Math 1011: Mathematics for Natural Sciences

Chapter 3: Functions

Department of Mathematics
Addis Ababa University

August 5, 2021

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 1 / 126

Chapter 3: Functions

In this chapter the following topics will be considered:

3.1. Review of relations and functions
3.2. Real valued functions and their properties
3.3. Types of functions and inverse of a function
3.4. Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions and their graphs
3.5. Definition and basic properties of logarithmic, exponential trigonomet-
ric and hyperbolic functions, and their graphs.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 2 / 126

Review of relations and functions

Definition
Suppose A and B are sets. The Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by
A × B , is the set which contains every ordered pair whose first coordinate
is an element of A and second coordinate is an element of B , i.e.
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B}.

Example
Given A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {0, 2} we have The Cartesian product as
A × B = {(1, 0), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 2)}
B × A = {(0, 1), (2, 1), (0, 2), (2, 2), (0, 3), (2, 3)}.
Note that A × B 6= B × A

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 3 / 126

Definition
Equality of ordered Pairs Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if
and only if a = c and b = d.

Example
Given A = {0, 1} and B = {1, 2} we have The Cartesian product as
A × B = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 1), (1, 2)}
B × A = {(1, 0), (2, 0), (1, 1), (2, 1)}. (1, 1) = (1, 1) and (1, 0) 6= (0, 1)

Definition (Relation)
If A and B are sets, any subset of A × B is called a relation from A into B.

Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. Then, R ⊆ A × B and

hence for each (a, b) ∈ A × B , we have either (a, b) ∈ R or (a, b) 6∈ R . If
(a, b) ∈ R , we say ”a is R-related (or simply related) to b”, and write
aRb. If (a, b) 6∈ R , we say that ”a is not related to b”. In particular if R
is a relation from a set A to itself, then we say that R is a relation on A.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 4 / 126
Examples on Relation
Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 3, a} Then
A × B = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, a), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, a), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, a), (4, 2), (4, 3),
(4, a)} and
B × A = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (a, 1), (2, 2), (3, 2), (a, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (a, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4),
(a, 4)} consider the following relations
1 R1 = {(1, 2), (1, a), (4, 3)}
R1 is a relation from A into B as R1 ⊆ A × B. But R1 is not a relation from
B into A asR1 * B × A
2 R2 = {(a, 1), (3, 3), (3, 4), (2, 1)}
R2 is a relation from B into A as R2 ⊆ B × A .But R2 is not a relation from
A into B as R2 * A × B
3 R3 = {(2, 3), (3, 2), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
R3 is a relation from A into B as R3 ⊆ A × B and R3 is also a relation from
B into A as R3 ⊆ B × A
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 5 / 126
Example
consider R = {(x, y ) ∈
√ √
R2 : x 2 + y 2 = 1} a relation from R to R.
Observe that (1, 0), ( 22 , 22 ) are all R, but (1, 1) , (−1, −1) are not R.

Example
Let R = {(x, y ) : x ∈ W and y = x + 3}. Then R is a relation, with
(0, 3), (2, 5) ∈ R, but (1, 2) ∈
/ R and (3, 0) ∈
/ R.

We can use diagrams to represent relations.

Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {0, 5, a}. Then
1. R1 = {(4, 0), (3, 5), (1, 0), (3, a)} is a relation from A to B

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 6 / 126

Domain and Range

Definition
Let R be a relation from A into B. Then,
a) The domain of R , denoted by Dom(R) , is the set of first coordinates
of the elements of R, i.e Dom(R) = {a : (a, b) ∈ R}
b) the range of R , denoted by Range(R) , is the set of second coordinates
of elements of R,i.e Range(R) = {b : (a, b) ∈ R}
The domain of R is a subset of A and Range of R is subset of B

Example
Suppose R = {(2, 3), (3, 4), (2, 4), (5, 6)} Then Dom(R) = {2, 3, 5} and
Range(R) = {3, 4, 6} note that 2 is related to 3 and 4
Let R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 6), (3, 8), (5, 6), (8, 8), (7, 8)}. Then the Domain
of R is {1, 3, 5, 7, 8} and the Range of R is {3, 4, 6, 8}.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 7 / 126

Example
1 Suppose A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {0, 5, a}
1 R2 = {(1, 0), (1, a), (2, 5), (3, 5)} is a relation from A to B

The domain of R2 = {1, 2, 3} and the range of R2 = {0, 5, a}

2 R3 = {(4, 0), (4, 5), (2, 5), (2, 0)} is a relation from A to B

The domain of R3 = {2, 4} and the range of R3 = {0, 5}

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 8 / 126

Domain and Range . . .
Example
√
Let R = {(x, y ) : y = x − 1}. Then the domain of R = [1, ∞) and Range
of R is [0, ∞).

