
• sketch polynomial functions of higher degrees.
1.6.1 Factorisation and solving

Many of the factorising resolving techniques covered in subtopics 1.4 and 1.5 also apply to polynomials of
degree 4 or higher.
WORKED EXAMPLE 20 Factorising a quartic expression
Fully factorise x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12.
P (x) = x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12

THINK WRITE
1. Let P (x) equal the quartic polynomial.
P (1) = 14 − 4(1)3 − (1)2 + 16 (1) − 12

= 17 − 17
2. Try P (1), P (−1), P (2), P (−2) etc. to get a
=0
zero remainder.
Thus, (x − 1) is a factor.
3. Use long division to obtain the cubic factor.
x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12
x − 1 x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12
− (x4 − x3)
−3x3 − x2 + 16x − 12
− (−3x3 + 3x2)
−4x2 + 16x − 12
− (−4x2 + 4x)
12x − 12
− (12x − 12)
0
H (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12
H (1) = 13 − 3(1)2 − 4 (1) + 12
4. Let H (x) equal the cubic polynomial. Apply
= 13 − 7
the factor theorem again to find a linear factor
≠0
of the cubic.
H (2) = 23 − 3(2)2 − 4 (2) + 12

= 20 − 20
=0
Thus, (x − 2) is a factor.
5. Use long division to obtain the quadratic x2 − x − 6
factor. x−2 − x3 3x2
− 4x + 12
− (x3 − 2x2)
−x2 − 4x + 12
− (−x2 + 2x)
−6x + 12
− (−6x + 12)
P (x) = x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12

0
= (x − 1) (x − 2) x2 − x − 6
6. Complete the quartic factorisation by
( )
= (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) (x + 2)
factorising the quadratic factor into its two
linear factors.
WORKED EXAMPLE 21 Solving quartic equations
a. Solve x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12 = 0. b. Solve 2a4 − 5a2 − 3 = 0.
x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12 = 0
THINK WRITE
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) (x + 2) = 0
a. 1. The quartic expression was factorised in a.
Worked example 20.
2. Use the Null Factor Law to solve the quartic x = 1, 2, 3, −2
2a4 − 5a2 − 3 = 0
polynomial for x.
m = a2 to help with the factorisation. Let m = a2 .

b. 1. The left-hand side is in quadratic form. Let b.
2m2 − 5m − 3 = 0
(2m + 1) (m − 3) = 0
3. Substitute m = a2 and factorise further where 2a + 1 a2 − 3 = 0
2. Factorise the quadratic.
( 2 )( )
2a + 1 a − 3 a + 3 = 0
possible. ( 2 )( √ )( √ )
Note: There is no factorisation technique for
2a2 + 1 =√0 has no real solution.

the addition of perfect squares.
∴ a=± 3
4. Solve the equation.
1.6.2 Graphing quartic and higher degree polynomial functions

The function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, where a, b, c, d, e ∈ R, a ≠ 0, is the general form of
behaviour. If the x4 term has a positive coefficient, y → ∞ as x → ±∞; if the x4 term has a negative coefficient,
a quartic polynomial function. Its graph can take various shapes, but all of them exhibit the same long-term
y → −∞ as x → ±∞. Particular forms of the quartic equation enable some shapes of the graphs to be predicted.

Quartic functions of the form y = a(x − h)4 + k
The simplest quartic function is y = x4 . It has a graph that has much the
same shape as y = x2 , as shown in the diagram.
y
This leads to the conclusion that the graph of y = a(x − h)4 + k will
be much the same shape as that of y = a(x − h)2 + k and will have the
y = x4 y = x2
following characteristics.
Quartic functions in turning point form

For y = a(x − h)4 + k:
• if a > 0, the graph will be concave up with a minimum (–1, 1) (1, 1)
• if a < 0, the graph will be concave down with a maximum

turning point (h, k)
(0, 0) x
• the axis of symmetry has the equation x = h

turning point (h, k)
• there may be zero, one or two x-intercepts.
Quartic functions with linear factors

Not all quartic functions can be factorised. However, if it is possible to express the equation as the product of
linear factors, then the multiplicity of each factor will determine the behaviour of its graph.
Quartic functions with linear factors

A quartic polynomial may have up to 4 linear factors as it is of fourth degree. The possible
• four distinct linear factors: y = (x − a) (x − b) (x − c) (x − d)

combinations of these linear factors are:
• one repeated linear factor: y = (x − a)2 (x − b) (x − c), where the graph has a turning point that
touches the x-axis at x = a
• two repeated linear factors: y = (x − a)2 (x − b)2 , where the graph has turning points that touch the
x-axis at x = a and x = b
• one factor of multiplicity three: y = (x − a)3 (x − b), where the graph has a stationary point of
inflection that cuts the x-axis at x = a.
The factorised forms may be derived from the general equation using standard algebraic techniques. Technology
or calculus is required to accurately identify the position of turning points that do not lie on the x-axis.
WORKED EXAMPLE 22 Sketching a quartic graph
Sketch the graph of y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7 and hence determine graphically the number of solutions to the
equation x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.
THINK WRITE
1. Express the equation in factorised form. y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7
y = − x − 8x + 7
2
This is( a quadratic in
) x.
Let a =( x2 .
4 2
y = − a2 − 8a + 7
)
= − (a − 7) (a − 1)
y = − x2 − 7 x2 − 1
Substitute
( back ) (for a: )
= − x + 7 x − 7 (x + 1) (x − 1)
( √ )( √ )
let y = 0.)
− x + 7 x − 7 (x + 1) (x − 1) = 0
2. State the x- and y-values of the intercepts x-intercepts:
( √ )( √
with the axes.
∴ x = ± 7, x = ±1
√
y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7
y-intercept:
Let x = 0.
∴ y = −7.
3. State the long-term behaviour. As the coefficient of x4 is negative, y → −∞ as x → ±∞.
y = –x4 + 8x2 – 7
(– 7, 0 ) 0
( 7, 0 ) x
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
(0, –7)
5. Rearrange the given equation so that the The given equation is x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.
3 = −x4 + 8x2
graph’s equation appears on one of its This rearranges to
3 − 7 = −x4 + 8x2 − 7
sides.
−x4 + 8x2 − 7 = −4
y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7 with the horizontal line y = −4 will

6. Explain how the number of solutions to The number of intersections of the graph of
the equation could be solved graphically.
x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.
determine the number of solutions to the equation
The line y = −4 lies parallel to the x-axis between the

origin and the y-intercept of the graph y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7.
7. Specify the number of solutions.
y
y = –x4 + 8x2 – 7
(– 7, 0 ) 0
( 7, 0 ) x
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
y = –4
(0, –7)
solutions to the equation x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.

There are four points of intersection, so there are four

1. On a Graphs page, 1. On a Graph & Table
complete the entry line screen, complete the entry
f 1 (x) = −x4 + 8x2 − 7 y1 = −x4 + 8x2 − 7

for function 1 as: line for y1 as:

Select the Graph icon to
draw the graph.
2. To find the x-intercepts, 2. To find the x-intercepts,

1: Zero • G-Solve
Move the cursor to the left • Root
of the x-intercept when With the cursor on the first
prompted for the lower x-intercept, press EXE.
bound, then press ENTER. Use the left/right arrows to
Move the cursor to the move to the next
right of the x-intercept x-intercept, then press
when prompted for the EXE.
upper bound, then press Repeat for all x-intercepts.
ENTER. Note: The calculator will
Repeat for all x-intercepts. show approximate values
Note: The calculator will for the x-intercepts, not
show approximate values exact values.
for the x-intercepts, not
exact values.
3. To calculate exact values 3. To calculate exact values
for the x-intercepts, open for the x-intercepts, go
a Calculator page and to the Main screen and
solve −x4 + 8x2 − 7 = 0, x solve −x4 + 8x2 − 7 = 0, x

complete
( the entry line as: ) complete
( the entry line as: )
4. Return to the Graphs page, 4. To find the y-intercept,
−2.64. . . , √
double click on the value select:
value to − 7, then press

change the • Analysis
• G-Solve
ENTER. Double click on • Y-Intercept
the value 2.64. then press EXE.
√ . . , change
the value to 7, then press
ENTER.
5. To find the y-intercept, 5. Answer the question. The graph shows
press MENU, then select: four x-intercepts. Hence,
5: Trace there are four solutions
−x4 + 8x2 − 7 = 0.
1: Graph Trace to the equation
Type ‘0’, then press
ENTER twice.
6. Answer the question. The graph shows four

x-intercepts. Hence, there
equation −x4 + 8x2 − 7 = 0.

are four solutions to the
WORKED EXAMPLE 23 Determining the equation of a quartic function
A quartic function has the equation y = a(x + b)4 + c. The points (0, 5), (−2, 9) and (4, 9) lie on the
graph of the function. Calculate the values of a, b and c, and state the coordinates of the turning
point.
THINK WRITE
1. Deduce the equation of the axis of symmetry. y = a(x + b)4 + c

As the points (−2, 9) and (4, 9) have the same y-value,
the axis of symmetry must pass midway between
them.
−2 + 4
The axis of symmetry is the line
x=
x=1
2
∴ b = −1
2. Use the given points given to form a pair of The equation is y = a(x − 1)4 + c.
a(3)4 + c = 9
simultaneous equations. Substitute the point (4, 9):
81a + c = 9
[1]
a(−1)4 + c = 5
Substitute the point (0, 5):
a+c = 5
[2]
80a = 4
3. Solve the equations. Subtract equation [2] from equation [1]:
a=
1
∴ c = 5−
20
1
c=
20
99
20
The equation is y = (x − 1)4 + .

1 99
4. Give the coordinates of the turning point.
20 ( 20 )
99
The minimum turning point is 1, .
20

Resources
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Interactivity Polynomials of higher degrees (int-2569)
1.6.3 The family of polynomial functions y = xn where n ∈ N

One classification of the polynomial functions is to group them according to whether their degree is even or odd.
The graph of y = xn , where n is an even positive integer

The similarities shown between the graphs of y = x2 , and y = x4 continue to hold for all polynomial functions of
even degree. A comparison of the graphs of y = x2 , y = x4 and y = x6 is shown in the diagram.
exhibit the same long-term behaviour that as x → ±∞, y → ∞.

The graphs each have a minimum turning point at (0, 0) and each contains the points (−1, 1) and (1, 1). They
The graph of the function with the highest degree, y = x6 , rises more steeply than the other two graphs for x <
−1 and x > 1. However, for −1 < x < 0 and 0 < x < 1, the function with the highest degree lies below the other
graphs.
y
y = x2
y = x4
y = x6
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
0 x
The graph of y = xn , where n is an even positive integer

For y = a(x − h)n + k, where n is an even positive integer:
• if a > 0, the graph will be concave up with a minimum turning point (h, k)
• if a < 0, the graph will be concave down with a maximum turning point (h, k)
• the axis of symmetry has the equation x = h
• the shape of the graph will be similar to that of y = a(x − h)2 + k

• there may be zero, one or two x-intercepts
• if a > 0, the range is [k, ∞)

• if a < 0, the range is (−∞, k].
The graph of y = xn , where n is an odd positive integer, n > 1
graphs of y = x3 and y = x5 illustrate. Both y = x3 and y = x5

Polynomials of odd degree also share similarities, as the y
y = x5
through the points (−1, −1) and (1, 1), as does the linear
have a stationary point of inflection at (0, 0), and both pass y = x3
function y = x. The three graphs display the same long-term

behaviour that as x → ±∞, y → ±∞.
function with the highest degree, y = x5 , rises more steeply

As observed for even degree polynomials, the graph of the (1, 1)
than the other two graphs for x < −1 and x > 1. However, for
(0, 0) x
−1 < x < 0 and 0 < x < 1, the function with the highest degree
(–1, –1)
lies closer to the x-axis.

The graphs of y = a(x − h)n + k, where n is an odd positive
integer, n ≠ 1, have the following characteristics.
The graph of y = xn , where n is an odd positive integer, n > 1

For y = a(x − h)n + k, where n is an odd positive integer and n > 1:
• if a > 0, the long-term behaviour is as x → ± ∞, y → ± ∞

• there is a stationary point of inflection at (h, k)
• if a < 0, the long-term behaviour is as x → ± ∞, y → ∓∞

• there will be one x-intercept
y = a(x − h)3 + k.
• the shape of the graph is similar to that of the cubic function
Polynomial functions that can be expressed as the product of linear factors

A degree n polynomial function may have up to n linear y
factors and therefore up to n intercepts with the x-axis. Where
the polynomial can be specified completely as the product (0, 72)
of linear factors, its graph can be drawn by interpreting the
multiplicity of each linear factor together with the long-term
behaviour determined by the sign of the coefficient of xn .
For example, consider y = (x + 2)3 (1 − x)(x − 3)2 . The
equation indicates there are x-intercepts at −2, 1 and 3. The
x-intercept (−2, 0) has a multiplicity of 3, meaning that there
is a stationary point of inflection at this point. The x-intercept ( – 2, 0) (1, 0) (3, 0)
(3, 0) has a multiplicity of 2, so this point is a turning point. 0 x
The point (1, 0) is a standard x-intercept. The polynomial is
x → ±∞, y → −∞.
of degree 6 and the coefficient of x6 is negative; therefore, as

WORKED EXAMPLE 24 Sketching graphs of higher degree polynomials
Sketch the graph of y = (x − 1)5 − 32.

