h<S 7

Section 5
Voltage Regulators
BASIC REGULATOR THEORY for all variations in supply voltages and junction
temperatures. There are several common techniques which
The function of every voltage regulator is to convert a dc can be used to solve design problems using integrated circuit
input voltage into a specific , stable , dc output voltage and regulators. Many of these techniques are discussed in the
maintain that voltage over a wide range of load current and section of the text that outlines error contributions.
input voltage conditions. To accomplish this, the typical
voltage regulator ( Figure 5- 1 ) consists of: SAMPLING ELEMENT
1 . A reference element that provides a known stable The sampling element monitors the output voltage and
voltage level , ( VREF) - Converts it into a level equal to the reference voltage. A
2. A sampling element to sample the output voltage variation in the output voltage causes the feedback voltage
. level. to change to a value which is either greater or less than the
3. An error-amplifier element for comparing the reference voltage. This voltage difference is the error voltage
output voltage sample to the reference and which directs the regulator to make the appropriate response
creating an error signal . and thus correct the output voltage change .
4. A power control element to provide conversion
of the input voltage to the desired output level ERROR AMPLIFIER
over varying load conditions as indicated by the ' The error amplifier of an integrated circuit voltage
error signal . regulator monitors the feedback voltage for comparison with
the reference. It also provides gain for the detected error
level . The output of the error amplifier drives the control
REGULATED j circuit to return the output to the preset level.
INPUT OUTPUT
VOLTAGE CONTROL VOLTAGE
CONTROL ELEMENT
ELEMENT
All the previous elements discussed remain virtually
t unaltered regardless of the type regulator circuit. The control
element , on the other hand , varies widely , depending upon
^ Fr EEDBACK
S the type of regulator being designed . It is the element that
VOLTAGE A determines the classification of the voltage regulator; series,
ERROR AMP L
M shunt , or switching. Figure 5-2 illustrates the three basic
P
M

—_
R
VREF L
E
I Rs
F N
N
T
i n
T G
~
T
V|
i : 1
' LOAD
»
Vo

Figure 5- 1 . Basic Regulator Block Diagram VO

(a )
- -
V| ( RSIIL

SERIES
Although actual circuits may vary , the three basic
regulator types are series, shunt , and switching . The four LOAD .
basic functions listed above exist in all three regulator types .
V| V| Vo
VOLTAGE REGULATOR COMPONENTS r
Rs
•REFERENCE ELEMENTS
The reference element forms the foundation of all voltage V L J
regulators since output voltage is directly controlled by the
reference voltage. Variations in the reference voltage will
be interpreted as output voltage errors by the error amplifier
V0 - >—
(b
V| R (IL +

SHUNT
I S1
(c )
V|
on + *o«
SWITCHING
and cause the output voltage to change accordingly . To
achieve the desired regulation , the reference must be staBle Figure 5 - 2. Control Element Configurations

or NAHSII 51
uvxKsmr
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 discussed SHUNT REGULATOR
control element configurations , each of which is The shunt regulator employs a shunt control element in
amount
in detail . These elements contribute an insignificant
is because the which the current is controlled to compensate for varying
of error to the regulator’ s performance . This
beyond the input voltage or changing load conditions . The basic shunt
sampling element monitors the output voltage
regulator is illustrated in Figure 5 -4 .
control element and compensates for its error contributions.
However , the control element directly affects parameters
such as minimum input -to-output voltage differential , circuit Rs 'S
' LOAD . - Vo
efficiency , and power dissipation .
V| - A W-
^ 'S H U N T
REGULATOR CLASSIFICATIONS
I
SERIES REGULATOR
The series regulator derives its name from its cdntrol
element . The output voltage, Vo, is regulated by modulating ,,
f:
|SHUNT
i R1
an active series element , usually a transistor , that functions
as a variable resistor . Changes in the input voltage , Vi , will
result in a change in the equivalent resistance of the series
-
element identified as Rs The product of the resistance , Rs ,
and the load current , II creates a changing input -to-output
R2

differential voltage , VJ - VQ, that compensates for the t

changing input voltage. The basic series regulator is l
illustrated in Figure 5-3, and the equations describing its -.
Figure 5 4 Basic Shunt Regulator
performance are listed below .
The output voltage. VQ as with the series regulator , is

I
4
RS
W.* 1
4
V0 = VREF < 1 + —
R1

R2
held constant by varying the voltage drop across the series
-
resistor , Rs , by varying the current Is Is may vary because
of II changes or it may vary because of current , I(Shunt )
- I
through the shunt control element . For example , as II
R1
increases, I(Shunt ) decreases to adjust the voltage drop across
REF
-
Rs In this fashion VQ is held constant .
Vo = Vi - ISRS
Is = II + I( shunt )
VQ = VI — RS[IL + I(shunt )]

The change in shunt current for a changing load current is:

t
-.
Figure 5 3 Basic Series Regulator Al(shunt ) = ~ AIL

V0 Vj - ( Vr - V0)
= The change in shunt current for a changing input voltage is:
v =
( Vi - 0) i[ Rs
:
V0 = vr
- ILRS
Al( shunt )
AVi
~

The change in Rs for a changing input voltage is:

RT
1
V0
AVj I ( shunt )
ARS R(shunt )
IL
Even though it is usually less efficient than series or switching
The change in Rs for a changing load current: regulators , a shunt regulator may be the best choice for some
I

applications. The shunt regulator is less sensitive to input

AIiRs voltage transients; does not reflect load current transients
ARs
IL + AIL back to the source , and is inherently short-circuit proof .

Series regulators provide a simple, inexpensive way to obtain SWITCHING REGULATOR

a source of regulated voltage. In high-current applications , The switching regulator employs an active switch as its
however , the voltage drop which is maintained across the control element . This switch is used to chop the input voltage
control element will result in substantial power loss and a at a varying duty cycle based on the load requirements. A
much lower efficiency regulator. basic switching regulator is illustrated in Figure 5-5 .
5-2

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 ,
r -<•" <i>
*

— i

4 - nrvr>H » - vo
vo

f^
V

T * VREF
osc Vz

REF

T
-.
Figure 5 5 Basic Switching Regulator
i -.
Figure 5 6 Basic Zener Reference

This technique is satisfactory for relatively stable supply-

( Step-Down Configuration ) voltage and load -current applications. The changing zener
current results in a change in the zener diode 's reference
A filter , usually an LC filter , is then used to average voltage , Vz - This zener reference model is illustrated in
the voltage present at its input and deliver that voltage to Figure 5-7.
the output load . Because the pass transistor is either on
( saturated ) or off , the power dissipated in the control element
is minimal . The switching regulator is therefore more
t efficient than the series or shunt type. For this reason , the
switching regulator becomes particularly advantageous for
* applications involving large input-to-output differential
VREF
voltages or high load-current requirements. In the past , VREF = VZ Rz
switching voltage regulators were discrete designs. However,
VZ = VZ . + IZRZ
recent advancements in integrated circuit technology have
-
‘z Vz
r resulted in several monolithic switching regulator circuits that
lz
V| VZ
contain all of the necessary elements to design step-up, step- R + RZ
down , or inverting voltage converters. The duty cycle may , - vz
VREF = VZ. + RZ|
V
be varied by : -
1. maintaining a constant on-time , varying the
frequency
^
2 . maintaining a constant off-time, varying the -.
Figure 5 7 Zener Reference Model
frequency
3. maintaining a constant frequency, varying the
on/off times
-
Constant Current Zener Reference
The zener reference can be refined by the addition of
t a constant-current source as its supply . Driving the zener
diode with a constant current minimizes the effect of zener
MAJOR ERROR CONTRIBUTORS
impedance on the overall stability of the zener reference . An
The ideal voltage regulator maintains constant output example of this technique is illustrated in Figure 5-8. The
: voltage despite varying input voltage , load current , and reference voltage of this configuration is relatively
temperature conditions . Realistically , these influences affect independent of changes in supply voltage and load current .
the regulator’s output voltage. In addition , the regulator’s
own internal inaccuracies affect the overall circuit
] performance. This section discusses the major error
contributors , their effects , and suggests some possible
Q2
solutions to the problems they create .