Example
√
Let R = {(x, y ) : y = 1 − x 2 }. Then the domain of R = [−1, 1] and
Range of R is [0, 1]).

Example
√
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {1, 2, . . . 67}and R = {(x, y ) ∈ A × B : x = 3 y } Find
a) R b) Dom R and c)Range of R
√ √ √ √
a) we have 1 = 3 1, 2 = 3 8, 3 = 3 27, 4 = 3 64
R = {(1, 1), (2, 8), (3, 27), (4, 64)}
b) Dom R={1, 2, 3, 4} and c)Range R={1, 8, 27, 64}
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 9 / 126
Remark
A relation R on a set A is called
i) a universal relation if R = A × A
ii) identity relation if R = {(a, a) : a ∈ A}
iii) void or empty relation if R = ∅

Example
i) Universal relation Relation on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} by R =
{(a, b) ∈ R : |a − b| ≥ 0} We observe that |a − b| ≥ 0 for all a, b ∈ A
⇒ (a, b) ∈ R for all (a, b) ∈ A × A ⇒ each element of set A is related
to every element of set A. ⇒ R = A × A ⇒ R is a universal relation
on set A.
iii) void or empty relation if there are 100 mangoes in the fruit basket.
There’s no possibility of finding a relation R of getting any apple in
the basket. So, R is Void as it has 100 mangoes and no apples.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 10 / 126

Inverse relation

Definition
If R is a relation from A to B , then the inverse relation of R , denoted by
R −1 , and is defined as:R −1 = {(y , x)|(x, y ) ∈ R}is a relation from B to A

Inverse of a relation is a set of ordered pairs obtained by interchanging the

coordinates of elements of R. Observe that Dom(R) = Range(R −1 ) and
Dom(R −1 ) = Range(R)

Example
Let R = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6)} Then R −1 = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (4, 3), (6, 5)}
Furthermore, The domain of R = {2, 3, 5} =the range of R −1 and
The range of R = {1, 2, 4, 6} =the domain of R −1
Let R = {(x, y ) : y = 2x + 1}. Then R −1 = (x, y ) : y = x−1

2 and
−1
Domain of R = Range of R = Domain of R =Range of R = R. −1

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 11 / 126

Definition (Function)
A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds to
exactly one element of the range.In other words, A relation f from A into B
f
is called a function from A into B, denoted by f : A 7−→ B or A −→ B
if and only if
(i) Dom(f ) = A
(ii) No element of A is mapped by f to more than one element in B, i.e.
if (x, y ) ∈ f and (x, z) ∈ f then y = z

Remark
1 If the element x of A corresponds y (∈ B) under the function f , then
we write f (x) = y and y is called the image of x under f and x is
called a pre-image of y under f .
2 The symbol f (x) is read as “ f of x” but not “ f times x”.
3 Map, transformation and correspondence are synonyms for the word
function.If f is a function and (x, y ) ∈ f , we say x is mapped to y .
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 12 / 126
Geometrically we can determine if the given graph is the graph of a
function or not This is possible by the following test
Remark
Vertical Line Test: A curve in the xy -plane is the graph of a function of
x if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.

from the figure the first one is not a function while the second is a
function.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 13 / 126
Example
Given A = {0, 2, 3, c, 6} and B = {a, b, 4, 5} Determine whether the fol-
lowing relations are functions.
1 R1 = {(0, a), (2, b), (3, 4), (c, 4), (6, 5) is a function since no element
in A is paired with more than one element in B.Each element in the
domain,{0, 2, 3, c, 6}, is assigned no more than one value in the range.
2 R2 = {(0, a), (2, b), (3, b), (c, 4), (c, 5), (6, 5) is not a function since
the domain element c is assigned to two different values in the range,
4 and 5.
3 R3 = {(0, a), (3, b), (c, 4), (6, 5) is not a function since the domain
element 2 is not assigned to any element

Remark
1 In order to show that a relation f from A into B is a function, we first
show that the domain of f is A and next we show that f well defined or
single-valued, i.e. if x = y inA, then f (x) = f (y ) in B for all x, y ∈ A.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 14 / 126
Examples of Functions ...