THINK WRITE
1. State whether the graph has a turning point or a y = (x − 1) − 32

5
point of inflection at (1, −32).

point of inflection, and give the coordinates of As the degree is odd, the graph will have a stationary
the key point.
y = (−1)5 − 32
2. Calculate the intercepts with the coordinate
= −33
axes.
The y-intercept is (0, −33).

x-intercepts: let y = 0.
0 = (x − 1)5 − 32
(x − 1)5 = 32
x−1 = 2
x=3
y = (x – 1)5 – 32
0 (3, 0) x
(0, –33) (1, –32)
1.6 Exercise

1. WE20 Fully factorise x4 − 5x3 − 32x2 + 180x − 144.

Technology free
a. x − 8x3 + 17x2 + 2x − 24 = 0 b. a4 + 2a2 − 8 = 0

2. WE21 Solve the following.
4
a. l4 − 17l + 16 = 0 b. c4 + c3 − 10c2 − 4c + 24 = 0
2
a. a4 − 10a2 + 9 = 0 b. 4k4 − 101k2 + 25 = 0

c. 9z − 145z + 16 = 0 d. x2 − 2x − 47 x2 − 2x − 48 = 0
4 2
( )2 ( )
5. If (x + 2), (x − 3) and (x + 4) are factors of x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + 24, determine the values of a, b and c.
Technology active
Sketch the graph of y = x2 − x4 and hence determine graphically the number of solutions to the
equation x4 − x2 + x − 2 = 0.
6. WE22
7. Sketch the graph of y = x4 − 6x3 and hence state the number of intersections the graph of y = x4 − 6x3 + 1
would make with the x-axis.
A quartic function has the equation y = a(x + b)4 + c. The graph of the function cuts the x-axis at
x = −9 and x = −3. The range of the graph is (−∞, 7]. Calculate the values of a, b and c, and state the
8. WE23
coordinates of the turning point.

9. Use CAS technology to sketch the graphs of y = x4 − 2 and y = 2 − x3 , and hence state to 2 decimal places
the values of the roots of the equation x4 + x3 − 4 = 0.
10. Use CAS technology to obtain the coordinates of any turning points or stationary points of inflection on the
a. y = x2 + x + 1 x2 − 4 b. y = 1 − 4x − x2 − x3
graphs of the following. Express answers to 2 decimal places where appropriate.
( )( )
c. y = ((x − 2) (x + 3) + 80)
1 5
11. WE24 Sketch the graph of y = (x + 1) + 10.

4
6
12. Sketch the graph of y = (x + 4) (x + 2) (x − 2) (x − 5).

2 3
13. a. A quartic function has exactly one turning point at (−5, 12) and also contains the point (−3, −36). Form
b. Sketch the graph of y = (2 + x) (1 − x) .

its equation.
c. i. Factorise −x4 + x3 + 10x2 − 4x − 24.

3
ii. Hence, sketch y = −x4 + x3 + 10x2 − 4x − 24.
14. a. i. Sketch the graphs of y = x6 and y = x7 on the same set of axes, labelling any points of intersection with
ii. Hence, state the solutions to {x ∶ x6 − x7 ≥ 0}.

their coordinates.
b. Sketch the graphs of y = 16 − (x + 2) and y = 16 − (x + 2) on

4 5
y
the same set of axes, identifying the key features of each graph
and any points of intersection.
c. Consider the graph of the polynomial function shown.
i. Assuming the graph is a monic polynomial that maintains
the long-term behaviour suggested in the diagram, give a
possible equation for the graph and state its degree. x
more at x = 10. This is not shown on the diagram. Given

(–3, 0) (–1, 0) 0 (2, 0)
ii. In fact, the graph cuts straight through the x-axis once
(0, –2)
this additional information, state the degree and a possible
equation for the function.

1.6 Exam questions

Source: VCE 2015, Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 2 Section 1, Q3; © VCAA.
MC
y
b d
x
O c
A. y = −2 (x + b) (x − c) (x − d) B. y = 2 (x + b) (x − c) (x − d)
The rule for a function with the graph above could be
C. y = −2 (x − b) (x − c) (x − d) D. y = 2 (x − b) (x − c) (x − d)
2 2
E. y = −2 (x − b) (x + c) (x + d)
2
2
Solve −x4 + 7x3 − 12x2 ≥ 0.

A quartic graph crosses the x-axis at x = −3, x = −1, x = 2 and x = 4, and crosses the y-axis at y = −24.
MC
A. y = − (x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) (x + 4) B. y = (x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) (x + 4)
The equation of the graph is
C. y = − (x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 4) D. y = − (x − 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 4)
E. y = (x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 4)
1.7 Other algebraic functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the maximal domain of a function
• sketch graphs of the hyperbola and truncus functions
• sketch graphs of the square root and cube root functions
• sketch graphs of the form y = x q .

p
The powers of the variable in a polynomial function must be natural numbers. In this subtopic we consider
functions where the power of the variable may be rational.
1.7.1 Maximal domain

The maximal domain of any function must exclude:
• any value of x for which the denominator would become zero
• any value of x that would create a negative term under an even root sign.
The maximal or implied domain of rational functions of the form y =
g (x)
, where both f (x) and g (x) are
polynomials, must exclude any values of x for which f (x) = 0. The domain would be R \ {x ∶ f (x) = 0}.
f (x)
Likewise, the maximal domain of square root functions of the form y = f (x) would be {x ∶ f (x) ≥ 0}.
√
For a function of the form y = √ , the maximal domain would be {x ∶ f (x) > 0}.
g (x)
f (x)
WORKED EXAMPLE 25 Determining the maximal domain
a. y = 3 − 4x b. y = 2 −
Determine the maximal domains of each of the following functions.
√
x−4
5
THINK WRITE
∴ 3 − 4x ≥ 0
a. 1. Identify what must be excluded from the The term under the square root cannot be negative.
domain. The restrictive element to the equation
3 − 4x ≥ 0
is the square root function.
−4x ≥ −3
2. Solve the inequation to find x.
x≤
3
4
Domain = −∞,
( ]
3
3. State the maximal domain.
4
∴ x−4≠0
b. 1. Identify what must be excluded from the The denominator cannot be equal to zero.
domain. The restrictive element to the equation
x≠4
is the denominator of the fraction.
Domain = x ∈ R \ {4}
2. Solve the equation.
1.7.2 The rectangular hyperbola

The equation of the simplest hyperbola is y = . In power
1
form this is written as y = x−1 . Its maximal domain is R \ {0},

y
x
as the function is undefined if x = 0.
• There is a vertical asymptote with equation x = 0.

The graph of this function has the following characteristics. 1
• There is a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0.

y=–
x
• As x → ∞, y → 0 from above the horizontal asymptote,

and as x → −∞, y → 0 from below the horizontal
• As x → 0+ , y → ∞, and as x → 0− , y → −∞.
0 x
asymptote. y=0
• The domain is R \ {0} and the range is R \ {0}.

• The function has one-to-one correspondence.
As the asymptotes are perpendicular to each other, the graph

is called a rectangular hyperbola. The graph lies in the first
y = − would lie in the second and fourth quadrants.

and third quadrants formed by its asymptotes. The graph of x=0
1
x

Hyperbolas of the form y = +k
x−h
a
but if the graph of y = is horizontally or vertically translated, then the vertical and horizontal asymptotes are
The asymptotes are the key feature of the graph of a hyperbola. Their positions are unaffected by a dilation,
1
x
moved accordingly.
Hyperbolas of the form y = +k

x−h
a
The graph of y = + k has:

x−h
a
a vertical asymptote at x = h
a horizontal asymptote at y = k
•
a domain of R \ {h}
•
a range of R \ {k}.
•
•
If a > 0, the graph lies in quadrants 1 and 3 as formed by its asymptotes.

If a < 0, the graph lies in quadrants 2 and 4 as formed by its asymptotes.
Identifying the asymptotes

The presence of a vertical asymptote at x = h on the graph of y = + k could also be recognised by solving
x−h
a
x − h = 0. The hyperbola y = has a vertical asymptote when bx + c = 0, and its maximal domain is
bx + c
a
R \ {− }.
c
b
1 + 2x
The horizontal asymptote is identified from the equation of a hyperbola expressed in proper rational form, that
is, when the numerator is of lower degree than the denominator. The equation y = should be rewritten as
y = + 2 in order to identify the horizontal asymptote y = 2.

x
1
x
WORKED EXAMPLE 26 Sketching and determining the equations of hyperbolas
a. Determine an appropriate equation for the hyperbola
2x + 5
y
b. i. Obtain the maximal domain of y =

shown.
x+1
.
2x + 5
ii. Sketch the graph of y =
x+1
and state its range.
(0, 0)
x
y = –4
x=2
a. Let the equation be y = + k.
THINK WRITE
x−h
a
a. 1. Write the general equation of a hyperbola.
at x = 2.
2. Identify the asymptotes and enter them The graph shows there is a vertical asymptote
∴ y= +k
into the equation.
x−2
a
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = −4.

∴ y= −4
x−2
a
3. Identify the known point through which The graph passes through the origin.
the graph passes and use this to fully
0= −4
Substitute (0, 0):
−2
determine the equation. a
4=−
a
a = −8
2
−8
The equation is y = − 4.
x−2
2x + 5
b. i. y =
x+1
b. i. 1. Identify what must be excluded from
the domain.
The function is undefined if its denominator is
When x + 1 = 0, x = −1.
zero.
The maximal domain is R \ {−1}.

This value must be excluded from the domain.
2x + 5 2 (x + 1) + 3
=
x+1 x+1
ii. 1. Express the equation in proper ii.
2 (x + 1)
= +
rational form.
x+1 x+1
3
= 2+
x+1
3
The equation is y = + 2.
x+1
3
The graph has a vertical asymptote at x = −1

and a horizontal asymptote at y = 2.
2. State the equations of the asymptotes.
2x + 5
x-intercept: let y = 0 in y =
x+1
3. Calculate any intercepts with the .
2x + 5
0=
coordinate axes.
x+1
0 = 2x + 5
x=−
5
The x-intercept is − , 0
2 ( )
5
2

y=
5
=5
1

2x + 5
y = ––––
x+1
(0, 5)
y=2
(–2.5, 0) 0 x
x = –1
5. State the range. The range is R \ {2}.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Hyperbola (int-2573)
1.7.3 The truncus

The graph of the function y =
1
is called a truncus. Its rule
can be written as a power function, y = x−2 .
y
x2
• There is a vertical asymptote with equation x = 0.

The graph of this function has the following characteristics.
• There is a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0.

• The domain is R \ {0}.
y=1
–
x2
• The range is R+ .
• The function has many-to-one correspondence.
• The graph is symmetric about its vertical asymptote.
The graph of y =
1 0 y=0 x
lies in the first and second quadrants that
are created by its asymptotes. The graph of y = − 2 would lie

x2
1
x x=0
in the third and fourth quadrants.
The truncus is steeper than the hyperbola for x ∈ (−1, 0) and x ∈ (0, 1). However, a similar approach is taken to
sketching both functions.
The general form of the truncus y = +k
(x − h)2
a
The graph of y = + k has the following characteristics.

(x − h)2
a
There is a vertical asymptote at x = h.

There is a horizontal asymptote at y = k.
•
The domain is R \ {h}.

•
If a > 0, then the range is (k, ∞).

•
If a < 0, then the range is (−∞, k).

•
•
WORKED EXAMPLE 27 Sketching the graph of a truncus
Sketch the graph of y = 8 −

(x − 3)2
2
and state its domain and range.
THINK WRITE
y=8−
(x − 3)2
2
1. State the equations of the asymptotes.
The vertical asymptote is x = 3.

The horizontal asymptote is y = 8.
2. Calculate the y-intercept. y-intercept: let x = 0.

y = 8−
2
y=7
(−3)2
7
9 ( )
7
The y-intercept is 0, 7 .
9
3. Calculate any x-intercepts. x-intercepts: let y = 0.
0 = 8−
(x − 3)2
2
=8
(x − 3)2
2
2 = 8(x − 3)2
(x − 3)2 =
1
4
x−3 = ±
1
2
x = 2 or x = 3
1 1
2 2
The x-intercepts are 2 , 0 , 3 , 0 .
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2

4. Sketch the graph. y y=8
(0, 7 –79) y=8–—

2
—
(x – 3)2
0 x
1
(2 –, 0
2 ) (3 –12 , 0)
The domain is R \ {3} and the range is (−∞, 8).

x=3
5. State the domain and range.
1.7.4 The square root and cube root functions

The square root function has the rule y = x, and the rule for the cube root function is y =
√ √
3
x. As power
functions these rules can be expressed as y = x 2 and y = x 3 respectively.
1 1
The maximal domain of y = x is [0, ∞), because negative values under a square root must be excluded.
√
y = 3 x is R.
However,
√ cube roots of negative numbers are real, so the maximal domain of the cube root function
The graph of the square root function

The function y = x is the top half of the ‘sideways’ parabola y2 = x. The bottom half of this parabola is the
√
function y = − x.
√
y= x
0 x
y=– x
y2 = x is not a function, but its two halves are. The equation y2 = x could also be written as
y = ± x. The turning point or vertex of the parabola is the end point for the square root functions y = x and
The parabola
√ √
y = − x. These functions both have domain [0, ∞), but their ranges are [0, ∞) and (−∞, 0] respectively.
√
parabola y2 = −x
y = −x and y = − −x, with domain (−∞, 0] and ranges [0, ∞) and (−∞, 0] respectively.
The√ √ would open to the left of its vertex. Its two branches would be the square root functions
y
y = –x
0 x
y = – –x
The four square root functions show the different orientations that can be taken. Calculation of the maximal
domain and the range will identify which form a particular function takes.
Square root functions
Square root functions of the form y = a x − h + k have the following

√
characteristics.
• The domain is [h, ∞).