REGULATOR REFERENCE TECHNIQUES VREF

There are several reference techniques employed in
integrated circuit voltage regulators. Each provides its VZ
i
particular level of performance and problems . The optimum J '

reference depends on the regulator’ s requirements .

Res
Zener Diode Reference
The zener diode reference , as illustrated in Figure 5-6 ,
I is the simplest technique. The zener voltage itself , Vz , forms
the reference voltage, Vpgp. Figure 5 8. Constant Current Zener Reference
- -
I
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 VREF Vz + VBE( QI ) By analyzing the effect of temperature on VREF it can
be shown that the difference between two similar transistors’
VBE(Q 1 ) emitter -base voltages, when operated at different currents is:
Iz
Res kT Ii•
In addition to superior supply voltage independence, the
VBE(Q1) - VBE(Q2) = — ln “
£
circuit illustrated in Figure 5-8 yields improved temperature
.
stability . The reference voltage, VREF is the sum of the where
zener voltage ( Vz) and the base-emitter voltage of
Q 1[ VBE( Q 1)1 A 1 W temperature coefficient can be achieved k = Boltzmann’s constant
°
by balancing the positive temperature coefficient of the zener T = absolute temperature — degrees K
with the negative temperature coefficient of the base-emitter q= charge of an electron
junction of Ql . I - current

Band-Gap Reference The base-emitter voltage of Q3 can also be expressed as:

Another popular reference is the band-gap reference,

„[ - ]+ VBE [ ]
^ ^
which developed from the highly predictable emitter-base
voltage of integrated transistors. Basically, the reference VBE(Q3) V l 0
voltage is derived from the energy-band-gap voltage of the
semiconductor material [ Vgo( sj|jcon) = 1.204 V ) . The basic t
where
band-gap configuration is illustrated in Figure 5-9. The
reference voltage, VREF. in this case is: Vg0 = band-gap potential
VBEO = emitter-base voltage at To
VREF = VBE(Q3 ) + 12 R 2
VREF can then be expressed as:
> -f
- „[ ] [ ]
Vr

VREF l -

^ ^
V + VBEo
R

- VREF
+
R2
£ _IJ_
R3 q " 12 )

"lr
R2

i' Q3
Differentiating with respect to temperature yields

dVREF Vgo VBEO R2 i!

1

)
= + +
dT T0 T0 R3 q I2
Q2

If R2. R3, and I| are appropriately selected such that

^
HlnlJ
R3
. lvgo -
VBEO( Q 3 ) ] C
Figure 5-9. Band-Gap Reference 12
where
The resistor values of R 1 and R 2 are selected in such
a way that the current through transistors Ql and Q2 are q
C
significantly different (Ij = IOI2 ). The difference in current
kT0
through transistors Ql and Q2 also results in a difference
in their respective base -emitter voltages. This voltage
and
differential ( VBE(QI ) - VBE(Q2 ) J W >U appear across R 3 . 1

Application of transistors with sufficiently high gain results

V go 1.2 V
in current I2 passing through R 3. In this instance I is
to:
2 equal .
the resulting
VBE( Q 1) ~
VBE(Q2)
R3
^ dT
= 0
°
[( j
)
^
VREF = VBE(Q3) + VBE(Q1) - VBE(Q2)
The reference is temperature-compensated.
5-4
I
I

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 Band - gap reference voltage is particularly advantageous
for low -voltage applications ( VREF = 1.2 V ) and it yields
a reference level that is stable even with variations in supply + VREF
and temperature .

SAMPLING ELEMENT
The sampling element used on most integrated circuit
V|0

V|
W -
Ay V| r
voltage regulators is an R 1 / R2 resistor divider network
( Figure 5-10). which can be determined by the output -
voltage-to- reference-voltage ratio .
+ VFB
I
*L
-VREF -, + 2RL2
R2

CONTROL
CIRCUIT
r -
Figure 5 11. Amplifier Model Showing
Input Offset Voltage Effect
R1

V0 = AyV[
R2
REF Vi = VREF - VIO - vFB
L
Z R2
VFB Vo R 1 + R2
Figure 5 10. R 1 / R 2 Ladder Network
-
Sampling Element
V0
VREF - VIO
Since the feedback voltage is determined by ratio and not 1 R2
absolute value , proportional variations in R 1 and R2 have Ay R 1 + R2
no effect on the accuracy of the integrated circuit voltage
regulator. When proper attention is given to the layout of If Ay is sufficiently large
these resistors in an integrated circuit , their contribution to
the error of the voltage regulator will be minimal . The initial
accuracy is the only parameter affected . V0 = ( VREF - Vio) h -1_
L R2
ERROR AMPLIFIER PERFORMANCE
If a stable reference and an accurate output sampling Vio represents an initial error in the output of the integrated
element exist , the error amplifier becomes the primary factor circuit voltage regulator . The simplest method of
determining the performance of the voltage regulator . Typical compensating for this error is to adjust the output voltage
amplifier performance parameters such as offset , common ¬ sampling element R 1 / R2.
mode and supply -rejection ratios, output impedance , and
temperature coefficient affect the accuracy and regulation Offset Change with Temperature
of the voltage regulator . These amplifier performance The technique discussed above compensates for the
parameters will affect the accuracy of the regulator due to amplifier ’ s offset voltage and yields an accurate regulator ,
variations in supply , load , and ambient temperature but only at a specific temperature. In most amplifiers , the
conditions. offset voltage change with temperature is proportional to the
initial offset level. Trimming the output voltage sampling
Offset Voltage element , does not reduce the offset voltage but merely
Offset voltage is viewed by the amplifier as an error counteracts it . At a different ambient temperature, the offset
signal , as illustrated in Figure 5- 11 , and will cause the output voltage changes and , thus, error is again introduced into the
to respond accordingly . voltage regulator. Monolithic integrated circuit regulators
use technology that essentially eliminates offset in integrated
circuit amplifiers. With minimal offset voltage, drift caused
by temperature variations will have little consequence.

5-5
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' Supply Voltage Variations The equivalent error introduced then is :
The amplifier 's power supply and common- mode
rejection ratios are the primary contributors to regulator error VcM
which has been introduced by an unregulated input voltage. COMMON- MODE ERROR
CMRR
In an ideal amplifier, the output voltage is a function of the
differential input voltage only . Realistically , the common ¬

The common -mode error represents an offset voltage

mode voltage of the input also influences the output voltage.
to the amplifier . Neglecting the actual offset voltage, the
The common - mode voltage is the average input voltage ,
referenced from the amplifier' s virtual ground (see
Figure 5-12 and the following equations ) .

vcc+
VQ = VREF +
VcM
CMRR / \
.
output voltage of the error amplifier then becomes:

{ ii
R2

VS - + Using constant-current sources in most integrated circuit

amplifiers , however , yields a high power-supply ( common ¬
- V0 mode ) rejection ratio. This power-supply rejection ratio is
R1 of such a large magnitude that the common mode voltage -
R2 effect on Vo can usually be neglected.
VQ
R1 + R 2
REGULATOR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
R2 Various types of integrated circuit voltage regulators are
available , each having its own particular characteristics ,
vcc- giving it advantages in various applications. The type of
regulator used depends primarily upon the designer 's needs
-
Figure 5 12. Amplifier Model Showing
and trade-offs in performance and cost.
-
Common Mode Voltage
POSITIVE VERSUS NEGATIVE REGULATORS
Virtual Ground VCc + + Vcc - This classification of voltage regulators is easily
2 understood : a positive regulator is used to regulate a positive

VS + V0 rLRI_E_ iJ + R2
voltage , and a negative regulator is used to regulate a negative
voltage. However , what is positive and negative may vary ,
Vl(av ) depending upon the ground reference.
2 Figure 5- 13 illustrates conventional positive and negative
voltage regulator applications employing a continuous and
VCM = —2
VS + V0
/
\
K2
R 1 + R2
common ground . For systems operating on a single supply ,
the positive and negative regulators may be interchanged by
floating the ground reference to the load or input . This
-
(vCC + + VCC - | approach to design is recommended only where ground
isolation serves as an advantage to overall system
From this relation it can be seen that unequal variations in performance .
either power supply bus rail will result in a change in the Figures 5- 14 and 5- 15 illustrate a positive regulator in
-
common mode voltage. a negative configuration and a negative regulator in a positive
The common-mode voltage rejection ration (CMRR ) is configuration , respectively .
the ratio of the amplifier’ s differential voltage amplification
to the common - mode voltage amplification . + VREG -
Ayp
CMRR IN OUT
+ V| POSITIVE
aVCM REGULATOR
+ vo
aVD GND
COM •0
aVCM COM T GNO
CMRR