Example
1 Consider f (x) = x 2 + 1, is it a function on R?
Solution:
The domain of f is R and x = y implies x 2 + 1 = y 2 + 1.
Hence f (x) = f (y ).
Therefore, f is a function.
2 Consider f = {(x, y ) : x 2 + y 2 = 1} is it a function?
Solution: No!
the domain of f is R and
(0, 1) and (0, −1) are both in f , but −1 6= 1.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 15 / 126

Note That
If f is a function from R into R. We will find it useful to use the following
vocabulary: The independent variable refers to the variable representing
possible values in the domain, and the dependent variable refers to the
variable representing possible values in the range. Thus, in our usual ordered
pair notation (x, y ), x is the independent variable and y is the dependent
variable.

Definition (Domain, Codomain and range of a function)

For the function f : A 7−→ B
1 The set A is called the domain of f
2 The set B is called the codomain of f
3 The set {f (x) : x ∈ A} of all image of elements of A is called the
range of f

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 16 / 126

Example
1 Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 10}. Let f : A 7−→ B be the
correspondence which assigns to each element in A, its square. Thus,
we have f (1) = 1, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 9. Therefore, f is a function
and Dom(f ) = {1, 2, 3}, Range(f ) = {1, 4, 9} and codomain of f is
{1, 2, 3, . . . , 10}.
2 Let A = {2, 4, 5, 6} and B = N the set of natural numbers. Let
f : A 7−→ B be a correspondence defined by f (x) = 2x + 5. Thus,
we have f (2) = 9, f (4) = 13, f (5) = 15, f (6) = 17. Therefore, f is
a function and Dom(f ) = {2, 4, 5, 6}, Range(f ) = {9, 13, 15, 17} and
codomain of f is B = N.
n  o
p
3 Let f be the subset of Q × Z defined by f = q , p p, q ∈ Z, q 6
= 0 .
First we note that Dom(f ) ∈ Q. Then, f satisfies condition (i) in the
definition of a function. Now, 23 , 2 ∈ f , 64 , 4 ∈ f and 32 = 64 but

f 32 6= f 46 Thus f is not well defined. Hence, f is not a function

from Q to Z .
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 17 / 126
Example
Determine whether the following equations determine y as a function of x,
if so, find the domain.
2x
1 y = we can see that each x−value uniquely determines a y −
x −4
2x
value. Therefore,y = is a function.
x −4
As for its domain, Since it is a fractional expression, we must exclude
any value of x that makes the denominator equal to zero. We must
have x − 4 6= 0 ⇐⇒ x 6= 4Therefore, the domain consists of all real
numbers except for x 6= 4 thus Dom(f ) = {x : x 6= 4}
√
2 y = 2x − x 2 we can see that each x-value uniquely determines a y -
√
value. Therefore,y = 2x − x 2 is a function and
Domain 2x − x 2 ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ x(2 − x) ≥ 0 Dom(f ) = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2}

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 18 / 126

Real valued Functions

Definition
A function is real valued function if and only if the range is a subset of R.
In other words,Let f be a function from set A to set B. If B is a subset
of real number system R , then f is called a real valued function, and in
particular if A is also a subset of R, then f : A 7−→ B is called a real
function.

Example
1 The function f : R 7−→ R defined by f (x) = x 2 − 5x + 7, x ∈ R is a
real valued function
2 The function defined by f (x) = x 2 + xi, x ∈ R is not a real valued
function since the range is a complex number.
3 The function f = {(1, a), (2, 1), (3, b)} is not a real valued function.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 19 / 126

Operations on functions

Definition (Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of two functions)

Let f and g be two real valued functions and c be a constant. We define
the following operations
1 (cf )(x) = cf (x) Constant multiple of a function.
2 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) The sum of the two functions.
3 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) The difference of the two functions
4 (f · g )(x) = f (x)g (x) The product of the two functions
 
f f (x)
g (x) = g (x) The quotient of the two functions (provided g (x) 6= 0)
5

Remark
If f and g are real valued functions, then
1 Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f − g ) = Dom(fg ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) and
2 Dom( gf ) = (Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g )) \ {x ∈ Dom(g ) : g (x) = 0}.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 20 / 126
Example
Let f = {(1, 1)(2, 1), (3, 4)} and g = {(1, 2), (2, 2)(3, 1), (4, 5)}. Then
1 3f +g = {(1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 13)}. 3 f .g = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 4)}.
f
2 f −g = {(1, −1), (2, −1), (3, 3)}. 4
g = {(1, 12 ), (2, 12 ), (3, 14 )}.