• The end point is (h, k).
• If a > 0, the range is [k, ∞); if a < 0, the range is (−∞, k].
Square root functions of the form y = a −(x − h) + k have the following

√
characteristics.
• The end point is (h, k).
• If a > 0, the range is [k, ∞); if a < 0, the range is (−∞, k].
• The domain is (−∞, h].
The graph of the cube root function

The graph of the cubic function y = x3 has a stationary point of inflection at the origin. The graph of y3 = x has a
‘sideways’ orientation but still has a point of inflection at the origin.
The rule y3 = x can also be expressed as y = 3 x. The graph of y = 3 x is shown in the diagram.
√ √
y
3
y= x
(0, 0)
x
The graph y = 3 x has the following characteristics.

√
• There is a point of inflection at (0, 0) where the tangent drawn to the curve would be vertical.
• The domain is R and the range is R.
• The function has one-to-one correspondence.

The graph of y = − 3 x is the reflection of y = 3 x in the x axis.
√ √
y
3
y=– x
(0, 0)
x
This is also the graph of y = −x, as −x = − 3 x.

√
3
√
3
√
Cube root functions

The general equation y = a x − h + k shows the graph has the following
√3
characteristics.
• There is a point of inflection at (h, k).
• One x-intercept can be located by solving a x − h + k = 0.

• The domain is R and the range is R.
√
• If a > 0, the long-term behaviour is x → ± ∞, y → ± ∞.

3
• If a < 0, the long-term behaviour is x → ± ∞, y → ∓∞.
The long-term behaviour of the cube root function resembles that of the cubic function.
WORKED EXAMPLE 28 Cube root and square root graphs
a. i. State the maximal domain of y = 4 − x − 1.

√
ii. Sketch the graph of y = 4 − x − 1 and state its range.

√
b. The graph of a cube root function has its point of inflection at (1, 5) and the graph cuts the y-axis at
(0, 2). Determine the rule and sketch the graph.
a. i. y = 4−x−1
THINK WRITE
√
a. i. Form the maximal domain.
The term under the square root cannot be
4−x ≥ 0
negative.
x≤4
ii. The end point is (4, −1).

The maximal domain is (−∞, 4].
ii. 1. State the coordinates of the end point.
2. Calculate the y-intercept, if there is one. With the domain (−∞, 4], the graph opens
let x = 0.
to the left, so it will cut the y-axis.
y = 4−1
y-intercept:
√
y=1
3. Calculate the x-intercept, if there is one. The end point lies below the x-axis and
the y-intercept lies above the x-axis. There
x-intercept:√let y = 0.
will be an x-intercept.
0 = 4−x−1
4−x = 1
√
4−x = 1
x=3
(0, 1)
y = (4 – x) – 1 (3, 0)
0 x
(4, –1)
5. State the range. The range is [−1, ∞).

Let the equation be y = a x − h + k.
√
3
b. 1. Write the general equation of a cube root b.
function.
∴ y=a x−1+5
2. Insert the information about the point of The point of inflection is (1, 5).
√3
inflection.
2 = a −1 + 5
3. Fully determine the equation using the Substitute the point (0, 2):
√
2 = −a + 5
3
other piece of information given.
a=3
The equation is y = 3 x − 1 + 5.
√3
let y = 0.
0 = 3 x−1+5
4. Calculate the x-intercept. x-intercept: √
−5
3
x−1 =
√3
3
x−1 = −
( )3
5
x = 1−
3
125
x=−
27
98
The x-intercept is − , 0 .
27 ( )
98
27
y
5. Sketch the graph. 3
y=3 x–1+5
(1, 5)
(0, 2)
0 x
( 98
– —, 0
27 (

y = xq , p, q ∈ N
p
1.7.5 Power functions of the form
The square root and cube root functions are examples of power functions of the form y = x q , p, q ∈ N. For the
p
square root function, y = x = x 2 , so p = 1 and q = 2; for the cube root function, y = 3 x = x 3 , so p = 1 and q = 3.
√ 1 √ 1
In this section, we consider some other functions that have powers that are positive rational numbers and deduce
the shape of their graphs through an analysis based on index laws.
p √
q
Index laws enable x q to be expressed as xp .
With p, q ∈ N, the function is formed as the qth root of the polynomial xp . As polynomial shapes are known, this
interpretation allows the shape of the graph of the function to be deduced. Whichever is the larger of p and q will
determine whether the polynomial or the root shape will be the dominant function.
Power functions
For the graph of y = x q , p, q ∈ N:

p
• if p > q, the polynomial shape dominates, because the index >1

p
q
• if q > p, the root shape dominates, because the index must be in the interval 0 < <1
p
• if p = q, the index is 1 and the graph is y = x

q
• even roots of the polynomial xp cannot be formed in any section where the polynomial graph is
negative
• the points (0, 0) and (1, 1) will always lie on the graph.
is illustrated for p > q ⇒ index > 1, p = q ⇒ index = 1 and

p
The basic polynomial or root shape for the first quadrant –
q
q > p ⇒ index < 1.

y=x,p>q
y
y = x, p = q
Note that the polynomial shape lies below y = x for 0 < x < 1
and above y = x for x > 1, whereas the root shape lies above
y = x for 0 < x < 1 and below y = x for x > 1. It is always
helpful to include the line y = x when sketching a graph of
p
–
q
y = xq .
y=x,q>p
p
the form (1, 1)
(0, 0) x
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Patterns of functions (int-6415)
The relation y2 = x (int-2574)
Fractional power functions (int-6521)
WORKED EXAMPLE 29 Graphs of power functions
Give the domain and deduce the shape of the graph of each of following.
a. y = x 3 b. y = x 2
2 3
THINK WRITE
a. y = x 3
2
a. 1. Express the function rule in surd form and
= x2
deduce how the function can be formed. √3
quadratic polynomial y = x2 .
The function is formed as the cube root of the
2. Use the nature of the operation forming the Cube roots of both positive and negative
of y = x2 lies in quadrants 1 and 2 and is never

function to determine the domain of the numbers can be calculated. However, the graph
function.
negative. Therefore, there will be two non-
negative branches to the power function, giving
it a domain of R.
3. Reason which shape, the root or the As 3 > 2 (or as the index is less than 1), the
the graph lies above y = x for 0 < x < 1 and

polynomial, will dominate. root shape dominates the graph. This means
below it for x > 1.
relative to the line y = x.

4. Draw the required graph, showing its position The points (0, 0) and (1, 1) lie on the graph,
and by symmetry the graph will also pass
Note: There is a sharp point at the origin. through the point (−1, 1).
y y=x
2
–
y = x3
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
(0, 0) x
b. y = x 2
3
b. 1. Express the function rule in surd form and
= x3
deduce how the function can be formed. √
the cubic polynomial y = x3 .

The function is formed as the square root of
2. Use the nature of the operation forming the The graph of y = x3 is positive in quadrant 1
function to determine the domain of the and negative in quadrant 3, so the square root
function. can only be taken of the section in quadrant 1.
be R+ ∪ {0}.
There will be one branch and its domain will

3. Reason which shape, the root or the As 3 > 2 (or as the index is greater than 1), the
lie below y = x for 0 < x < 1 and above it for

polynomial, will dominate. polynomial shape dominates. The graph will
x > 1.
relative to the line y = x.

4. Draw the required graph, showing its position The points (0, 0) and (1, 1) lie on the graph.
y y=x
3
–
y = x2
(1, 1)
(0, 0)
x
1.7 Exercise

Technology free
x−6
1. WE25 Determine the maximal domains of each of the following functions.
a. y = b. y = 1 − 2x
√
x+9
−2
c. y = d. y =
(x + 3) +3
1
2 2
x
5x − 2
b. i. Obtain the maximal domain of y =
2. a. WE26 Determine an appropriate equation for the hyperbola shown. y
x−1
.
5x − 2
ii. Sketch the graph of y =
x−1
and state its range. (0, 3)
y=1
3. Sketch the graph of y =

1 − 2x
4
, stating its domain and range. 0 x
(–9, 0)
4. Sketch the following hyperbolas and state the domain and range of each.
a. y = +5 b. y = 2 −
x+1
4 3
4x + 3
c. y = d. xy + 2y + 5 = 0
x
2x + 1
x = –3
e. y = −5
5−x
10
5. a. The graph of a hyperbola has a vertical asymptote at x = −3 and a
horizontal asymptote at y = 6. The point (−4, 8) lies on the graph.
y
Form the equation of this graph.

b. Form a possible equation for the graph shown.
Sketch the graph of y = − 2 and state its domain

(x + 2)2
8
6. WE27
and range. 0 x
−3
7. Sketch each of the following and state the domain and range of each.
a. y = +1 b. y = −2
3
y = ––
(–3, –2)
(3 − x)2 4(x − 1)2

2 2
25x2 − 1
c. y = −1 d. y =
(2x + 3)2
1
x = –2
5x2
8. Determine an appropriate equation for the truncus shown.
(–0.5, 0) (0.5, 0)
0 x
y = –1
x=0
Technology active
b. A function f defined on its maximal domain has a graph y = f (x)

9. a. The diagram shows the graph of a truncus. Form its equation. y
in the shape of a truncus with range (−4, ∞). Given f (−1) = 8 and
f (2) = 8, determine the equation of the graph and state the function
y=2
f using function notation.
a. i. State the maximal domain of y = − x + 9 + 2.

10. WE28
√ 0 x
ii. Sketch the graph of y = − x + 9 + 2 and state its range.

(5, –1)
√
b. The graph of a cube root function has its point of inflection

at (1, 3) and the graph cuts the y-axis at (0, 1). Determine its
rule and sketch its graph, locating its x-intercept.
11. a. Determine the maximal domain and the range of y = 3 4x − 9 − 6,

√ x=4
and sketch its graph.
y = (10 − 3x) 3 and sketch the graph.

b. State the coordinates of the point of inflection of the graph of
1
12. Give the equations of the two square root functions that form the branches of each of the following
a. (y − 2) = 4 (x − 3) b. y2 + 2y + 2x = 5
‘sideways’ parabolas, and state the domain and range of each function.
2

a. y = 1 − −x + 4 b. y = 2
13. Sketch the following square root functions and state the domain and range of each.
√ √
c. y = 2 4 + 2x + 3 d. y = − 3 − 12 − 3x
3x
√ √ √
14. a. The graph of the function f ∶ [5, ∞) → R, f(x) = a x + b + c is shown in the diagram. Determine the
√
values of a, b and c.
y
y = f (x)
(6, 0)
0 x
(5, –2)
b. The graph of the function f ∶ (−∞, 2] → R, f(x) = ax + b + c is shown in the diagram.

√
ii. State the equation of the reflection if the graph of y = f (x) is reflected in the x-axis.
i. Determine the values of a, b and c.
y = f (x)
(0, 0) x
(2, –2)
15. a. Sketch the graph of {(x, y) ∶ y = x + 2 − 1}, labelling the intercepts

√
3
y
1− x+8
with the coordinate axes with their exact coordinates.
Sketch the graph of y = f (x) where f(x) =

√3
b. , stating its (1, 0)
2
Sketch the graph of g ∶ [−3, 6] → R, g(x) = −x + 5 and state its

implied domain and range.
√3
0 x
c. (0, –2)
domain and range.
d. Form a possible equation for the cube root function shown in the
diagram.
and (−1, −2). At the point (−1, −2), the tangent drawn to the curve
e. The graph of a cube root function passes through the points (−9, 5)
f. Express y as the subject of the equation (y + 2) = 64x − 128 and hence state the coordinates of the point
is vertical. Determine the equation of the graph.
3
of inflection of its graph.

16. State the maximal domain of the function y = (2 − x) (x + 3). Use CAS technology to investigate the shape
√
of the graph.
17. WE29 Give the domain and deduce the shape of the graph of each of the following.
a. y = x 4 b. y = x 3
3 4
18. Give the domain and deduce the shape of the graph of each of the following.
a. y = x 5 b. y = x 8
1 1
graph, showing its position relative to the line y = x.

19. For each of the following, identify the domain and the quadrants in which the graph lies, and sketch the
a. y = x 2 b. y = x 3
5 5
c. y = x 5 d. y = x0.25
3
20. a. Explain how the graph of y = x 3 could be drawn using the graph of y = x.
1
b. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = x and y = x 3 .

1
c. Hence, obtain {x ∶ x 3 − x > 0}.

1
1.7 Exam questions
3x + 2
The graph of function f ∶ D → R, f (x) =
5−x
MC , where D is the maximal domain, has asymptotes
A. x = −5, y = B. x = −3, y = 5
3
C. x = , y = −3 D. x = 5, y = 3
2
2
E. x = 5, y = −3
3
Let a ∈ (0, ∞) and b ∈ R.

MC
Consider the function h ∶ [−a, 0) ∪ (0, a] → R, h (x) = + b.

a
x
A. [b − 1, b + 1] B. (b − 1, b + 1)
The range of h is
C. (−∞, b − 1) ∪ (b + 1, ∞) D. (−∞, b − 1] ∪ [b + 1, ∞)
E. [b − 1, ∞)
The maximal domain of the function f is R\ {1}.