That portion of output which is voltage contributed by

-V , IN
NEGATIVE
REGULATOR OUT
9- Vo
the equivalent common-mode input voltage is:
V
VREG
s
AypVCM
Vo = VCMAVCM - .
Figure 5 13 Conventional Positive/
CMRR Negative Regulator
5-6

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 voltage regulators are : adjustable short -circuit current
VREG limiting , access to the voltage reference element , and
shutdown circuitry .
IN POSITIVE
REGULATOR
DUAL-TRACKING REGULATORS
The dual tracking regulator ( Figure 5- 16 ) provides
V|
COM
l
( V|MUST FLOAT )
-V 0
regulation for two power supply buses , usually one positive
and one negative . The dual -tracking feature assures a
balanced supply system by monitoring the voltage on both
-
Figure 5 14. Positive Regulator in Negative
power supply buses. If either of the voltages sags or goes
Configuration ( V| Must Float )
out of regulation , the tracking regulator will cause the other
voltage to vary accordingly ( A 10 % sag in the positive
voltage will result in a 10 % sag in the negative voltage .
( V| MUST FLOAT ) )

V|
COM T— +v 0
These regulators are , for the most part , restricted
applications such as linear systems where balanced supplies
to

NEGATIVE
offer a definite performance improvement .
IN REGULATOR OUT °
VREG
+ v , V 0+

Figure 5-15. Negative Regulator in Positive DUAL

TRACKING GND
Configuration ( V|Must Float )
REGULATOR
FIXED VERSUS ADJUSTABLE REGULATORS -v , v0-
Many fixed three-terminal voltage regulators are
available in various current ranges from most major
integrated circuit manufacturers . These regulators offer the + 100
designer a simple , inexpensive method to establish a
>
regulated voltage source. Their particular advantages are:
1 . Ease of use
2
1
2. Few external components required I 50
3. Reliable performance
4. Internal thermal protection I
.
Q
5. Short-circuit protection
o
There are disadvantages . The fixed three -terminal O
X 0 50 100
voltage regulators cannot be precisely adjusted because their % OF PROGRAMMED VQ-
output voltage sampling elements are internal . The initial
accuracy of these devices may vary as much as ± 5 % from
the nominal value; also the output voltages available are -
Figure 5 16. Dual Tracking Regulator
limited .
Current limits are based on the voltage regulator s
’ SERIES REGULATORS
applicable current range and are not adjustable . Listings of The series regulator is well suited for medium current
some fixed and variable voltage regulators are given at the applications with nominal voltage differential requirements .
end of this chapter . Extended range operation ( increasing Modulation of a series pass control element to maintain a
I LOAD) *S cumbersome and requires complex external well regulated , prescribed , output voltage is a straightforward
circuitry. design technique. Safe-operating-area protection circuits such
The adjustable regulator may be well suited for those as overvoltage , fold- back current limiting , and short-circuit
applications requiring higher initial accuracy . This depends protection are additional functions that series regulators can
on the complexity of the adjustable voltage regulator . supply . The primary disadvantage of the series regulator is
Additionally , all adjustable regulators use external feedback , its power consumption .The amount of power a series
which allows the designer a precise and infinite voltage regulator ( Figure 5- 17 ) will consume depends on the load
selection . current being drawn from the regulator and is proportional
The output sense may also be referred to a remote point . to the input -to-output voltage differential . The amount of
This allows the designer to not only extend the range of the power consumed becomes considerable with increasing load
regulator ( with minimal external circuitry ) , but also to or differential voltage requirements. This power loss limits
compensate for losses in a distributed load or external pass the amount of power that can be delivered to the load because
components . Additional features found on many adjustable the amount of power that can be dissipated by the series
regulator is limited .

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 The common-terminal voltage is:
SERIES
REGULATOR VCOM = V0 - VR 1 = vO “ VREF
l|_ *
The input voltage seen by the floating regulator is:

'
^
REG

^l(reg) = Vi — ^COM
Figure 5- 17. Series Regulator
Vl( reg) = Vl - V0 + VREF
The equations that describe these conditions are listed vIt reg ) = VDIFF + VREF
below . PREG > S the power lost in the regulator,I[ is the input
current, IREG S the regulator current and II is the load Since VREF is fixed, the only limitation on the input
current . The differential voltage across the regulator is voltage is the allowable differential voltage. This makes the
,
( V - V0) .
floating regulator especially suited for high- voltage
applications ( V[ > 40 V).
VI I ~ VOIL
PREG =
* Practical values of output voltage are limited to practical
ratios of output-to-reference voltages.
II = IREG + II
R2 _ vO
Since II is much greater than IREG
R1 VREF
II = II The floating regulator exhibits power consumption
characteristics similar to that of the series regulator from
PREG = II < VI - vo) which it is derived, but unlike the series regulator, it can
Floating Regulator also serve as a current regulator as shown in Figure 5 - 19.
The floating regulator (Figure 5 - 18) is a variation of the RL
'

series regulator. The output voltage remains constant by V0 VREF I

changing the input -to-output voltage differential for varying Rs .
input voltage. The floating regulator’s differential voltage
is modulated such that its output voltage when referenced Vo = VL + v0(reg)
to its common terminal Voireg) s equal to its internal
'
reference ( VREF) - The voltage developed across the output- vO( reg) = VREF
to-common terminal is equal to the voltage developed across
RI( VRI ). RL ' -
VL = VREF 1 + VREF
Rs .
vO(reg) = VREF = VRI
RL
RL '
'

VRI = v0 VL = VREF
Rl + R2 . Rs.
R2 VLOAD
v0 VREF I + IL
Rl RL
VREF
- VDIFF - ILOAD ~

i 1 RT
FLOATING

* t
REGULATOR
tTT FLOATING l Rs i

V | ( REG ) Vo ( REG . '| JR ,

=G ) R1
VR 1
REGULATOR
t >L
V| I - -
O i 1 VQ
vO ( REG )
t i RL
vL
vCOM R2

1
Figure 5- 18. Floating Regulator Figure 5 - 19. Floating Regulator as a
Constant-Current Regulator

5 -8

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 SHUNT REGULATOR
Figure 5 - 20 is t e
_. . .
Vi - l[ Rs

The shunt regulator, illustrated in The short -circuit current of the shunt regulator then
a fixed resistor as its
simplest of all regulators. It employs becomes:
series pass element .
Rs Vo 0
v , — V0

IL
- —Vl
S
H
R
E
G
U
1* isc -
i
Rs
L
U
A SWITCHING REGULATORS to the
The switching regulator lends itself primarily
N
T T
where power
O
higher power applications or those applications
R concern.
supply and system efficiency are of the utmost
regulator operates
“
X" Unlike the series regulator, the switching
regulator
its control element in an on or off mode.
Switching
element modes are illustrated in Figure
5 -22.
Figure 5 - 20. Shunt Regulator control

Changes in input voltage or load current requirements

are compensated by modulating the current which is shunted V|

to ground through the regulator.

•sw ' L

AVi
\ For changes in Vj: AIz =
Rs
= - A II ON-STATE
For changes in II: AIZ
The inherent short -circuit -proof feature of the shunt
PSW = VSW SW
VSW = 0 V '
= OW
regulator makes it particularly attractive for some PSW
applications. The output voltage will be maintained until the vL -
load current required is equal to the current through the series
element ( see Figure 5 -21).