Let f (x) = 3x and g (x) = x − 1.Then . Find each of the following and its
domain
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = 3x + x − 1 = 4x − 1
The domain Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) = 3x − x + 1 = 2x + 1
The domain Dom(f − g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
3 (f · g )(x) = f (x)g (x) = 3x(x − 1) = 3x 2 − 3x
The domain Dom(fg ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
 
f f (x) 3x
g (x) = g (x) = x−1 ,
4
 
The domain Dom gf (x) (x) = Dom(f )∩Dom(g )\{g (x) = 0} = R\{1}.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 21 / 126
Example
√ √
Let f (x) = x − 2 and g (x) = 9 − x 2 Find formulas for f + g , f − g , fg , gf
and f 3 and give their domains
√ √
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = x − 2 + 9 − x 2
The domain Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [2, ∞) ∩ [−3, 3] = [2, 3].
√ √
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) = x − 2 − 9 − x 2
The domain Dom(f − g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [2, ∞) ∩ [−3, 3] = [2, 3].
√
√ 
3 (f · g )(x) = f (x)g (x) = x −2 9 − x2
The domain Dom(fg ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [2, ∞) ∩ [−3, 3] = [2, 3].
  √
f f (x) x −2
4 (x) = =√ , The domain
g  g (x)
 9 − x2
f (x)
Dom = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) \ {g (x) = 0}
g (x)
. = ([2, ∞) ∩ [−3, 3]) \ {−3, 3} = [2, 3)
3 √
3
5 (f ) = x − 2 The domain Dom(f 3 ) = [2, ∞)

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 22 / 126

Definition (Composition of functions)
1 Given two functions f (x) and g (x), the composition of the two func-
tions is denoted by g ◦ f and is defined by: (g ◦ f )(x) = g [f (x)].
(g ◦ f )(x) is read as ” g composed with f of x”. The domain of g ◦ f
consists of those x 0 s in the domain of f whose range values are in the
domain of g , i.e. those x 0 s for which f (x) is in the domain of g .
2 In other words,Suppose f : A 7−→ B and g : B 7−→ C . Then the
composition of f and g , written g ◦ f , is defined as (g ◦ f )(x) =
g (f (x)), ∀x ∈ A It is immediate to see that g ◦ f : A −
7 →C

Example
Suppose f = {(3, a), (4, b), (5, c)} and g = {(a, 1), (b, 2)}. The function
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) is found by taking elements in the domain of g and
evaluating as follows: (g ◦ f )(3) = g (f (3)) = g (a) = 1,
(g ◦ f )(4) = g (f (4)) = g (b) = 2 Since c doesn’t have image in g it is not
included in the composition. g ◦ f = {(3, 1), (4, 2)}
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 23 / 126
Example
Let f (x) = 3x, g (x) = x 2 − 3 and h(x) = x − 1. Then,
1 (g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (3x) = [3x]2 − 3 = 9x 2 − 3.
2 (f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (x 2 − 3) = 3[x 2 − 3] = 3x 2 − 9.
3 (h ◦ f )(x) = h(f (x)) = h(3x) = [3x] − 1 = 3x − 1.
4 (f ◦ h)(x) = f (h(x)) = f (x − 1) = 3(x − 1) = 3x − 3.
5 (g ◦ (f ◦ h))(x) = g ((f ◦ h)(x)) = g (3(x − 1)) = (3(x − 1))2 − 3 =
(9x 2 − 18x + 9) − 3 = 9x 2 − 18x + 9 − 3 = 9x 2 − 18x + 6
6 ((g ◦f )◦ h)(x) = 9[(x −1)2 ]−3 = (9x 2 −18x +9)−3 = 9x 2 −18x +6.

Remark
For functions f , g and h,
g ◦ (f ◦ h) = (g ◦ f ) ◦ h (Composition of Functions is Associative.)
g ◦ f 6= f ◦ g . (Composition of Functions is not Commutative.)