MC
x2 − 5 x+4
A possible rule for f is
A. f (x) = B. f (x) =
x−1 x−5
x2 + x + 4 5 − x2
C. f (x) = D. f (x) =
√x + 1 1+x
E. f (x) = x − 1
2

1.8 Combinations of functions
LEARNING INTENTION
• sketch and determine hybrid functions
• sketch sums, differences and products of functions.
By combining together pieces of different functions defined over restricted domains, a ‘piecewise’ function
can be created. By combining together different functions using arithmetic operations, other functions can be
created. In this section we consider some of these combinations.
1.8.1 Hybrid functions

A hybrid function, or piecewise function, is a function whose rule takes a different form over different subsets
of its domain. An example of a hybrid function is the one defined by the rule
x≤0
√
f (x) = {2, 0 < x < 2.

3
x,
x, x≥2
branches, y = x, y = 2 and y = x, are drawn on their respective

To sketch its graph,
√ the three functions that combine to form its y
3
restricted domains on the same set of axes. If the branches do not

y = f (x)
join, then it is important to indicate which end points are open and
unique y-value. The graph of this hybrid function y = f (x) is shown in

which are closed, as each of the x-values of any function must have a
(0, 2)
(2, 2)
the diagram.
The function is not continuous when x = 0 as the branches do not join
(0, 0) x
domain. As the rule shows, x = 0 lies in the domain of the cube root
for that value of x. It is said to be discontinuous at that point of its
section, the point (0, 0) is closed and the point (0, 2) is open.
The function is continuous at x = 2 as there is no break or gap in
the curve. There is no need for a closed point to be shown at x = 2,
because its two neighbouring branches run ‘naturally’ into each other
at this point.
To calculate the value of the function for a given value of x, choose the function rule of that branch defined for
the section of the domain to which the x-value belongs.
WORKED EXAMPLE 30 Sketching hybrid functions
⎧ −x, x ≤ −1
√
Consider the function for which f (x) = ⎨2 − x , −1 < x < 1.

⎪
⎪√x + 1, x ≥ 1
2

a. Evaluate f (−1), f (0) and f (4).
c. State:
i. any value of x for which the function is not continuous
ii. the domain and range.
THINK WRITE
⎧ −x, x ≤ −1
√
a. f (x) = ⎨2 − x −1 < x < 1

⎪
⎪√x + 1, x ≥ 1
a. For each x-value, decide which section of 2
the domain it is in and calculate its image

f (−1): Since x = −1 lies in√
⎩
using the branch of the hybrid function’s rule
x ≤ −1, use the rule f (x) = −x.
the domain section
applicable to that section of the domain.
f (−1) = − (−1)
√
= 1
√
=1
f (0): Since x = 0 lies in the domain section
−1 < x < 1, use the rule f (x) = 2 − x2 .
f (0) = 2 − 02
= 2−0
=2
f (4): Since x = 4 lies in the
x ≥ 1, use the rule f (x) = x + 1.
√ domain section
f (4) = 4 + 1
√
= 2+1
=3
b. y = −x, x ≤ −1 is a square root function.

√
b. 1. Obtain the information needed to sketch
y = 2 − x2 , −1 < x < 1 is a parabola with

each of the functions forming the branches The points (−1, 1) and (−4, 2) lie on its graph.
of the hybrid function.
At x = −1 or x = 1, y = 1. The points (−1, 1)

maximum turning point (0, 2).
y = x + 1, x ≥ 1 is a square root function.

and √
(1, 1) are open for the parabola.
The points (1, 2) and (4, 3) lie on its graph.

2. Sketch each branch on the same set of axes y
to form the graph of the hybrid function.
(4, 3)
(–4, 2) (0, 2)
y = f (x)
(1, 2)
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
0 x
c. i. State any value of x where the branches of c. The function is not continuous at x = 1.
the graph do not join.
The range is [1, ∞).

ii. State the domain and range. The domain is R.

a. 1. On a Calculator page, a. 1. On a Graph & Table

press MENU, then screen, complete the
=
select: entry line for y1 as:
−x, x ≤ −1
1: Actions y1√
⎧
1: Define
⎨√2 − x2 , −1 < x < 1

Complete the entry
⎩ x + 1, x ≥ 1
√ f 1 (x) =
line as:
−x, x ≤ −1
Define
⎧
then press EXE.
2 − x2 , −1 < x < 1
⎨√
Note: The hybrid
⎩ x + 1, x ≥ 1
function template can
be found in the Math 3
then press ENTER. tab of the Keyboard
Note: The hybrid menu. Click it twice for
function template can three equations.
be found by pressing the
Template button.
2. Complete the next entry 2. Click the Table Input
line as: icon and complete the
Start: −1
f 1 (−1) fields as:
then press ENTER.
Complete the next entry End: 4
line as: Step: 1
f 1 (0) then select OK.
then press ENTER.
Complete the next entry
line as:
f 1 (4)
then press ENTER.
f (−1) = 1, f (0) = 2, f (4) = 3 f (−1) = 1, f (0) = 2,

f (4) = 3
3. The answers appear on 3. The answers appear on
the screen. the screen.
b. 1. On a Graphs page, b. 1. Click the Graph icon.
select f1, then press
ENTER.
Note: The hybrid
function automatically
appears in the entry
line for f1 as it was
previously defined on
the Calculator page.
2. Press MENU, then 2. Select:
select: • Analysis
5: Trace • Trace
1: Graph Trace Type ‘−1’, select OK,
Type ‘−1’, then press then press EXE to mark
ENTER twice to mark the point (−1, 1).
the point (−1, 1). Type ‘1’, select OK,
Type ‘1’, then press then press EXE to mark
ENTER twice to mark the point (1, 2).
the point (1, 2). Note: The point (1, 1)
Press the down arrow to should be drawn as an
move to the point (1, 1), open circle.
then press ENTER.
Note: The point (1, 1)
should be drawn as an
open circle.
3. To find the maximum, To find the maximum,
press MENU, then select:
select: • Analysis
6: Analyze Graph • G-Solve
3: Maximum • Max
Move the cursor to the then press EXE.
left of the maximum
when prompted for
the lower bound, then
press ENTER. Move
the cursor to the right
of the maximum when
prompted for the upper
bound, then press
ENTER.
x = 1. at x = 1.
c. i. Look for points where The graph is discontinuous at c. i. Look for points where The graph is discontinuous
a break in the graph a break in the graph
occurs. occurs.
[1, ∞]. range is [1, ∞].

ii. State the domain and The domain is R and the range is ii. State the domain and The domain is R and the
range. range.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Hybrid functions (int-6414)
1.8.2 Sums, differences and products of functions

New functions are formed when two given functions are combined together under the operations of addition,
subtraction and multiplication. The given functions can only be combined where they both exist, so the domain
domains df and dg respectively, the common domain is df ∩ dg .

of the new function formed must be the domain common to both the given functions. For functions f and g with
Sums, differences and products of functions

• The sum and difference functions f ± g are defined by ( f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x) with domain df ∩ dg .
• The product function fg is defined by ( fg)(x) = f(x)g(x) with domain df ∩ dg .

Graphs of the functions f ± g and fg may be able to be recognised from their rules. If not, the graphs may
be deduced by sketching the graphs of f and g and combining by addition, subtraction or multiplication, as
f − g can be considered to be the sum function f + (−g).

appropriate, the values of f (x) and g (x) for selected x-values in their common domain. The difference function
WORKED EXAMPLE 31 Determining sums and products of functions
Consider the functions f and g defined by f (x) = 4 + x and g (x) = 4 − x respectively.

√ √
a. Form the rule for the sum function f + g, stating its domain, and sketch the graph of y = ( f + g) (x).
b. Form the rule for the product function fg and state its domain and range.
a. f(x) = 4+x
THINK WRITE
√
Domain: 4 + x ≥ 0
a. 1. Write the domains of the functions
x ≥ −4
f and g.
df = [−4, ∞)
g(x) = 4 − x
√
Domain: 4 + x ≥ 0
x≤4
dg = (−∞, 4]
2. State the common domain. df

dg
df ∩ dg = [−4, 4]
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
( f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)

= 4+x+ 4−x
3. Form the sum function and state its
√ √
domain.
df+g = [−4, 4]
4. Sketch the graphs of y = f (x) and

y = g (x) on the same set of axes.
y
y = ( f + g)(x)
y = g(x) (0, 4)
Add the y-coordinates of key points
y = ( f + g) (x).
together to form the graph of (0, 2) y = f (x)
(−4, 8) (4, 8)
(−4, 0) (4, 0) x
x −4 0 4
√
f (x) 0 2 8
√
g (x) 8 2 0
f (x) + g (x)
√ √
8 4 8
b. (fg) (x) = f (x) g (x)
= 4+x × 4−x
b. 1. Form the product function and state
(√ ) (√ )
its domain.
= (4 + x) (4 − x)
√
= 16 − x2
√
dfg = [−4, 4]
The rule (fg) (x) = 16 − x2 is that of the top half of a

√
2. State the range of the function.
semicircle with centre (0, 0) and radius 4. Therefore, the
range is [0, 4].
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Sums, differences and products of functions (int-6416)
1.8.3 Graphical techniques

Given the graphs of functions whose rules are not necessarily known, it may be possible to deduce the shape of
the graph of the function that is the sum or other combination of the functions whose graphs are given.
Addition of ordinates
Given the graphs of y1 = f (x) and y2 = g (x), the graphing technique known as addition of ordinates adds together
function y = y1 + y2 = f (x) + g (x).

the y-values, or ordinates, of the two given graphs over the common domain to form the graph of the sum
Graphical techniques
domain df ∩ dg :
Note the following points when applying the addition of ordinates technique over the common
• If the graphs of f and g intersect at (a, b), then the point (a, 2b) lies on the graph of f + g.
• Where f(x) = −g(x), the graph of f + g cuts the x-axis.
• If one of f(x) or g(x) is positive and the other is negative, the graph of f + g lies between the graphs
• If one of f(x) or g(x) is zero, then the graph of f + g cuts the other graph.
of f and g.
• If f(x) → 0+ , then the graph of f + g approaches the graph of f from above.

• If f(x) → 0− , then the graph of f + g approaches the graph of g from below.
• Any vertical asymptote of f or g will be a vertical asymptote on the graph of f + g.
The subtraction of ordinates is usually simpler to achieve as the addition of the ordinates of y1 = f (x) and
y2 = −g (x).
Squaring ordinates
Given the graph of y = f (x), the graph of y = ( f (x))2 can be deduced by squaring the y-values, or ordinates,
noting in particular that 02 = 0, 12 = 1 and (−1)2 = 1.
• The graph of f and its square will intersect at any point on f where y = 0 or y = 1.
• If the point (a, −1) is on the graph of f, then (a, 1) lies on the graph of the squared function.
• Where 0 < f (x) < 1, ( f (x))2 < f (x), and where f (x) > 1 or f (x) < −1, ( f (x))2 > f (x).
• The squared function’s graph can never lie below the x-axis.

Similar reasoning about the ordinates and their square roots and the domain will allow the graph of y =
√
f (x) to
be deduced.
These graphing techniques can be applied to combinations of known functions where the first step would be to
draw their graphs.
WORKED EXAMPLE 32 Addition of ordinates

The graphs of the functions f and g are shown.
(0, 4)
(0, 2)
y = f (x)
(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
y = g(x)
Draw the graph of y = ( f + g) (x).
Both of the functions have a domain of R, so df ∩ dg = R.

THINK WRITE
1. State the domain common to both functions.
At x = 0, f (x) = 2 and g (x) = 4. Hence, the point (0, 6)

lies on the graph of f + g.
2. Determine the coordinates of a key point on
the required graph.
At x = ± 2, g (x) = 0. Hence, the graph of f + g will cut

the graph of f when x = ± 2.
3. Deduce the behaviour of the required graph
where one of the given graphs cuts the x-axis.
As x → ±∞, f (x) → 0+ . Hence, ( f + g) (x) → g (x) from

above as x → ±∞.
4. Use the long-term behaviour of one of
the given graphs to deduce the long-term
behaviour of the required graph.
5. Draw a sketch of the required graph. y

(0, 6)
y = ( f + g)(x)
(0, 4)
(0, 2)
y = f (x)
(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
y = g(x)
1.8 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE30 Consider the function for which:
− 3 x, x < −1
⎧
√
⎪
f (x) = x3 −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
⎨
⎪
⎩2 − x, x>1

a. Evaluate f (−8), f (−1) and f (2).
c. State:
i. any value of x for which the function is not continuous
ii. the domain and range.
2. Sketch the graphs of each of the following hybrid functions and state their domains, ranges and any points of
x<1
discontinuity.
−2x, x≤0
√
a. y = { b. y = { 1
3
x,
4 − x2 , x>0 , x≥1
x
3. A hybrid function is defined by:
⎧ , x < −1
⎪ (x + 1)2
1
f (x) = x2 − x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 2
⎨
⎪
⎩8 − 2x, x>2
a. Evaluate:

i. f (−2) ii. f (2).
c. State the domain over which the hybrid function is continuous.
4. Consider the following function.
⎧ x + 5, x < −3
⎪9
1 3
f ∶ R → R, f(x) = √1 − x, −3 ≤ x ≤ 1.
⎨
⎪
⎩x − 2, x>1
a. Show the function is not continuous at x = 1.

b. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) and state the type of correspondence it displays.
c. Determine the value(s) of x for which f (x) = 4.