IL = !s dz =
°
)
> sw
r
V| - Vo
Rs T
IU
CJ
<
O
•z
r Vo
3
h
LU
- OFF STATE

PSW ” Vsw
l $W = 0 A ' SW

K PSW = 0 W
O
B. -
I
- .
Figure 5 22 Switching Voltage Regulator Modes
i Lx
In this manner, the control element is subjected to a high
current at a very low voltage or a high differential voltage
~ v XL- at a very low current. In either case, power dissipation in
vlI -
V VQ
Rs the control element is minimal. Changes in the load current
or input voltage are compensated for by varying the on-off
- .
Figure 5 21 Output Voltage vs Shunt ratio (duty cycle) of the switch without increasing the internal
Current of a Shunt Regulator power dissipated in the switching regulator . See
Figure 5- 23(a) .
Since the shunt regulator cannot supply any current, For the output voltage to remain constant, the net charge
additional current required by the load will result in reducing in the capacitor must remain constant . This means the charge
the output voltage to zero.
delivered to the capacitor must be dissipated in the load.

5 -9

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 V ,
o
— t -
'L '

-
O -
*off -

4X
• T
" ifJc
li
1
1
k
9 3X
O
2X

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

T (a )

' L ( pk ) —
AQ+
)
r?
AJ

cr
0

'L \ ^Q —
5
4
T

Figure 5- 23 . Variation of Pulse Width vs Load

ic II' - II As this demonstrates , the duty cycle t/T can be altered

to compensate for input voltage changes or load variations .
ic II for IL' 0 The duty cycle t / T can be altered a number of different
ways.
ic iL( pk ) - II for II IL( pk ) t = t 0 n ( inductor charge time )
The capacitor current waveform then becomes that
T = Total time ( ton + t0ff + ti ) where ti is
the time from t0ff until the start of the
illustrated in Figure 4-23( b) . The charge delivered to the next charge cycle.
capacitor and the charge dissipated by the load are equal to
the areas under the capacitor current waveform . Knowing T then :

AQ + J_dL( pk ) ~ II) 2 / Vi f
_ 1
2 iL(pk ) \ VC T

AQ - IL T
1
2
t /
/
—
VC
Vi Fixed On Time , Variable Frequency
One technique of voltage regulation is to maintain a fixed
or predetermined "on ” time ( t ) , the time the input voltage
is being applied to the LC filter) and vary the duty cycle by
_ j. Aupk )

^
- IL / VA varying the frequency ( f ) . This method makes voltage
2 \ iL( pk ) AVC /.
conversion applications design easier ( step-up , step-down ,
invert ) since the energy stored in the inductor of the LC filter I

By setting AQ + equal to AQ - , the relationship of during the on -time ( which is fixed ) determines the amount
II of power deliverable to the load . Thus calculation of the
and iL(pk ) f r AQ = 0 can be determined ;
° inductor is fairly straightforward .

=
1
- iL( pk )
Vl __ t
L =-
V
t
2 VC T I
5- 10

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 where capability to design a switching voltage regulator that will
L = value of inductance in microhenrys operate at a well defined minimum frequency under full load
V = differential voltage in volts conditions .
I = required inductor current defined by the

t =
load in amps
on -time in microseconds -
I
LD

E
The fixed -on-time approach is also advantageous from O
the standpoint that a consistent amount of energy is stored
in the inductor during the fixed on-time period , this o
simplifies the design of the inductor by defining the operating f - FREQUENCY
parameters to which the inductor is subjected . The operating
Figure 5 -25 . Frequency vs Load Current for
characteristic of a fixed -on-time switching voltage regulator
Fixed Off-Time SVR
is a varying frequency , which changes directly with changes
in the load. This can be seen in Figure 5-24 . The fixed -off-time approach also allows a dc current to
be established in the inductor under increased load conditions ,
-
H
i
thus reducing the ripple current while maintaining the same
average current . The maximum current experienced in the
LU
CC inductor under transient load conditions is not as well defined
io as that found in the fixed -on-time regulator . Thus additional
precautions should be taken to ensure that the inductor does
o not saturate .
f - FREQUENCY Fixed-Frequency , Variable Duty Cycle
F igure 5-24. Frequency vs Load Current for The fixed -frequency switching regulator varies the duty
Fixed On-Time SVR cycle of the pulse train in order to change the average power
he fixed-frequency concept is particularly advantageous for
Fixed Off Time , Variable Frequency r systems employing transformer-coupled output stages. The
In the fixed-off time
- switching voltage regulator , the' -
" fixed frequency permits efficient design of the associated

average dc voltage is varied by changing the on time ( t ) of magnetics. Transformer coupling also has advantages in
the switch while maintaining a fixed off-time ( toFF ) - The single and multiple voltage-conversion applications . The
fixed -off -time switching voltage regulator behaves in a fixed-frequency regulator will establish a dc current through
manner opposite that of the fixed-on-time regulator. the inductor ( for increased load conditions) to maintain the
As the load current increases, the on time is made to required load current , with minimal ripple current. The
increase, thus decreasing the operating frequency ; this is single-ended and transformer-coupled configurations are
illustrated in Figure 5-25. This approach provides the illustrated in Figure 5-26.

V|
V0 V , Vo v,

STEP - DOWN STEP - UP INVERT

(a ) -
SINGLE ENDED CONFIGURATIONS

° — I N
V|

V|
I
o
FLYBACK PUSH -PULL
( b) TRANSFORMER-COUPLED CIRCUITS
Figure 5 - 26 . Switching Voltage Regulator Configurations

5- 11

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 These types of switching regulators can thus be operated Load Current
with high efficiency to provide low- voltage , regulated outputs iLmax
from a high -voltage , unregulated supply or vice versa . The The maximum load current deliverable from the
switching frequency should be established at the optimum integrated circuit regulator . If internal current
value for the switching components of the supply limiting is not provided , external protection should
( transformer , switching transistor , inductor , and filter be provided . This is a functional limit that may be
capacitor ) . High frequency operation is distinctly further limited by PD max -
advantageous because the cost , weight , and volume of both
L and C filter elements are reduced . Power Dissipation
However , the frequency at which the effective series
resistance of the filter capacitor equals its capacitive reactance
^Dmax
The maximum power that can be dissipated within
is the maximum allowable frequency . the regulator. Power dissipation is the product of
Operation above 20 kHz is desirable to eliminate the the input-to-output differential voltage and the load
possibility of audible noise . Choosing an operating frequency current , and is normally specified at or below a
that is too high will result in power switching transistor losses given case temperature. This rating is usually based
as well as “ catch ” diode losses. The higher cost of these on a 150 °C junction temperature limit . The power
high performance components must be balanced against the rating is an SOA limit unless the integrated circuit
reduced cost , size , and weight of the L and C components regulator provides an internal thermal protection .
when determining the optimum frequency for a specific
application. Output Voltage of an Adjustable- Voltage Regulator
VOmin
REGULATOR SAFE OPERATING AREA The minimum output voltage a regulator is capable
of regulating. This is usually a factor of the
The safe operating area ( SOA ) is a term used to define regulator’ s internal reference and is a functional
the input and output voltage range , and load current range limit .
within which any device is designed to operate reliably . VOmax
Exceeding these limits will result in a catastrophic failure The maximum output voltage a regulator is capable
or will render the device temporarily inoperative, depending of regulating. This is largely dependent on the input
upon the device and its performance characteristics. voltage and is a functional limit .
Integrated circuit voltage regulators with internal current
limiting, thermal and short-circuit protection will merely shut External Pass Transistor
down . External components , such as pass transistors on the For applications requiring additional load current ,
other hand , may respond with catastrophic failure. integrated circuit voltage regulator capabilities may be
boosted with tfie addition of an external pass transistor . When
REGULATOR SOA CONSIDERATIONS employed , the external pass transistor , in addition to the
Although particular design equations depend upon the voltage regulator , must be protected against operation outside
type of integrated circuit voltage regulator used and its its safe operating area . Operation outside the safe operating
application , there are several boundaries that apply to all area is catastrophic to most discrete transistors.
regulator circuits for safe , reliable performance. ICmax
The maximum current the transistor is capable of
Input Voltage sustaining . Icmax now becomes the maximum
The limits on the input voltage are derived from three current the regulator circuit is capable of delivering
considerations: to the load . Associated with Icmax is a collector-
Vlmax emitter voltage ( VCE = V ,- VQ). If the product
The absolute maximum rated input voltage as ( Vi - Vomax )ICmax exceeds the SOA then
referenced to the regulator ’ s ground . This is a safe will have to be derated . This will then become a
Icmax
operating area (SOA ) destruct limit . functional limit instead of a catastrophic limit .
( Vi — Vo)min Icmax related to power dissipation and junction
The input -to-output differential voltage also referred or case temperature . Icmax must again be derated
to as the dropout voltage , at which the regulator if the thermal or power ratings at which it is
ceases to function properly . This is a functional specified are exceeded . The resulting derated ICmax
limit. should continue to be considered as a catastrophic
"
^Olmax
The maximum input -to-output differential voltage .
limit . Actual Icmax limits and derating information
will appear on the individual transistor specification .
Usually , the regulator’s power dissipation is VCEmax
exceeded prior to the ( Vi - V0)max limit . This is The maximum collector-emitter voltage that can be
an SOA level that can be limited by the allowable applied to the transistor in the off -state . Exceeding
Power Dissipation ( PDrnax ). this limit can be catastrophic .
5- 12