5. Form the rule for the hybrid function shown in the diagram.
y
(8, 8)
(0, 4)
(4, 4)
(−4, 0)
0 x
y = f (x)
6. Form the rule for the function whose graph is shown in the diagram.
y
y = f (x)
(0, 4) (2, 4)
(3, 2)
(–3, 0) (–1, 0) (4, 0)

0 x
Consider the functions f and g defined by f(x) = − 1 + x and g(x) = − 1 − x respectively.

Technology active
√ √
a. Form the rule for the sum function f + g, stating its domain, and sketch the graph of y = ( f + g) (x).
7. WE31
b. Form the rule for the product function fg and state its domain and range.
8. Given f (x) = x3 and g (x) = x2 , form the rule ( f − g) (x) for the difference function and sketch the graphs of
y = f (x), y = −g (x) and y = ( f − g) (x) on the same set of axes. Comment on the relationship of the graphs at
the places where y = ( f − g) (x) cuts the axes.
9. WE32 The graphs of the functions f and g are shown. Draw the graph of y = ( f + g) (x).
y
y = g(x)
y = f (x)
0 y=0 x
x=0
10. The graphs of two functions y = f (x) and y = g (x) are drawn in the following diagrams. Use the addition of
ordinates technique to sketch y = f (x) + g (x) for each diagram.
a. y b. y
y = f(x)
y = g(x)
y = g(x)
0 y=0 x y=0
x
0
y = f (x)
11. Consider the functions f and g defined by f (x) = 5 − 2x and g (x) = 2x − 2 respectively. For each of the
x=0 x=0
a. y = ( f + g) (x)
following, give the rule, state the domain and the range, and sketch the graph.
b. y = ( f − g) (x)
c. y = ( fg) (x)
12. Consider the functions f (x) = x2 − 1 and g(x) = x + 1.

√
i. (g − f ) (3)
a. Evaluate:
ii. (gf ) (8) .

b. State the domain of the function f + g.
i. f + g
c. Draw a possible graph for each of the following functions.
ii. g − f
iii. fg
13. Use addition of ordinates to sketch y = x + −x.

√
14. Sketch the graph of y = x2 − 1 and hence draw the graph of y = x2 − 1

( )2
, stating the domain and range.
15. a. Consider the function defined by g(x) = (2x − 1) . Sketch the graph of y = g (x) and hence sketch
y = (g (x)) .
3
b. Calculate the coordinates of the points of intersection of the graphs of y = f (x) and y = ( f (x))
2
if f (x) = x3 − 2x.
2
16. Use CAS technology to draw on screen the hybrid function defined by the rule:
−x, x < −1
f(x) = {1, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
(2x − 1) (x − 3) , x>1
State the range of the function.

17. A hybrid function is defined by:
x + a, x ∈ (−∞, −8)
⎧√
⎪3
f (x) = x + 2, x ∈ (−8, 8)
⎨
⎪b, x ∈ (8, ∞)
⎩x
a. Determine the values of a and b so that the function is continuous for x ∈ R, and for these values, sketch
the graph of y = f (x).
b. Determine the values of k for which the equation f (x) = k has:

Use the values of a and b from part a for the remainder of this question.
c. Find {x ∶ f (x) = 1}.

i. no solutions ii. one solution iii. two solutions.
1.8 Exam questions
The diagram shows the graphs of three functions: y = f (x) , y = g (x) and y = h (x). State which of the
MC
following statements is true.
y
f(x)
g(x)
0 x
h(x)
A. f (x) = g (x) − h (x) B. g (x) = f (x) − h (x) C. g (x) = h (x) − f (x)

D. h (x) = f (x) − g (x) E. h (x) = g (x) − f (x)
Given the functions f(x) = x + 3 and g(x) = 1 − x, the graph of y = f (x) − g (x) has
√ √
A. a maximal domain of [−3, ∞) and a range of R.

MC
B. a maximal domain of [1, ∞) and a range of R+ .

C. a maximal domain of (−∞, −3] ∪ [1, ∞) and a range of R.
D. a maximal domain of [−3, 1] and a range of R+ .
E. a maximal domain of [−3, 1] and a range of [−2, 2].
x − 2, x ≥ 1
For the function defined by f(x) = { −1, −1 < x < 1 then

x, x ≤ −2
MC
A. f (1) = −1 and the range is R.

B. f (1) = −1 and the range is [−2, −1].
C. f (−1) = −1 and the range is R\ (−2, −1).
D. f (−1) does not exist and the range is R\ (−2, −1].
E. f (−1) does not exist and the range is R\ [−2, −1).
1.9 Modelling and applications
LEARNING INTENTION
• apply various functions to practical situations
• determine the best function to fit a set of data.
People in research occupations, such as scientists, engineers and economists, analyse data though the use of
mathematical models in order to increase our understanding of natural phenomena and to draw inferences about
future behaviour. In this subtopic we consider some applications of the functions that are discussed earlier in
this topic.
1.9.1 Modelling with data

Consider the set of data shown in the table.
t 2 4 7 9
h 15 23.5 21 8.5
In deciding what type of model this data might best fit, a linear h
model would be ruled out as the data is not steadily increasing or 26 h(t) = –0.9t2 + 9.3t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 10.333
decreasing. The values increase and then decrease; there are no 24 (4, 23.5)
obvious signs that the data is oscillating or showing asymptotic 22
(7, 21)
behaviour. Observations such as these would rule out an exponential 20
18
model, a trigonometric model, and a hyperbola or truncus model.
16
(2, 15)
The data is likely to be a polynomial model with a many-to-one 14
correspondence. Plotting the points can help us recognise a possible 12
model. If the variables t and h are time and height respectively, then 10
(9, 8.5)
we may suspect the polynomial would be a quadratic one. Three 8
h = at2 + bt + c, or the entire set of data could be used to obtain

of the data points could be used to form the model in the form 6
4
quadratic model h (t) = −0.9t2 + 9.3t shows a good fit with the data.
2
the model through a quadratic regression function on CAS. The
0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Applications of mathematical models

The variables in a mathematical model are usually treated as continuous, even though they may represent a
quantity that is discrete in reality, such as the number of foxes in a region. Values obtained using the model need
to be considered in context and rounded to whole numbers where appropriate.
Domain restrictions must also be considered. A variable representing a physical quantity such as length must
carefully how the variables are defined. For example, if t is the time in hours after 10 am, then t = −2 would be
be positive. Similarly, a variable representing time usually cannot be negative. However, it is important to read
possible as it refers to the time 8 am.

1.9 Exercise

Technology active
1. Consider the data points shown.
x 0 1 3 4
y 4 2 10 8
a. Discuss why neither a linear, trigonometric, exponential nor a power function of the form y = xn is a likely
b. Assuming the data set fits a hyperbola of the form y = + k, x ∈ [0, ∞) \ {2} ∶
fit for the data.
x−2
a
i. use the data to determine the equation of the hyperbola

ii. sketch the model, showing the data points.
2. The population, in thousands, of bees in a particular

colony increases as shown in the table.
Month (t) 1 2 3 4
Population in thousands (P) 36 38.75 42.5 45
a. Plot the data points p against t and suggest a likely
b. Use the values when t = 2 and t = 4 to form a rule

model for the data.
for the model expressing P in terms of t.

c. If the variable t measures the number of months
since January, determine how many bees were in
the colony in January, according to the model.
d. State the rate of increase in the population of bees
according to the model.
3. A parabolic skate ramp has been built at a local park. It is y

accessed by climbing a ladder to a platform as shown. 32
The platform is 2 metres long. The horizontal distance from (9, ––
9(
the origin is x and the vertical distance from the origin is y.
The lowest point on the skate ramp is at (5, 0) and the highest
( )
32
point is at 9, . (0, a) (2, a)
9
a. Calculate the value of a where (0, a) is the point where
the ladder connects with the platform.
b. Find the coordinates of the point where the platform x
(–1, 0) 0 (5, 0)
and the skate ramp meet.
d. Write a hybrid function rule to define the complete skate ramp system for {x ∶ −1 ≤ x ≤ 9}.
c. Determine the equation of the parabolic section of the skate ramp.
e. Determine the exact values of x when the skateboarder is 1.5 metres above the ground.
so that ED = DF = x m. A gardener wishes to plant an Australian native garden in the region that is shaded in
4. ABCD is a square field of side length 40 metres. The points E and F are located on AD and DC respectively
the diagram.
a. Show that the area, A m2 , to be used for the Australian native garden is given by A = 800 + 20x − x2 .
1
2
b. State the restrictions that must be placed on x.
c. i. Calculate the value of x for which the area of the Australian native garden is greatest.
ii. Calculate the greatest possible area of the native garden.
A B
D C
F
5. The graph of y = g (x) is shown. The graph has a stationary point of inflection at the origin and also crosses
x = − 5 and x = 5. The coordinates of the maximum and minimum turning
√ √
points − 3, 12 3 and 3, −12 3 respectively.

the x-axis
( √ at the points
) where
( )
√ √ √
b. Hence, show that g (x) = 2x5 − 10x3 .

a. Use the above information to form the equation of the graph. y
(– 3, 12 3 )
c. A water slide is planned for a new theme park. Its cross-sectional
the curve g (x) = 2x5 − 10x3 .

shape is to be designed using a horizontal and vertical translation of
The image of the point A, the maximum turning point of the original (– 5, 0) (0, 0) ( 5, 0)
curve, now lies on the y-axis. The image of the point B, the minimum x
turning point of the original curve, now lies 1 unit above the x-axis.
The point C is the image of the origin (0, 0) after the original curve is
translated.
The water slide is modelled by the section of the curve from A to B
with the x-axis as the water level.
( 3, –12 3 )
y y
A A
C C
B
B
0 x 0 x

i. State the values of the horizontal and vertical translations required to achieve this model.
ii. Give the height of A above the water level to 1 decimal place.
iii. State the coordinates of the points C and B.
6. In an effort to understand more about the breeding habits of a species of

quoll, 10 quolls were captured and relocated to a small reserve where
their behaviour could be monitored. After 5 years the population size
grew to 30 quolls.
reserve is thought to be defined by the function N ∶ R+ ∪ {0} → R,

A model for the size of the quoll population, N, after t years on the
at + b
N (t) =
t+2
.
a. Calculate the values of a and b.

b. Sketch the graph of N against t.
c. Hence or otherwise, determine how large the quoll population can grow.
1.9 Exam questions

MC Zoe has a rectangular piece of cardboard that is 8 cm long and 6 cm wide. Zoe cuts squares of side length x
centimetres from each of the corners of the cardboard, as shown in the diagram below.
6 cm
x cm
8 cm
Zoe turns up the sides to form an open box.
The value of x for which the volume of the box is a maximum is closest to
A. 0.8 B. 1.1
C. 1.6 D. 2.0
E. 3.6
MC The graph shows the relationship between two variables, x and y.
0 x
A. y = a x
If a is a positive
√ constant, the equation relating x and y is most likely
B. y = ax2
C. y =
a
D. y = aex
x
E. y = a loge (x)
Question 3 (6 marks) TECH-ACTIVE

A right circular cone is inscribed in a sphere of radius 4 cm, as shown in the cross-section.
4 cm
A B r cm C
a. Express the radius, r cm, of the cone in terms of h. (1 mark)

b. Write an equation expressing the volume of the cone, V cm3 , in terms of h and state any restrictions
on h. (2 marks)
c. Sketch the graph of V versus h. (2 marks)
d. Use the graph to find the maximum volume for the cone to the nearest cm3 . (1 mark)

1.10 Review
1.10.1 Summary
doc-37030
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topic summary results videos exam questions
1.10 Exercise
Technology free: short answer
a. 3x2 − 5x = 4 b. 4x3 − 8x2 − 3x + 6 = 0

1. Solve the following equations.
c. 2m4 − 5m2 − 3 = 0 d. −2x3 + 12x2 − 22x + 12 = 0
2. a. Show that m − 2 is a factor of 4m4 − 11m3 − 19m2 + 44m + 12.

b. Hence, solve the equation 4m4 − 11m3 − 19m2 + 44m + 12 = 0.
3. If (x + 1), (x + 2) and (x + 3) are factors of x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx − 6, find the values of a, b and c.
4. Sketch the graphs of each of the following, stating the domain and range.
a. y = (x − 2)4 − 1 b. y = 1 − c. y = (2x + 1) + 8
(x − 2)
1 4 3
81 2
m + n − p = −2
3m + 5n − 2p = 1
5m + 4n + 2p = 9
6. Solve the pair of simultaneous equations through the use of a parameter, 𝜆.
2x + y − z = 7
−x − y + 3z = 1
7. a. Sketch the graph of the hybrid function defined by the following.
x + 1, x≤0
√
f (x) = {(3 − x) (x + 1) , 0<x≤3

3
x + 3, x>3
b. State where this function is discontinuous.

c. State the domain and range of the function.
8. Consider the functions f and g with respective rules f(x) = x + 2 and g(x) = 4 − x2 .
√ √
b. On the same axes, sketch y = f (x) and y = g (x), and hence sketch the graph of the function y = ( f + g) (x).
a. Give the maximal domain of each function and hence state their common domain, D.
9. MC When fully factorised, 4x3 − 2x2 − 36x + 18 becomes:
Technology active: multiple choice
A. (2x − 1) 2x2 − 18 B. 2 (2x − 1) (x − 3) C. 4 (x − 1) (x − 3) (x + 3)

( )
D. 2 (2x − 1) (x − 3) (x + 3) E. 2 (2x − 1) x − 9
2
( 2 )
10. (x − 1) is a linear factor of 6x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 1. The solutions to the equation 6x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 are:
A. x = 1, − and B. x = 1, − and − C. x = 1, and
MC
1 1 1 1 1 1
D. x = 1, and − E. x = −1, − and −

2 3 2 3 2 3
1 1 1 1
2 3 2 3
If ax3 + bx2 + cx + d ≡ 3 (x − 2)3 + 2 (x − 2), then a, b, c and d are respectively:

A. 3, −18, 36 and −24 B. 3, 18, −36 and 24 C. 3, −18, 38 and 28
11. MC
D. 3, −18, 38 and −28 E. 3, 18, 38 and −28
12. MC Find the value of k for which the simultaneous equations
2kx + (k + 2) y = 1
4x + (5k + 1) y = 2
have infinitely many solutions.