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 vOlr«fl )
The maximum power that can be dissipated
specified at a
by the
specific
V|
R
E -O RCL
Vo
transistor . This is usually G
junction or case temperature . If the transistor is U
L RL
operated at higher temperatures , the maximum A
power must be derated in accordance with the T
operating rules specified in the transistor s 0
applicable specification . Prolonged operation above R
the transistor ' s maximum power rating will result T
in degradation or destruction of the transistor .

SAFE OPERATING PROTECTION CIRCUITS -

Figure 5 28. Series Resistance Current Limiter
Selection of the proper integrated circuit voltage introduced
regulators and external components will result in a reliable The primary drawback of this technique is error
design in which all devices can operate well within their by the voltage dropped across RCL under var > in? load
by the following
respective safe operating areas . Fault conditions (such as a conditions . The % error , as illustrated
equations , depends on the RCL and RL values -
short-circuit or excessive load ) may cause components in the
regulator circuit to exceed their safe operating area operation .
Because of this situation , as well as protection for the load ,
certain protection circuits should be considered .

Reverse Bias Protection vO( reg )

A potentially dangerous condition may occur when a Vo
voltage regulator becomes reverse biased . For example , if 1 + RCL
the input supply were crowbarred to protect either the supply RL
itself or additional circuitry , the filter capacitor at the output
of the regulator circuit would maintain the regulator’ s output
Vp( reg ) ~ vO
% ERROR
voltage and the regulator circuit would be reverse biased . VCKreg )
If the regulated voltage is large enough (greater than 7 V ),
the regulator circuit may be damaged . To protect against this,
a diode can be used as illustrated in Figure 5-27. % ERROR =
RL + RCL
Maintaining RCL at a level which is an order of magnitude
less than the nominal load impedance minimizes this effect .
POSITIVE
REGULATOR

-
Figure 5 27. Reverse Bias Protection
RCL = —10
RL % ERROR = 9.1 %

CURRENT LIMITING TECHNIQUES This also yields a short-circuit current that is an order of
The type of current limiting used depends primarily on magnitude greater than the normal operating load current .
the safe operating area of the pass element used . The three
basic current limiting techniques are series resistor , constant _
~
vo< reg)
current , and fold-back current limiting. iUnorm )
RCL + RL( norm )
Series Resistor
This is the simplest method for short -circuit protection . ,isc = vO( reg )
The short -circuit current is determined by the current - limiting RCL
-
resistor RCL illustrated in Figure 5-28.
ISC = II iL( norm )
vO = vo( reg )- lLRCL
This technique is obviously inefficient since it requires
A short -circuit condition occurs when VQ = 0, thus: using a regulator or pass element with current capabilities
in excess ( 11 X) of its normal operating capabilities.
The performance characteristics of a series resistance
ISC = IL @ ( V0 = 0) =
current limited regulator are illustrated in Figure 5-29.
RCL

-
5 13

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 I
- Voir > supplying the base of Q2 is diverted, thus decreasing the drive
* *
.100% current to Q3, the regulator ' s pass transistor . The
p— NORMAL OPERATING performance characteristics of a constant -current limited
RANGE regulator are illustrated in Figure 5-32.
<
O NOMINAL
UJ
OPERATING
£ ERROR <
V/.
O

o
QL

' L ( nom )
LOAD CURRENT l
Figure 5 - 2V . Performance C haracteristics of a
Series Resistance Current- Limited Regulator OUTPUT CURRENT

Figure 5- 32. Constant Current Limiting

Constant-Current Limiting
Constant -current limiting is the most popular current - It should be noted that short -circuit conditions are the
limiting technique in low -power, low -current regulator worst conditions that can be imposed on the pass transistor
circuits. The basic configuration is illustrated in Figure 5-30. since it has to survive not only the short -circuit current, but
it has to withstand the full input voltage across its collector
c ~i and emitter terminals.
CONTROL
I RCL This normally requires the use of a pass transistor with
V| - 4 vO
ELEMENT
‘
power handling capabilities much greater than those required
C.L. SENSE I
I for normal operation i.e.:
TTT ,
I' 0! Vo SENSE ^^ H T1
'
° '
i °— 1
1 V! = 20 V V0 = 12 V I0 = 700 mA

I
I
— II I!
I
“
SC
VTH
' RCL
NOMINAL PD = (20 V

For I$c = 1 A( 150 %

- 12 V) x 0.7 A = 5.6 W

IoUT):
I

Figure 5-30. Constant Current Limit Configuration SHORT-CIRCUIT PD = 20 V x 1 A = 20 W

This requirement may be reduced by the application of

Note that this method requires access to the control
fold-back current limiting.
element and remote voltage sense capabilities. By sensing
the output voltage beyond the current limiting resistor, the
Fold-Back Current Limiting
circuit allows the regulator to compensate for the voltage
Fold-back current limiting is used primarily for high-
changes across RCL -
current applications where the normal operating requirements
If an external pass transistor is used, its base current may
of the regulator dictate the use of an external power transistor .
be starved to accomplish constant -current limiting, as
The principle of fold-back current limiting provides limiting
illustrated in Figure 5-31.Current limiting takes effect as the
at a predetermined current (IK). At this predetermined
voltage drop across RCL approaches the potential required
current, feedback reduces the load current as the load
to turn on transistor QL As Q 1 is biased on, the current
continues to increase (RL decreasing) and causes the output
EXTERNAL PASS voltage to decay .
TRANSISTOR
“
"L
RCL
Q3
UJ

<
Q2 0

-
V j CONTROL I O Q1
-.
I
Q

§
CURRENT -LIMIT
REGULATOR
^.
SENSE ELEMENT
ISC
LOAD CURRENT
Figure 5-31. Constant Current Limiting for
External Pass Transistor Applications Figure 5- 33, Fold- Back Current Limiting

5- 14

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 The fold - back current - limiting circuit of Figure 5-34 The approach illustrated in Figure 5-34 allows a more
behaves in a manner similar to the constant -current limit efficient design because the collector current of the pass
circuit illustrated in Figure 5-31 . In Figure 5-33, the potential transistor is less during short -circuit conditions than it is
developed across the current limit sense resistor ( RCL) must during normal operation . This means that during short -circuit
not only develop the base -emitter voltage required to turn conditions , when the voltage across the pass transistor is
on Q 1 , but it must develop sufficient potential to overcome maximum , the collector-emitter current is reduced . As
the voltage across resistor R 1 . illustrated in Figure 5-35, fold - back current limiting fits
closer to the typical performance characteristics of the
Vo + RCLIL transistor , thus allowing a better design match of the pass
VBE( QI ) = RCLA x Ri transistor to the regulator.
R 1 + R2
THREE TERMINAL REGULATORS
VBE( QI ) ( Ri + R 2 ) + VpRi
MK =
RCLR 2 Three-terminal IC regulators have been especially useful
to the designer of small , regulated power supplies or on -card
As the load current requirement increases above IK , the regulators . Three-terminal regulators are popular because
output voltage ( VQ ) decays . The decreasing output voltage they are small and require a minimum number of external
results in a proportional decrease in voltage across RI . Thus, components.
less current is required through RCL to develop sufficient
potential to maintain the forward- biased condition of Q 1 . This STABILIZATION
can be seen in the above expression for IK AS VQ decreases ,
- Mounting and using three-terminal regulators usually
IK decreases. Under short -circuit conditions ( VQ = 0) IK presents no problem , however , there are several precautions
becomes: that should be observed . Positive regulators, in general , use
npn emitter follower output stages whereas negative

isc IK <® ( VQ = 0)
VBE(Q 1 ) r R1 regulators use npn common-emitter stages with the load
connected to the collector. The emitter follower output stage
RCL L R2. configuration is not used in negative regulators because
monolithic pnp series- pass transistors are more difficult to
EXTERNAL PASS make . Due to their output stage configuration , positive
TRANSISTOR
Q3
' LOAD regulators are more stable than negative regulators .
Therefore , the practice of bypassing positive regulators may
rCL be omitted in some applications. It is good practice, however,
R1 to use bypass capacitors at all times.
Q2
For a positive regulator , a 0.33 /xF bypass capacitor

-
V
| CONTROL|
should be used on the input terminals. While not necessary
for stability , an output capacitor of 0.1 /xF may be used to
improve the transient response of the regulator . These
REGULATOR capacitors should be on or as near as possible to the regulator
R2
terminals. See Figure 5-36.
.
’
CURRENT - LIMIT When using a negative regulator , bypass capacitors are
SENSE ELEMENT
a must on both the input and output . Recommended values
Figure 5 - 34. Fold - Back Current Limit Configuration are 2 jxF on the input and 1 #xF on the output . It is considered

HI
u
< FOLD -BACK CURRENT
LIMITING
o
>
£ T CONSTANT -CURRENT
n LIMITING
5 a
^x mu
O > -0V| V
U
UJ
V ,-VQ-' KRCL - TYPICAL TRANSISTOR
SOA CURVE
O
u
K
'
LOAD CURRENT /COLLECTOR CURRENT 03
Figure 5- 35 . Fold - Back Current Limit Safe Operating Area

5- 15

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 good practice to include a 0. 1 -JIF capacitor on the output to 1 N 4001
improve the transient response ( Figure 5-37) . These
capacitors may be mylar , ceramic , or tantalum , provided that
— H—
- -I ]-
X
I
+20 V MA 7815C +15 VQ
they have good high frequency characteristics. INPUT
0.1 iF 1 N 4001
*
0.33 jiF :
I_
1—
I
POSITIVE
+ \/|
REG
w0 o.i MFT 4-
r
Jr-
0.33 MF 0.1 MF
T 2.0 nF i .o F ;
^ 1 N 4001

-20 V -
INPUT
-| MA 7915C [- -15 V0
- f-
-
Figure 5 36. Positive Regulator 1 N 4001

I -
Figure 5 38. Regulated Dual Supply

-V, NEGATIVE
REG
Sr-.t -V0 In Figure 5-38, 1 N4001 diodes are placed directly across
2|iF 1 MF
u 0.1 #iF the regulators, input to output. When a capacitor is connected
to the regulator output , if the input is shorted to ground , the
only path for discharging the capacitor normally is back
through the regulator. This could be ( and usually is)
destructive to the regulator . The diodes across the regulator
-
Figure 5 37. Negative Regulator divert any discharge current , thus protecting the regulator .

SERIES ADJUSTABLE REGULATORS

FIXED DUAL REGULATORS Figure 5-39 illustrates a typical circuit for an LM 317
When building a dual power supply with both a positive adjustable positive regulator with the output adjustable from »
and a negative regulator , extra precautions should be taken . 1.2 V to 17 V and up to 1.5 A of current. ( A typical input
If there is a common load between the two supplies , latch - -
supply uses a 25.2 V transformer and a full - wave bridge
up may occur . Latch- up occurs because a three-terminal rectifier. )
regulator does not tolerate a reverse voltage of more than Stabilization , as described earlier for fixed three-terminal
one diode drop. To prevent this latch- up problem , it is good regulators , is usually not required . Although the LM 317 is
design practice to place reversed - biased diodes across each stable with no output capacitors, like any feedback circuit ,
output of a dual supply . While the diodes should not be certain values of external capacitance can cause excessive
necessary if the dual regulator outputs are referenced to ringing . This effect occurs with values between 500 pF and
ground , latch - up may occur at the instant power is turned 5000 pF. Using a 10- jtF aluminum electrolytic on the output
on , especially if the input voltage to one regulator rises faster swamps this effect and ensures stability . i
than the other. This latch- up condition usually affects the Cl is the power supply filter capacitor following the
positive regulator rather than the negative regulator . These rectifier section and should be connected close to the
diodes prevent reverse voltage to the regulator and prevent regulator input for maximum stability . If the input were
to
parasitic action from taking place when the power is turned be shorted , D 1 would divert the discharge current
around
on . The diodes should have a current rating of at least half the regulator , protecting it . Also , with both D 1 and D2
in
the output current . A recommended circuit for a dual 15 V the circuit , when the input is shorted , C2 is discharged
regulated supply is illustrated in Figure 5-38. through both diodes. In general , a diode should be used in

+
••
— i
I INI
|
2
LM 317
01

OUT

INPUT
i n < R1
+ T 10 uF OUTPUT
ci 2000 M F 270 1 N 4002 iD2 +1.2 V TO 17 V
I
JjC
35 V 3

— 10 MF -^-
-* v
/>
~

R 2 5 kU
AT 1.5 A

-
Figure 5 39. Positive Adjustable Series Regulator
5- 16

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 i
the position occupied by D 1 on all positive regulators to components especially , should be located as close
prevent reverse biasing . This becomes more important at as possible
to the regulator control circuit . In addition to
higher output voltages since the energy stored in the affecting a
regulator's susceptibility to spurious oscillation , the
capacitors is larger . Bypassing the adjustment terminal ( C2 )
layout
of the regulator also affects its accuracy and performance .
improves ripple rejection . Output capacitor C3 is added to
improve the transient response of the regulator . Input Ground Loop
In both the negative ( LM 337 ) and the positive ( LM 317 ) Improper placement of the input capacitor can induce
series adjustable regulators there is an internal diode from unwanted ripple on the output voltage . Care should be taken
the input to the output . If the total output capacitance is less to ensure that currents in the input circuit do not flow in the
than 25 jtF, Dl may be omitted . ground line that is in common with the load return . This
would cause an error voltage resulting from the peak currents
THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS of the filter capacitor flowing through the line resistance of
] Like any semiconductor circuit , lower operating the load return . See Figure 5 -40 for an illustration of this
temperature greatly improves reliability of a voltage effect .
regulator . It is good practice to make the input - to-output drop
across a three -terminal regulator as low as possible while Output Ground Loop
maintaining good regulation . Larger voltage drops mean Similar in nature to the problem discussed on the input ,
more power dissipated in the regulator . Although most
excessive lead length in the ground return line of the output
regulators are rated to withstand junction temperatures as results in additional error . Because the load current flows
high as 150 °C , heat sinking should be provided to maintain in the ground line , an error equivalent to the load current
the lowest possible temperature . multiplied by the line resistance ( R 30 will be introduced in
the output voltage .
LAYOUT GUIDELINES
As implied in the previous sections , component layout
Remote Voltage Sense
and orientation plays an important , but often overlooked , role
The voltage regulator should be located as close as
in the overall performance of the regulator . The importance possible to the load . This is true especially if the output
of this role depends upon such things as power level , the
voltage sense circuitry is internal to the regulator s control
type of regulator , the overall regulator circuit complexity ,
device . Excessive lead length will result in an error voltage
and the environment in which the regulator operates . The developed across the line resistance ( R4' )
general layout rules , as well as remote voltage sensing , and
component layout guidelines are discussed in the following
text .
V0 = V0( reg ) ~ 0*2' + R3' + R4 O II
+ R 2' IrCg
LAYOUT DESIGN FACTORS
Most integrated circuit regulators use wide - band
ERROR = IL( R 3 / + R4 O - IIregR 2'
transistors to optimize their response . These regulators must If the voltage sense is available externally , the effect of
be compensated to ensure stable closed -loop operation . This the line resistance can be minimized . By referencing the low
I compensation can be counteracted by a layout which has current external voltage sense input to the load , losses in the
excess external stray capacitance and line inductance . For output line are compensated . Since the current in the sense
this reason , circuit lead lengths should be held to a minimum . line is very small , error introduced by its line resistance is
Lead lengths associated with external compensation or pass negligible ( Figure 5-41 ) .
transistor elements are of primary concern . These