A. k = − B. k ≠ − and k ≠ −1 C. k = −1
4 4
D. k ≠ −1 and k = E. k = 1
5 5
4
5
13. MC A possible equation for the graph shown is:
y
(1, 0)
0 x
y = –1
x=2
A. y = −1
x−2
1
y=− −1
x−2
1
B.
y= −1
(x − 2)2
1
C.
y=− −1
(x − 2)2
1
D.
y=− −2
x−1
1
E.

14. MC A possible equation for the graph shown is:
y
(–2, 0) (0, 0) (3, 0) x
A. y = x2 (x + 2) (x − 3) B. y = x2 (x − 2) (x + 3) C. y = x2 (x + 2) (3 − x)
D. y = −x2 (x − 2) (x + 3) E. y = −x (x + 2) (x − 3)
The maximal domain of the function with the rule y = √

x − 64
4
15. MC is:
3
A. R \ {4} B. R \ {64} C. (4, ∞)

D. (64, ∞) E. R
16. MC Data about the relationship between two variables, x and y, are plotted in the diagram.
y
0 x
A. linear of the form y = x − a B. exponential of the form y = ax

The most likely model for the relationship is:
C. power function of the form y = (x − a) 2 D. trigonometric of the form y = cos (x − a)

1
E. polynomial of the form y = (x − a)

4
17. MC The graphs of y = f (x) and y = g (x) are shown.

y
y = f(x)
0 x
y = g(x)
Select the correct statement about the graph of y = g (x) − f (x).
The graph of y = g (x) − f (x) has no x-intercepts.
The graph of y = g (x) − f (x) has one x-intercept.
A.
The graph of y = g (x) − f (x) has two x-intercepts.

B.
The graph of y = g (x) − f (x) has three x-intercepts.

C.
The graph of y = g (x) − f (x) has four x-intercepts.

D.
E.
18. a. If am4 + bm3 + cm2 + dm + e ≡ m2 + 2 − 13 m2 + 2 + 42, find the values of a, b, c, d and e.

Technology active: extended reponse
( )2 ( )
b. Hence, or otherwise, solve m2 + 2 − 13 m2 + 2 + 42 = 0 over R.

( )2 ( )
19. Determine the values of m for which the equation (m + 1) x2 + 2x + 3m = 0 has two solutions.
x−y+z+w = 5
2x + y − z + 2w = 1
x + 2z − w = 0
2y − 3z − 2w = −11
21. In the figure shown, the parabola is defined by y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are constants.
y
C (3, 4)
(2, 3)
0 A B x
The curve intersects the x-axis at points A and B. Point C is the vertex of the parabola. The curve passes
through the point (2, 3) and has a maximum turning point at (3, 4).
a. Calculate the values of a, b and c.
b. Find the coordinates of points A and B.
i. Show that every member of the family of quadratic polynomials defined by y = ax2 − 6ax + 8a + 3,
c. Hence, calculate the area of the triangle ABC.
a ∈ R\ {0} passes through the point (2, 3).

d.
ii. Determine the value(s) of a for which these parabolas will have two x-intercepts.
22. Consider the polynomial y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 .

a. Factorise 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 .
b. Sketch the graph of y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 and state an interval, using integer values for x, in which its
c. The cross-section of a mountain range is modelled by the curve y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 for −2 ≤ x ≤ a,

maximum turning point must lie. √
where x km is the horizontal distance and y is the vertical height in hundreds of metres.
ii. Express y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 as the product of a polynomial f and a square root function g,
i. State the largest value a can take.
√
specifying the rule for each function.

iii. Using the largest value that a can take, state the ranges of the functions f and g.
iv. Sketch the functions f and g.
v. Hence, draw a sketch of the cross-section of the mountain range.
1.10 Exam questions
Consider the function f [a, b] → R, f (x) = , where a and b are positive real numbers. The range of f is
1
MC
, , ,
[ ) (x ] [ )
1 1 1 1 1 1
A. B. C.
a b a b b a
,
( ]
1 1
D. E. [a, b)
b a
The range of the function f ∶ (−1, 2] → R, f (x) = −x2 + 2x − 3 is

B. (−6, −3] C. (−6, −2]

MC
D. [−6, −3] E. [−6, −2]

A. R
The graph of y = kx − 4 intersects the graph of y = x2 + 2x at two distinct points for

A. k = 6 √ B. k > 6 or k < −2 C. −2 ≤ k ≤ 6
MC
D. 6 − 2 3 ≤ k ≤ 6 + 2 3 E. k = −2
√
−3x + my = m − 1 and
MC The simultaneous linear equations
(m + 1)x − 10y = −8,
A. m = 5 or m = −6 B. m = 5 only C. m ∈ R\ {−6, 5}
where m is a real constant, have an infinite number of solutions for
D. m ≠ −6 E. m ≠ 5
Find the value(s) of a for which the simultaneous equations 3x + ay = 5 and (a + 2) x + 5y = a have no solution.
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Answers c. y
Topic 1 Functions and graphs (–2, 8)
1.2 Linear functions (0, 4)
1.2 Exercise –2 0 (2, 0) 4

x
Domain: −4, 2); range: 0, 16

1. a. Many-to-one correspondence (4, –4)
[ [ ]
c. f ∶ −4, 2) → R, f (x) = x
b.
[
d. y = 12
2
ii. −3, 6), −9, 7

[ [ ] ]
2. a. i. Many-to-one Range (−4, 8
[0, ∞), R
iii. Yes d. y
ii. −2, 2 , −2, 2

b. i. One-to-many ii. No
iii.
[ ] [ ]
c. i. Many-to-many (5, –253 )
iii. No
(0, 5)
R, {2}
d. i. One-to-one ii. R, R iii. Yes
e. i. Many-to-one ii. iii. Yes
( 13
–1, –
3 )
f. i. One-to-one ii. R, R iii. Yes 0 x
–1 5
3. a. y
3x – 4y = 12
,
0 x [ ]
(4, 0) 13 25
Range
3 3
(0, –3) y = −3x + 12 y = 3x + 2
y + 2x − 2 = 0 2y + x − 8 = 0
5. a. b.
y=x+6
6. a. b.
3
b. 7. a. 140.2° b.
(4, −2)
4 √
4. a. y 8. a. i. ii. 4 2 units
,
( ) √
1 1
b. i. ii. 74 units
(0, 9) 2 2
a=6 a=7
a = −2, 14 a = −5, 1
9. a. b.
p=6 9y − 7x = 23
c. d.
y = 9 – 4x
10. a. b.
c. 8.3 units
(–49 , 0) 1.2 Exam questions

0 x Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
solutions online.
1. A 2. D 3. C
Range R 1.3 Solving systems of equations

b. y
1.3 Exercise
k ∈ R \ {−1, 4}
m=2
3x
y = –– 1.
5
2.
3. m = ±
(5, 3)
1
(0, 0)
4. k ∈ R \ {−1, 2}
x 2
( ) 5. a. m ∈ R \ {−4, 1} m = −4
9
–3 , – –
c. m = 1
5 b.
m = 2, n = 2 and p = −5
d = 1, e = 2 and f = 2
6.
− ,3
( ]
8. a. x = 3, y = 2 and z = −4
9 7.
b. m = 7, n = −2 and p = −1
Range
5

u = 3, v = 6 and w = −2
[
c. 7. a. 2, 29)
d. a = , b = −3 and c =
13 1 b. i. y (3, 9)
2 2
9. The largest angle is 70°, the smallest angle is 50° and the
10. w = 1, x = −3, y = 2 and z = 3

third angle is 60°.
2 (a + 2) 4 (a + 2)
(–2, 4)
x= ,y= ,z=
a (a + 4) a (a + 4)
4
11.
a. 3x + 3z = 3
a
x
(––23 , 0) 0 (2, 0)
𝜆
12.
b. x = 1 − 𝜆, y = − , z = 𝜆
2
c. This solution describes the line along which the two (0, –6)
(–41 , – –498 )
2 (𝜆 + 5) 7𝜆 + 2
planes are intersecting.
x= ,y=− ,z=𝜆 Range = − ,9

[ ]
13.
49
2 (3𝜆 + 2)
3 3 8
x= ,y= ,z=𝜆
11 ii. y
14.
x = 3𝜆, y = 5𝜆 − 2, z = 𝜆
3 3
a. m ∈ R \ {6} , n ∈ R
(2, 6)
b. m = 6, n = −2
15.
c. m = 6, n ∈ R \ {−2}
16.
(0, 2)
1.3 Exam questions

(2 – √6, 0) 0 (2 + √6, 0) x
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
solutions online.
1. B 2. C 3. C
1.4 Quadratic functions
Range = (−∞, 6 ]
1.4 Exercise
(5u − 2) (3u + 1)
2 (3d − 2) (d
√ − 4)
1. a.
c. 3( j + 2 − 6)( j + 2 + 6)
b. iii. y
√
d. (b − 1) (b + 1)
( f − 14)( f + 2) (g + 4)(g − 1)
0 x
2. a. b.
2± 2
√ (–1, –3)
3. a. x = − , b. x =
3 1
4 2 2 (0, –5)
4. a. y = ± b. z = −
1 7
5 ± 10
9 2
√
c. m = d. x = 1 or 3
5
p= k=
(–3, –11)
1 3 11
Range = (−11, −3 ]
5. a. or b. or 7
−5 ± 3 17
2 2 4
√
c. m = −4 or 1 d. n= iv. y
8
6. y
y = 2(3x – 2)2 – 8
(0, 72 ) ( 3 +2 √2 , 0)
0 x
(–34 , 0) ( 3 –2√2 , 0)
0
(0, 0)
x ( )
3 , –1
2
(–32 , –8) Range = [−1, ∞ )
Domain R, range [−8, ∞).
x2 − 2 = 2x − 3
b. f (x) = 4(x − 1) + 3 x2 − 2x + 1 = 0
8. a. None 14.
2
∆ = b2 − 4ac
c.
= (−2)2 − 4 × 1 × 1
y
= 4−4
y = 4x2 – 8x + 7
=0
As ∆ = 0, the graph of y = 2x − 3 is a tangent to the graph
(0, 7)
(1, 3) of y = x2 − 2.
15. a. k ∈ −∞, − ∪ ,∞
( ) ( )
0 x 3 3
Domain R+ ∪ {0}, range [3, ∞].

2 2
kx2 + 4x − k + 2 = 0
9. y = − (2x + 1) (x − 4) , TP = , ∆ = 16 − 4 × k × (−k + 2)
( ) b.
1 7 81
= 16( + 4k2 − 8k )
= 4 (k2 − 2k + 4
2 4 16
y=− (x + 6)2 + 12
= 4 [ k2 − 2k + 12] − 12 + 4
3 )
10. a.
= 4 (k + 1)2 + 3
20
b. y = − (x + 7) (2x + 5)
= 4(k + 1)2 + 12
4
As (k + 1)2 ≥ 0,
7
c. y = x − 5
∴ 4 (k + 1)2 ≥ 0
1 2
−(x − 1)2 − 4 and 4 (k + 1)2 + 12 > 0.

4
(1, −4) ∆ is always greater than zero. Therefore, the equation

11. a.
b.
3 − 2 46 3 + 2 46
c. y will always have a solution for all values of k.
( √ √ )
16. m ∈ , \ {1}
14 14
0 x 1.4 Exam questions

y = –x2 + 2x – 5
solutions online.
(1, –4) 1. B
(0, –5)
2. C
3. D
1.5 Cubic functions
Range (−∞, −4
1.5 Exercise
(5a − 3b) 25a2 + 15ab + 9b2
]
( )
2(c + d)3
1. a.
d. y
c. 5 2p − 1 4p + 2p + 1
b.
(0, 3) y=x+3 ( )( 2 )
(2x − 1)3
2. a. (3z − 2) (mn + 4) m2 n2 − 4mn + 16
d.
3
( )
3. a. (x − 1) 3x − y b. y + z 3y − 2z
x b.
(–3, 0) 0 ( ) ( )( 2 )
2
(3a − 2 − 4b) (3a − 2 + 4b)

y = –x2 + 2x – 5
b. np − 2m − 1 np + 2m + 1
4. a.
(1, –4) ( )( )
5. (x + 1) (x − 6) (x + 3)
(0, –5)
6. a. (r − 7) 7r + 1
( 2 )
b. (6v + 1) 6v + 5
( 2 )
c. (2m + 3) (m − 7) (m + 7)
d. (2z − 1) z + 1
(2 )
k=− e. 2x − 7 − 5y 2x − 7 + 5y
19 ( )( )
f. (4a − 2b − 3) (4a + 2b + 3)
e.
12. k ∈ (−4, 4)
4
g. (v − w + 2) (v + w − 2)
13. m ∈ −∞, 2 ∪ 2, ∞
( √ ) (√ )
h. 2p + q − 1 2p + q + 1
( )( )
7. x = ± 5,
√ 1
2

8. a. b = −4, −2, 1 17. a.
b. m = −1, , 4
y
3
2
c. x = ± 3,
√ 1
2
x = −3, −1 and
(–2, 0) (0, 0) (3, 0)
1
d. 0 x
9. a. Let P (t) = 3t + 22t + 37t + 10.