REGULATO R

RECTIFIER RECTIFIER
IN OUT
RCL R4
IN OUT
C|
SENSE
——
C| I SENSE
G
V
«L vO ( r«gl
I V|
^ 7
'1 R2

R3
*v\
HI
(a ) TYPICAL LAYOUT ( b) LAYOUT ERROR CONTRIBUTIONS
Figure 5 -40 . Circuit Layout Showing Error Contributions
I
5- 17

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 REGULATOR

RECTIFIER
-
H I G H C U R R E N T P A T H ,.
*
RCL
IN OUT
SENSE
G ?
L O W -C U R R E N T
LOOP V0 ( r „
|
RL

<L

-
Figure 5 41. Proper Regulator Layout

Thermal Profile Concerns The particular configuration used depends upon the
All semiconductor de \ ices are affected by temperature ; application . The half - wave circuit [ Figure 5-3( a )| is used in
therefore , care should be taken to the placement of these low -current applications. This is because the single rectifier
devices so that their thermal properties are not additive . This diode experiences the total load current and its conversion
is especially important where external pass transistors or efficiency is less than 50 % . The full - wave configurations
reference elements are concerned . [ Figures 5-43( b ) and 5-43(c ) J are used for higher current
applications. The characteristic output voltage waveforms ot
INPUT SUPPLY DESIGN these configurations are illustrated in Figure 5-44 .
When the power source is an ac voltage , the transformer ,
rectifier, and input filter design are as important as the
regulator design itself for optimum system performances . TRANSFORMER
This section presents input supply and filter design SECONDARY LOAD
information for designing a basic capacitor input supply .

TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER CONFIGURATION (a ) SINGLE-PHASE HALF- WAVE

The input supply consists of three basic sections :
) .
( 1 input transformer ( 2 ) rectifier, and ( 3) filter as illustrated
TRANSFORMER
in Figure 5-42 . SECONDARY
(C E N T E R T A P P E D ) LOAD

( b) SINGLE- PHASE CENTER-TAPPED KILL- W AVE

AC -w- JL DC
INPUT X OUTPUT TRANSFORMER
SECONDARY

T
LOAD
TRANS¬
I FORMER RECTIFIER FILTER
I

XL (c) SINGLE- PHASE FILL- W AVE BRIDGE

Figure 5 43. Input Supply Transformer Rectifier

-
Configurations
Figure 5-42. Input Supply
INPUT SIGNAL HALF WAVE FULL WAVE
The first two sections , the transformer and the rectifier ,
/V\
are partially dependent upon each other because the structure
°t one depends upon that of the other . The most common
transformer configurations and their associated rectifier
circuits are illustrated in Figure 5 43
- .
Lj /A /

-
Figure 5 44 . Rectifier Output Noltage Waveforms -
5- 18

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 Before the input supply and its associated filter
can be CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER DESIGN
of The most practical approach to a capacitor - input filter
designed , the voltage , current , and ripple requirements
The load , as far as the input design remains the graphical approach presented by
its load must be fully defined .
supply is concerned , is the regulator circuit . Therefore
, the O. H . Schade 1 in 1943. The curves illustrated in Figures 5 45 -
become the through 5-48 contain all of the design information required
input requirements of the regulator itself
for full-wave and half - wave rectifier circuits.
governing conditions.
Because the input requirements of the regulator control
circuit govern the input supply and filter design
, it is easiest * O. H . Schade. " Analysis of Rectifier Operation .
Proc. IRE . VOL 31.
primary . 343. 1943.
to work backwards from the load to the transformer
0 05
100 I I I I
Rs
O 0.5

V ( PK )
VC RL
c

o
30

A
/
70 f 3
/
10
/ 12.5
50

% 15

!0
Rs_
Vc RL
50

V.
%
V ( PK )
;5
30

7/ 35

V, V/A
40
%fi
. 50

30
WJYA
gA
.
-n
70

'7 7
80
90
100

0.4 0.7 1 2 4 7 10 20 40 70 100 200 400 700 1000

0.1 0.2
UICRL - c -
IN FARADS , RL IN OHMS , U> = 2 irf , f LINE FREQUENCY

-
Figure 5 45. Relation of Applied Alternating Peak Voltage to
-
Direct Output Voltage in Half Wave Capacitor Input Circuits -
( From O. H. Schade , Proc . IRE , Vol 31 p 343 1943 ) . . . .
5- 19

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 -
Figures 5 45 and 5-46 illustrate the ratio of the dc output
.
voltage developed ( VC) to the applied peak input voltage
and probably of more concern, this increases the surge
current experienced by the fectifier diodes during turn-on
( V( PK ) ). as a function of UJCRL. for half- wave and full- wave of the supply . It is important to realize that the surge current
rectified signals respectively For a full- wave rectified is limited only by the series resistance R$.
application, the voltage reduction is less then 10 %
for .CRL > lOand RS/RL <0- 5 % - AS illustrated, the voltage
O

reduction decreases as WCRL increases or the RS RL ratio

.ISURGE = VSEC(PK )
decreases Minimizing the reduction rate, contrary to initial ' Rs
impressions, may prove to be detrimental to the optimum
circuit design. Further reduction requires a reduction in the In order to control the surge current, additional
series to load resistance ratio (RJ/ RL) for any given «CRL resistance is often required in series with each rectifier. It
THIS will result in a higher peak-to-average current ratio is evident that a compromise must be made between the
through the rectifier diodes ( see Figure 5-47). In addition . voltage reduction and the rectifier current ratings.

^U L L M A V E
as
V ( PK !

)
•
X + - VC < RL
0.05
0.1
0.5

FULL WAVE BRIDGE

.
-
rULLIIMV C Drtl

ifep
90

V, 4
<RL
I 4 cl * / 6

/ 10

12.5

15

20
RS %
vC
25 RL
V (PK ) 60
30

35
40

50

60

70

80
90

100

0.4 0.7 1 2 4 7 10 20 40 70 100 200 400 700 1000

U> CRL - C IN FARADS, RL IN OHMS, w » 2 irf , f -
LINE FREQUENCY

- .
Figure 5 46 Relation of Applied Alternating Peak Voltage to
-
Direct Output Voltage in Full Wave Capacitor-Input Circuits
. . .
( From O H. Schade, Proc. IRE Vol 31 p 344 1943
, )..
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 The maximuii istantaneous surge current is V /Rs. VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The time constant IT ) of capacitor C is : ^ TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

SERIES REGULATORS
r = RsC
As a rule of thumb, the surge current will not damage Input Regulation
the diode if: The change in output voltage, often expressed as a
percentage of output voltage, for a change in input voltage

• SURGE < lF( SURGE )max and r < 8.3 ms from one level to another .
NOTE: Sometimes this characteristic is normalized with
Figure 5-48 illustrates the relationships between the respect to the input voltage change.
.
ripple factor rf WCRL, and RS / RL The ripple factor is the
ratio of the rms value of the ripple component of the output Ripple Rejection
voltage, expressed as a percent of the nominal dc output The ratio of the peak -to-peak input ripple voltage, to the
voltage. peak -to-peak output ripple voltage.
NOTE : This is the reciprocal of ripple sensitivity .

£ 10

0 7
0.02
5 r' 0.05
''O.l
£ Co
% a
4 „0.5* CE-i
<
-1
—2 i
cc
3 2 10 *
V)
1
ec
- 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.7 1 2 4 7 10 20 40 70 100 200 400 700 1000

100

70

_ 40 0.02
G
0.05
2
0.1
20
5 0.2
& 0.5 tr
5
< 10 (A

u.