2
3 2
P (−5) = 3(−5)3 + 22(−5)2 + 37 (−5) + 10

= 3 × 125 + 22 × 25 − 185 + 10
= −375 + 550 − 175
=0
∴ t + 5 is a factor.
y = x3 – x2 – 6x
t = −5, −2 and −
b. y
1
1 (x + 1)3
Let P (d) = 3d3 − 16d2 + 12d + 16.

3 y=1– –
8
(–3, 2)
P (2) = 3 (2) − 16 (2) + 12 (2) + 16

b.
(0, –78 )
= 24 − 64 + 24 + 16
3 2
(1, 0)
=0
∴ d − 2 is a factor.
0 x
d = − , 2 and 4
2
(2, –2 –38 )
10. A = 3, B = 0, C = 2 and D = −7
3
d = ± 3, e = ±
1
11. c.
12. a. a = 5, b = −3, c = 4 and d = −1

y 2 3
3 y = 12(x + 1) – 3(x + 1)
b. a = −3 and b = 1
13. a = 2, b = 1, c = 1 and d = −3;
2(x − 1)3 + (x − 1)2 + (x − 1) − 3
14. a = 2, b = 5
(0, 9)
15. y
(3, 0)
(–1, 0) 0 x
y = –4(x + 2)3 + 16
(–2, 16)
y = 2x (5x − 4) (2x − 3)
3
( 4 – 2, 0)
18.
y= (x + 4) (4x − 5)2
0 x
1
19.
f (x) = −2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17

(0, –16) 10
f (1) = −2 + 9 − 24 + 17 = 0
20. a.
∴ (x − 1) is a factor.
4(x − 2) (x + 2)
−2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17 = (x − 1) −2x2 + 7x − 17 .
2
16. a. By inspection,
( )
b. y
−2x2 + 7x − 17.
(4, 96)
Consider the discriminant of the quadratic factor
∆ = 49 − 4 (−2) (−17)
= 49 − 136
(0, 32) y = 4x3 – 8x2 – 16x + 32
<0
(–2, 0) (2, 0)
0 x
c. Maximum value 96, minimum value 0.
b.
As the discriminant is negative, the quadratic cannot be y
factorised into real linear factors; therefore, it has no real
zeros.
For the cubic, this means there can only be one
factor, (x − 1).
x-intercept, the one which comes from the only linear
b. For there to be a stationary point of inflection, the
in the form y = a(x + b)3 + c.

equation of the cubic function must be able to be written (–2, 0)
Let −2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17 = a(x + b)3 + c

By inspection, the value of a must be −2.
0
x
∴ − 2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17

= −2 x3 + 3x2 b + 3xb2 + b3 + c
( ) (0, –4)
(–3, –4)
Equate coefficients of like terms:
x2 ∶ 9 = −6b ⇒ b = −
3
x ∶ −24 = −6b2 ⇒ b2 = 4
2 3. D
1.6 Higher degree polynomials

It is not possible for b to have different values. 1.6 Exercise
(x − 1) (x − 4) (x − 6) (x + 6)
function in the form. y = a(x + b)3 + c.
Therefore, it is not possible to express the equation of the
x = −1, 2, 3, 4
1.
b. a = ± 2
There is no stationary point of inflection on the graph of 2. a.
√
c. x → ± ∞, y → ∓ ∞ 3. a. l = ± 4 and ±1
the function.
b. c = −3 and ±2
4. a. a = ± 1 and ±3
d. y
b. k = ± and ±5
1
2
c. z = ± and ±4
y = –2x3 + 9x2 – 24x + 17 1
(0, 17)
d. x = 8, −6, 1
3
(1, 0) 5. a = 2, b = −13, c = −14

0 x 6. y
y=x–2
(0, 0)
(1, 0)
(–1, 0)
0 (2, 0) x
(0, –2)
y = x2 – x4
1.5 Exam questions
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked 2 solutions
solutions online. 7. y
2. a. f (x) = (x + 2) (x − 1)
1. E y = x4 – 6x3
2
= x + 4x + 4 (x − 1)
( 2 ) (0, 0) (6, 0)
= x3 − x2 + 4x2 − 4x + 4x − 4
x
= x3 + 3x2 − 4
y = x4 − 6x3 + 1 will make 2 intersections with the x-axis.
a=− , b = 6, c = 7, (−6, 7)
7
8.
81

x = −1.75, x = 1.22
10. a. Minimum turning points (−1.31, −3.21) and
9. 14. a. i. y
(1.20, −9.32), maximum turning point (−0.64, −2.76) y = x6
c. Minimum turning point (−2.17, −242), stationary point

b. None
(1, 1)
of inflection (2, 20) (0, 0) x
11. y
y = (x + 1)6 + 10
(0, 11) y = x7
{x ∶ x ≤ 1}
(–1, 10)
ii.
b. y
0 x
(–2, 16)
12. y = 16 – (x + 2)5
y = (x + 4 )(x + 2)2(x – 2)3(x – 5)
y
(–1, 15)
(–4, 0) (0, 0)
(–2, 0)
(0, 640) x
(–4, 0) (2, 0) (5, 0) y = 16 – (x + 2)4
0 x
(0, –16)
y = (x + 3)2 (x + 1) (x − 2)3 , degree 6

ii. y = (x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (10 − x), degree 7
c. i.
y = −3(x + 5)4 + 12
2 3
13. a.
b. y
1.6 Exam questions
solutions online.
2. x ∈ 3, 4 ∪ {0}
1. C
[ ]
y = (2 + x)(1 – x)3
3. C
(0, 2)
(–2, 0) (1, 0) 1.7 Other algebraic functions
0 x
1.7 Exercise
R \ {−9} −∞,
( ]
1
1. a. b.
R \ {−3}
2
c. d. R
2. a. y = +1
x+3
6
b. i. Maximal domain R \ {1}

−(x + 2)2 (x − 2) (x − 3)
ii. Range R \ {5}
c. i.
ii. y y 5x—
–2
y=—
y= –x4 + x3 + 10x2 – 4x – 24 x–1
y=5
(–2, 0) (2, 0) (3, 0)
0 x
(0, 2)
(0.4, 0)
0 x
(0, –24) x=1
3. y d. y
(0, 4) x = 0.5
xy + 2y + 5 = 0
y=0 y=0
0 x 0 x
4
y=— —
1 – 2x (0, –2.5)
(1, – 4)
Domain R \ {−2}, range R \ {0}

x = –2
Domain R \ { } , range R \ {0}.

1
2 e. y x=5
4. a. y (3, 0)
y = 10 – 5
5–x
4+5
y =– 0 x
x
y = –5 (0, –3)
y=5
( 4, 0
––
5 )
Domain R \ {5}, range R \ {−5}
0 x
−2
5. a. y = +6
x+3
b. y = −
2 (x + 2) 2
1 3
Domain R \ {0}, range R \ {5}

x=0
6. y
b. y
y= 8 –2
3 (x + 2)2
y=2– (–4, 0)
x+1 (0, 0)
1 0 x
( )
2
,0
y=2
y = –2
x
Domain R \ {−2}, range (−2, ∞).

0 x = –2
(0, –1)
7. a. y
Domain R \ {−1}, range R \ {2}

x = –1 2
y= +1
(3 – x)2
c. y (0, 119 )
4x + 3 (6, 119 )
y=
2x + 1
y=1
(0, 3) 0 x
Domain R \ {3}, range (1, ∞)

y=2 x=3
1
x = ––
2
0 x
(– –34 , 0)
Domain R \ {− }, range R \ {2}
1
2

b. y 10. a. i. Maximal domain [−9, ∞)
]
ii. Range (−∞, 2
y= –3 –2 y
4(x – 1)2
x=1 (–9, 2) y=– x+9+2

0 x
y = –2 (–5, 0)
0 x
(0, – 114) ( 2, – 11) (0, –1)
4
y=2 x−1+3
√
3
b.
y
Domain R \ {1}, range (−∞, −2)

(1, 3)
y = 2 3x – 1 + 3
c. (0, 1)
y
0 x
y= 1 –1 (–19
—, 0 )
8
(2x + 3)2
,0 . −
()
19
x-intercept
8
, ∞ , range [−6, ∞)
[ )
9
11. a. Maximal domain
(–2, 0) (–1, 0) 4
0 x y
y = –1
y = 3 4x – 9 – 6
x=–
3 (0, – 89 )
2
Domain R \ {− }, range (−1, ∞)

3
2
d. y )13—4, 0)
y=5 0 x
y=
25x2 – 1 ) —94 , –6)
5x2
,0
(–0.2, 0) (0.2, 0) ( )
0 x 10
b.
3
y
1–
3
y = (10 – 3x)
Domain R \ {0}, range (−∞, 5)

x=0 1–
(0, 10 3( (10
— , 0(
8. y = −1
3
1 0 x
−3
4x2
9. a. y = +2
(x − 4)2
b. y = − 4; y=2 √ (x − 3) + 2, domain [3, ∞), range [2, ∞);

√
(2x − 1)2
108
y = −2 (x − 3) + 2, domain [3, ∞), range (−∞, 2 .
12. a.
]
f ∶ R \ { } → R, f (x) = −4 b. y = −2 (x − 3) − 1, domain (−∞, 3 , range [−1, ∞);

(2x − 1)2
1 108 √ ]
y = − −2 (x − 3) − 1, domain (−∞, 3 , range

2 √ ]
(−∞, −1 .
]
13. a. y 15. a. y
y= 3x + 2 –1
y = 1 – 3x
(0, 1) (0, 32–1 )
0 x (–1, 0)
x
(–31 , 0) 0
(–2, –1)
Domain [0, ∞), range (−∞, 1

]
b. y
b. y y=– (
1 1 – 3x + 8 )
y = 2 –x + 4
( 1
–8, –
2 ) 2
(–7, 0)
0 x
(–1, 6)
(0, – –12)
(0, 4)
Domain R, range R
c. y
y = g(x) = 3 –x + 5
0 x
(–3, 2)
(0, 3 5)
Domain (−∞, 0 , range [4, ∞)
] (5, 0)
0 x
c. y
(6, –1)
Domain −3, 6 , range −1, 2

[ ] [ ]
d. y = 2 3 x − 2
(0, 7) √
7 x+1
√
e. y = − −2
y = 2 4 + 2x + 3
3
f. y = 4 (x − 2) − 2, (2, −2)
(–2, 3) 2
√
16. The maximal domain is x ∈ −3, 2 .

3
[ ]
17. a. Domain R ∪ {0}

x
+
0
Domain [−2, ∞), range [3, ∞)

y
(1, 1) y=x
d. y
3
–
x (0, 0) y = x4
0
x
(4, – 3 )
b. Domain R
(0, –3 3 )
y = – 3 – 12 – 3x
Domain (−∞, 4 , range −∞, − 3

] ( √ ]
a = 2, b = −5, c = −2
b. i. a = −2, b = 4, c = −2
14. a.
ii. y = − −2x + 4 + 2
√

18. a. Domain R d. Domain [0, ∞), quadrant 1
y y=x y
1 y=x
–
y = x5 y = x0.25
(0, 0) (1, 1) (0, 0) (1, 1)
(–1, –1) x x
b. Domain R+ ∪ {0} 20. a. Draw y = x and determine the cube roots of the
y y=x
appropriate y-values to construct the shape.
b. y
1
–
8
y=x 1
y=x –
y = x3
(1, 1)
(1, 1)
(0, 0)
x (–1, –1) 0 x
Domain [0, ∞), quadrant 1

{x ∶ x < −1} ∪ {x ∶ 0 < x < 1}
19. a.
y c.
5
–
2
y=x y=x
1.7 Exam questions
(0, 0) (1, 1)
solutions online.
x
1. E
2. D
3. A
b. Domain R, quadrants 1 and 3 1.8 Combinations of functions

1.8 Exercise
f (−8) = 2, f (−1) = −1, f (2) = 0
y 5
–
y = x3
y=x 1. a.
b. y
(0, 0) (1, 1)
(–1, –1) x (–1, 1)
(1, 1)
(2, 0)
0 x
(–1, –1)
c. Domain R, quadrants 1 and 3
x = −1
y
y=x c. i. ii. Domain R, range R.
3
–
y= x5 2. a. y
(0, 4)
(0, 0) (1, 1)
(–1, –1) x
(0, 0) (2, 0)
x
Domain R, range R, x = 0
y = − 1 + x − 1 − x, domain −1, 1
√ √ [ ]
b. y 7. a.
y
3
(1, 1) 2
(0, 0)
x 1
y=0
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
] y = f(x) y = g(x)
Domain R, range (−∞, 1 , no point of discontinuity –2
3. a. i. 1 (–1, – 2 ) –3
(1, – 2 )
ii. 2
b. y
y= 1 − x2 , domain −1, 1 , range 0, 1 .

y = ( f + g)(x)
√ [ [ ] ]
f − g (x) = x3 − x2
(2, 4) b.
( )
(–1, 2) (2, 2) 8.
(4, 0) y
4
0 (1, 0) x y = ( f – g)(x)
3
(0, 0) 2
(0, 0) 1 (1, 0)
R \ {−1, 2}
x = –1
0 x
√ to the left of x = 1 has the rule

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
c. –1
–2
f (x) = 1 − x, so f (1) = 0.
4. a. The branch –3
The branch to the right of x = 1 has the rule f (x) = x − 2,

y = f(x) y = –g(x)
The graphs of f and g intersect when x = 0, x = 1, which

–4
so f (1) → −1 (open circle).

gives the places where the difference function has
continuous at x = 1.
These branches do not join, so the hybrid function is not
x-intercepts.
9. y
b. y
5
(–3, 2) 4
(0, 1) y = g(x)
( – 3 45, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0) 3
0 x
2 y = ( f + g)(x)
(1, –1)
y = f(x) 1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
c. x = 6
Many-to-one correspondence –1
x + 4, x < 0
5. y = {4, 0≤x<4
10. a. y
4≤x≤8
6
x, 5
⎧ (x + 3) (x + 1) , x<0
4
⎪3
y = g(x)
4
6. y =
3
⎨4, 0≤x≤2
2
⎪
⎩−2x + 8, x≥3
y = f(x) + g(x) 1 y = f(x)
x
–3 –2 –1 –10 1 2 3
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

b. y c. i. y
6
y = g(x) 5
4 4
y = f (x) y = f (x) + g(x)
3
2 2
y = f(x) + g(x) 1 y = g(x)
(–1, 0)
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
0 x –1
–4 –2 2 4 –2
y = f (x)
–2 ii. y
y = 3, domain R, range {3}, horizontal line through (0, 3)

6
5
11. a. 4
y = f (x) y = g(x) – f (x)
y 3
2
y=3 1 y = g(x)
(–1, 0)
(0, 3)
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
x iii. y
0
6
y = 7(− 4x,)domain R, range R, straight line through (0, 7)

5
b.
,0
4 y = f (x)g(x)
y = f (x)
7 3 (0, 1)
and 2
4 y = g(x)
1
y (–1, 0) (1, 0)
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
(0, 7) –1
y = 7 – 4x –2
13. y
6
5
4
) –47 , 0) y = –x 3
0 x 2
y=x
(–1, 0) 1
y = 2 (5 − 2x) (x − 1), domain R, range −∞, ,

x
] ( –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
9 –1
(0, 0)
c. y = x + –x –2
( 4 )
,
7 9 14. y
concave down parabola with turning point and
passing through (0, −10), (1, 0) and (2.5, 0)
4 4
4
y = 2(5 – 2x)(x – 1) 3
y y = x2 – 1 (0, 1)
(7, –
–
4 4
9
) (
– 2, 1 ) 2
( 2 , 1)
(1, 0)
0 x 1
( –52 , 0) (–1, 0) (1, 0)
0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
(0, –10) –1 (0, –1)
Domain R, range [0, ∞)

(
y = x2 – 1 )2
−6
[−1, ∞)
12. a. i. ii. 189
b.
y= +6
x−2
15. a.
4
y b. i.
2 ii. y
y = (g(x))2
(3, 10)
1 (0, 1)
(4, 8)
(0.5, 0) y=6
0 y=– 4 +6
–1 1 2 x (x – 2)
(0, 4)
y = g(x)
(1, 2)
–1 (0, –1)
x=2
1±
b. (0, 0) , ± 2, 0 , (−1, 1) ,
( √ )
,1
0 x
( √ ) 5
2 2. a. P (’000s)
16. y 50
45
40
(–1, 1) (1, 1) 35
(3, 0)
0 x (0, 32.5)
(1, –2) 30
25
(–47 , – ––258 )
20
Range = − , ∞
[ )
25 0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6
a = 8, b = 32
8
P = 3.125t + 32.5
The data appears to be linear.
17. a. b.
y c. 32 500 bees
a=2
(8, 4)
d. 3.125 thousand per month
(–8, 0) (0, 2) 3. a.
0 x b. (2, 2)
y = (x − 5)2 , 2 ≤ x ≤ 9
2
b. i. k > 4 k = 4 or k ≤ 0
c.
2x + 2, −1 < x < 0
9
iii. 0 < k < 4 ⎧
ii.
y= 0≤x≤2
{−1, 32}
⎨2
2,
(x − 5)2 , 2 < x ≤ 9
d.
⎩9
c.
1.8 Exam questions

x=5±
√
or x = −
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked 3 3 1
e.
solutions online. 2 4
1. E 2. E 3. D 4. a. The garden area is the area of the entire square minus the
area of the two right-angled triangles.
A = 40 × 40 − × x × x − × (40 − x) × 40
1.9 Modelling and applications 1 1
2 2
= 1600 − x − 20 (40 − x)
1.9 Exercise 1 2
1. a. The data points increase and decrease, so they cannot 2
= 1600 − x2 − 800 + 20x
be modelled by a one-to-one function. Neither a linear 1
model nor an exponential model is possible. 2
trigonometric. The jump between x = 1 and x = 3 is a = − x + 20x + 800
The data is not oscillating, so it is unlikely to be 1 2
such as a cubic with a turning point between x = 1 and 0 < x < 40

concern, but the data could be modelled by a polynomial 2
x = 3. However, y = xn requires the point (0, 0) to be on it

b.
c. i. 20
2
and that is not true for the data given. ii. 1000 m

y = 2x3 x − 5 x + 5 Let P (m) = 4m4 − 11m3 − 19m2 + 44m + 12.
( √ )( √ )
If m − 2 is a factor, then P (2) = 0.

5. a. 2. a.
b. y = 2x x − 5
( 2 )
P (2) = 4(2)4 − 11(2)3 − 19(2)2 + 44 (2) + 12
3
= 2x5 − 10x3
= 4 × 16 − 11 × 8 − 19 × 4 + 88 + 12
= 64 − 88 − 76 + 88 + 12
√
vertical translation of 12 3 + 1 units upward = 76 − 88 − 76 + 88

c. i. Horizontal translation of√ 3 units to the right and
=0
ii. 24 3 + 1 ≈ 42.6 metres
( √ )
∴ m − 2 is a factor.
3, 12 3 + 1 b. m = − , ±2 and 3
( √ ) (√ √ )
1
a = 38, b = 20
iii. B 2 3, 1 , C
3. a = 5, b = 5 and c = −5
4
4. a. Domain R, range [−1, ∞)

6. a.
b. N
y
1
N = 38 y = — (x – 2)4 – 1
81
(5, 30) (–1, 0)
N = 38t
– + 20
(5, 0)
t+2
0 x
(0, 10) 65
( 0, – —
81) (2, –1)
0 t
Domain R \ {2}, range (−∞, 1)

c. The population will never exceed 38.
b.
1.9 Exam questions y
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked y=1
solutions online.
1. B
3. a. r = 8h − h2
2. C (0, 0) (4, 0) x
√
V = 𝜋h2 (8 − h), 0 < h < 8

1
b.
3
c. V 4
y=1–
(x – 2)2
1
) )
5 – , 79.4
3
x=2
1 πh2 (8 – h)
V= – c. Domain R, range R
3
y
y = (2x + 1)3 + 8
( )
1,8
––
2 (0, 9)
( )
3, 0
––
2
0 x
(8, 0)
m = −1, n = 2 and p = 3
(0, 0) h
6. x = 8 − 2𝜆, y = 5𝜆 − 9 and z = 𝜆
3 5.
d. 79 cm
1.10 Review
1.10 Exercise
5 ± 73
Technology free: short answer
±
√ √
1. a. x = b. x = 2,
3
c. m = ± 3 d. x = 1, 2, 3
6 2
√
7. a. y 22. a. (2 + x)2 (2 − x)
b. y = (2 + x)2(2 – x)
y
y = f (x)
(3, 6)
(1, 4)
(0, 8)
(0, 3)
(0, 1) (2, 0)
(–1, 0) (3, 0) 0 x
(–2, 0)
0 x
x = 0 and x = 3
Domain R, range R \ (4, 6
b.
]
−2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
The maximum turning point lies in the interval
8. a. df = [−2, ∞), dg = −2, 2 , df ∩ dg = D = −2, 2
c.
[ ] [ ]
c. i. a = 2
ii. f (x) = 2 + x, x ∈ −2, 2 ; g (x) = 2 − x,
b. y [ ] √
x ∈ −2, 2
[ ]
iii. ranf = 0, 4 , rang = 0, 2

(0, 2 + 2 ) y = ( f + g)(x)
[ ] [ ]
iv. y
(2, 2)
(–2, 0)
0 x (2, 4)
f(x) = x + 2
(–2, 2) (0, 2)
(0, 2 )
Technology active: multiple choice g(x) = 2 – x
(–2, 0)
9. D (2, 0)
0 x
10. A
11. D
12. E
13. B v. y
14. C
15. B
y= 8 + 4x – 2x2 – x3
16. C (0, 2 2 ) (1, 3)
17. C
18. a. a = 1, b = 0, c = −9, d = 0 and e = 20

Technology active: extended response
b. m = ± 5 and ±2
(–2, 0)
√ (2, 0)
3 − 21 3 + 21
0 x
( √ √ )
19. m ∈ ,
−6 −6 1.10 Exam questions
x = 0, y = −2, z = 1, w = 2
21. a. a = −1, b = 6, c = −5
20. Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
solutions online.
1. D
b. A (1, 0) and B (5, 0)
2. C
d. i. y = ax − 6ax + 8a + 3, a ∈ R \ {0}
2
c. 8 units
Let x = 2 ∶
2 3. B
y = 4a − 12a + 8a + 3 5. a = −5, a = 3
4. B
=3 No solutions, a = 3
Every parabola in this family passes through the
ii. a < 0 or a > 3

point (2, 3).

c01FunctionsAndGraphs Holiday Homework

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c01FunctionsAndGraphs Holiday Homework

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1 Functions and graphs

Fully worked solutions for this topic are available online.

Find all this and MORE in jacPLUS

• graphs of the following functions: power functions, y = xn , n ∈ Q; exponential functions, y = ax , a ∈ R+ ,

mapping; this is dependent on the function rule.

notation for the straight line y = 2x is f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 2x.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Recognising functions

Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the diagram. y

d. Calculate the value of y when x = − 2.

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 3

1.2.2 The linear polynomial function

perpendicular lines is equal to −1. That is:

m1 = m2 for parallel lines

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Sketching a linear graph

Consider the line L where L = {(x, y) ∶ 2x + 3y = 12}.

b. Rearrange the equation in the form y = mx + c b. 2x + 3y = 12

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Determining linear equations

Determine the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, for the line:

a. 1. Convert the equation into the form y = mx + c a. y − 3x + 5 = 0

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 5

b. 1. Convert the equation into the form y = mx + c b. 2y + 4x = −10

3. State the gradient–point form of a straight y − y1 = m (x − x1 )

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Gradients and linear equations

3. Calculate 𝜃, correct to 1 decimal place. 𝜃 = tan

2. State the gradient–point form of a straight y − y1 = m (x − x1 )

1.2.3 Midpoint and distance between two points

Midpoint between two points A

Distance between two points

y2 − y1 and horizontal length x2 − x1 . Applying Pythagoras’ theorem, the

formula for the distance between two points is as follows. y2 – y1

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 7

Given the points (−3, 5) and (4, −6), calculate:

d= (4 + 3)2 + (−6 − 5)2

Students, these questions are even better in jacPLUS

Find all this and MORE in jacPLUS

1. WE1 Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the diagram.

d. Calculate the value of y when x = −2

3. WE2 Consider the line L where L = {(x, y) ∶ 3x − 4y = 12} .

a. f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 9 − 4x b. g ∶ (−3, 5] → R, g(x) =

a. with a gradient of −3 and passing through the point (2, 6)

b. passing through the points (−2, −4) and (1, 5).

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 9

8. a. WE5 Given the points (2, 0) and (6, −4), calculate:

b. Given the points (−3, −2) and (4, 3), calculate:

i. the midpoint, M, between the two points

9. Determine the value of a when:

d. the distance between (a, 4) and (−2, −2) is 45.

1.2 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark) TECH-ACTIVE

d+1 3 1−d 7 d−4

Question 2 (1 mark) TECH-ACTIVE

The linear function f ∶ D → R, f (x) = 4 − x has range [−2, 6).

The domain D of the function is

1.3.1 Solving simultaneous equations with two variables

No solution If the two straight lines have the same gradient, y

Infinitely If the two straight lines have the same equation, y

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 11

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Determining unique solutions

equations in the general form, y = mx + c.

equations will have the same gradient, so for

1.3.2 Simultaneous equations with three variables

No solution One unique solution Infinitely many solutions

The planes are identical.

Planes are parallel to one another.

There is a single point at which all

WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Solving simultaneous equations with three unknowns

Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.

[3] − [2] ⇒ x + 8y = −3 [4]

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 13

[4] × 2 ⇒ 2x + 16y = −6 [7]

8. Substitute y = −1 back into the system of Substitute y = −1 into [4]:

TI | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE CASIO | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE

Solve ({2x − 3y + 2z = −5,

solve ⎜{x − 5y + z = 1 , {x, y, z}⎟

WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Solving simultaneous equations using a parameter

The simultaneous equations shown have infinitely many solutions.