2 10
2 30
£ 4 100

0.2 0.7 2 4 7 10 20 40 70 100 200 400 700 1000

nu)CR |_

n « 1 ( FOR HALF WAVE SINGLE PHASE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS ) or C IN FARADS

-
n 2 ( FOR FULL WAVE SINGLE PHASE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS)
Rt IN OHMS
w - 2 irf = LINE FREQUENCY RS = RMS EQUIVALENT
SOURCE RESISTANCE
Figure 5-47. Relation of RMS and Peak to Average Diode Current in Capacitor Input Circuits
( From O. H. Schade, Proc . IRE , Vol. 31, p. 345 , 1943 )

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 Sensitivity
Output Voltage Change with Temperature
The percentage of change in the output voltage for a
The ratio of the peak -to- peak output ripple voltage
,
voltage to change in temperature . This is the net change over the total
sometimes expressed as a percentage of output
,
ripple voltage . temperature range .
the peak -to- peak input
NOTE: This is the reciprocal of ripple rejection .
Output Voltage Long-Term Drift
Output Regulation The change in output voltage over a long period of time .
The change in output voltage , often expressed as a
percentage of output voltage, for a change in load current Output Noise Voltage
from one level to another . The rms output voltage , sometimes expressed as a
percentage of the dc output voltage , with constant load and
Temperature Coefficient of Output Voltage (aVo) no input ripple .
The ratio of the change in output voltage , usually
expressed as a percentage of output voltage , to a change in Current - Limit Sense- Voltage
temperature . This is the average value for the total A voltage that is a function of the load current and is
temperature change . normally used for control of the current-limiting circuitry .

( Vo at T 2 )- ( Vo at T 1) 100 % Dropout Voltage

avo , The input-to-output differential voltage at which the
V0 at 25 °C T2 - T
circuit ceases to regulate against further reductions in voltage .

v^ i nuui 1 PAPiMFTFR
r MriAA 1V1 L 1 Cn

\ 1—
A
RS/ RL

Nk \j HiALF -WAVE 1

'
10
30

> Vs
0.1
FIULL -WAVE 'V 1
10
\ 'N
' 30

V
A

V ^\
\
KM
0.4 0.7 1 2
wCRL —
4
C IN
7 10
FARADS , RL IN
20
OHMS ,
40
w
- 70 100 200 400
2 irf , f = LINE FREQUENCY
1
700 1000 2000

Figure 5 -48 . Root - Mean-Square Ripple Voltage for Capacitor- Input Circuits
( From O. H . Schade , Proc . IRE , Vol. 31 , p. 346 , 1943 )

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 Reference Input Voltage ( Vref ) ( of an adjustable shunt
Feedback Sense V oltage regulator)
voltage , used
The voltage that is a function of the output The voltage at the reference input terminal with respect
for control of the regulator . to the anode terminal .

Reference V oltage Temperature Coefficient of Reference Voltage ( Vref )

The voltage that is compared with the feedback
sense
The ratio of the change in reference voltage to the change
voltage to control the regulator
in temperature . This is the average value for the total
Bias Current
temperature change . To obtain a value in ppm / °C :
The difference between input and output currents.
NOTE: This is sometimes referred to as quiescent current.
'
( Vref at ,
T2 ) - ( Vref at T ) 106
Vref at 25 °C T2 - T ,
Standby Current
The input current drawn by the regulator with no output
load and no reference voltage load. Regulator Voltage ( Vz )
The dc voltage across the regulator when it is biased for
Short -Circuit Output Current regulation .
The output current of the regulator with the output
shorted . Regular Current (Iz)
The dc current through the regulator when it is biased
Peak Output Current for regulation.
The maximum output current that can be obtained from
the regulator . Regulator Current near Lower Knee of Regulation Range
( IzK )
Shunt Regulators The regulator current near the lower limit of the region
NOTE: These terms and symbols are based on JEDEC within which regulation occurs; this corresponds to the
and IEC standards for voltage regulator diodes. breakdown knee of a regulator diode .

Shunt Regulator Regulator Current at Maximum Limit of Regulation

A device having a voltage current characteristic similar Range (IZM )
to that of a voltage regulator diode. It is normally biased to The regulator current above which the differential
operate in a region of low differential resistance resistance of the regulator significantly increases.
(corresponding to the breakdown region of a regulator diode )
and develops across its terminals an essentially constant Differential Regulator Resistance ( rj)
voltage throughout a specified current range . The quotient of a change in voltage across the regulator
and the corresponding change in current through the regulator
Anode when it is biased for regulation .
The electrode to which the regulator current flows within
the regulator when it is biased for regulation . Noise Voltage ( V )
^
The rms voltage across the regulator with the regulator
Cathode biased for regulation and with no input ripple.
The electrode from which the regulator current flows
within the regulator when it is biased for regulation .

FIXED OUTPUT VOLTAGE REGULATORS

POSITIVE OUTPUT REGULATORS
DEVICE OUTPUT VOLTAGE MINIMUM DIFFERENTIAL OUTPUT CURRENT AVAILABLE VOLTAGE
SERIES TOLERANCE VOLTAGE RATING SELECTIONS
LM 340 ± 5% 2V 1.5 A 8.5 V to 24 V
TL 780-00C ± 2% 2V 1.5 A 3.5 V to 15 V
UA 7800C ± 5% 2 V to 3 V 1.5 A 10.5 V to 24 V
UA 78L00C ± 10% 2 V to 2.5 V 100 mA 8.2 .6 V to 15 V
UA 78LOOAC ± 5% 2V 100 mA 8.2.6 V to 15 V
UA 78M00C ± 5% 2 V to 3 V 500 mA 9.5 V to 24 V

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 NEGATIVE OUTPUT REGULA TORS
DEVICE OUTPUT VOLTAGE MINIMUM DIFFERENTIAL OUTPUT CURRENT AVAILABLE VOLTAGE
SERIES TOLERANCE VOLTAGE RATING SELECTIONS
UA 7900C ± 5% 2 V to 3 V 1.5 A 8.5 V to 24 V
MC 79 LOOAC ± 5% 2V 100 mA 3.5 V to 15 V
uA 79 MOOC * ± 5% 2 V to 3 V 500 mA 7.5 V to 24 V

AVAILABLE OUTPUT VOLTAGES FOR ABOVE REGULATOR SERIES

DEVICE VOLTAGE SELECTIONS
SERIES 2.6 5 5.2 6 8 8.5 9 10 12 15 18 20" 22 24
LM 340 X X X X X X X X
MC 79 L00 AC X X X
TL780 -00C X X X
UA 7800C X X X X X X X X X X
UA 78 L00C X X 6.2 X X X X X
uA 78 L 00 AC X X 6.2 X X X X X
uA 78 M 00 C * X X X X X X X X X
UA 7900C X X X X X X X X
UA 79 MOOC * X X X X X X X

' Also available in Military Temperature Range ( M suffix )

VARIABLE OUTPUT VOLTAGE REGULATORS

POSITIVE OUTPUT SERIES REGULATORS

DEVICE DIFFERENTIAL VOLTAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT CURRENT
NUMBER MIN MAX MAX RATING
LM 317 1.2 V 37 V V| - 1.2 V 1.5 A
TL 317 1.2 V 32 V V|- 1.2 V 100 mA
TL 783 1.25 V 125 V 125 V 700 mA
uA 723C * 3V 38 V 37 V 25 mA

NEGATIVE OUTPUT SERIES REGULATORS

DEVICE DIFFERENTIAL VOLTAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT CURRENT
NUMBER MIN MAX MAX RATING
LM 337 1.2 V 37 V V| + 1.2 V 1.5 A

POSITIVE SH UNT REGULATORS

DEVICE SHUNT VOLTAGE SHUNT CURRENT TEMP COEFF .
NUMBER MIN MAX MIN MAX MAX
TL 430 C 3V 30 V 2 mA 100 mA 200 ppm / °C
TL 431 C 2.55 V 36 V 1 mA 100 mA 100 ppm / °C
TL4311 * * 2.55 V 36 V 1 mA 100 mA 100 ppnv °C
' Also available in Military Temperature Range ( M suffix )
* *l denotes Industrial Temperature Range

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