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 24 / 126

Example
Given f (x) = 2x 2 − 3 and g (x) = 5x − 1, find
a) (f ◦ g )(x) (f ◦ g )(−2)
(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (5x − 1)
= 2(5x − 1)2 − 3 = 2(25x 2 − 10x + 1) − 3 = 50x 2 − 20x − 1
(f ◦ g )(−2) = 239

b) (g ◦ f )(x) (g ◦ f )(2)
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x 2 − 3)
= 5(2x 2 − 3) − 1 = 10x 2 − 15 − 1 = 10x 2 − 16
(g ◦ f )(2) = 24

c) (g ◦ g )(x) (g ◦ g )(1)
(g ◦ g )(x) = g (g (x)) = g (5x − 1)
= 5(5x − 1) − 1 = 25x − 5 − 1 = 25x − 6
(g ◦ f )(1) = 19
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 25 / 126
Example
6x
√
Given f (x) = x 2 −4
and g (x) = 2x, find
a) (f ◦ g )(x), its domain and (f ◦ g )(8)
√
(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f ( 2x)
√ √
6 2x 3 2x
= √ =
( 2x)2 − 4 x −2
√
3 2×8 3·4
(f ◦ g )(8) = = = =2
8−2 6
The domain is = {x : 0 ≤ x < 2 ∧ x > 2} = [0, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)
b) (g ◦ f )(x) (g ◦ f )(−1)
 s    r
6x 6x 12x
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g 2
= 2 2
= 2
x −4 x −4 x −4
s r
12(−1) −12
(g ◦ f )(−1) = = =2
(−1)2 − 4 −3

The domain is = {x : −2 < x ≤ 0 ∧ x > 2} = (−2, 0] ∪ (2, ∞)

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 26 / 126
Example (decomposition)
Find two functions f and g so that the given function h(x) = (f ◦ g )(x) ,
a) h(x) = (x + 3)2
The outer function is f (x) = x 2 while the inner or the composed
function is g (x) = x + 3
√
b) h(x) = 2x − 1
√
The outer function is f (x) = x while the inner or the composed
function is g (x) = 2x − 1
c) h(x) = ln(x 2 + 1)
The outer function is f (x) = ln x while the inner or the composed
function is g (x) = x 2 + 1

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 27 / 126

Definition (Equality of functions)
Two functions are equal if and only if the following two conditions hold:
i) The functions have the same domain;
ii) Their functional values are equal at each element of the domain.

Let f : A 7−→ B and g : A 7−→ B be two functions. Then, f and g are

subsets of A × B. Suppose f = g .
Let x be any element of A.Then, (x, f (x)) ∈ f = g and thus
(x, f (x)) ∈ g . Since g is a function and (x, f (x)), (x, g (x)) ∈ g , we must
have f (x) = g (x).
Conversely, assume that g (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ A. Let (x, y ) ∈ f . Then,
y = f (x) = g (x). Thus, (x, y ) ∈ g , which implies that f ⊆ g . Similarly,
we can show that g ⊆ f . It now follows that f = g . Thus two functions
f : A 7−→ B and g : A 7−→ B are equal if and only if f (x) = g (x) for all
x ∈ A.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 28 / 126

Example
Verify if the following pairs of functions are equal.
x 4 − a2
(a) f (x) = 2 , g (x) = x 2 − a; a∈N
x +a
Dom(f ) = R and Dom(g ) = R. Hence, Dom(f ) = Dom(g ). In addition,
since for all x ∈ R we have
x 4 − a2 (x 2 + a)(x 2 − a)
f (x) = = = x 2 − a = g (x),
x2 + a x2 + a
the two functions are equal.
1 x −2
(b) f (x) = , g (x) = 2 . For x 6= 2, we have
x +2 x −4
x −2 x −2 1
g (x) = = = = f (x).
x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2) x +2

However, since Dom(f ) = R \ {−2} =

6 Dom(g ) = R \ {−2, 2}, the two
functions are not equal.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 29 / 126

Types of functions

Definition (one to one )

A function f : A 7−→ B is a one-to-one function or injective if it never
maps two distinct elements of A to a single element of B; that is, for every
x1 , x2 ∈ A, f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 . equivalently, if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ),
then x1 = x2 .
Example
(a) f : R 7−→ R given by f (x) = 2x + 1 is one-to-one because
2x1 + 1 = 2x2 + 1 ⇒ x1 = x2 .
(b) f : R 7−→ R given by f (x) = x 2 + 2 is not one-to-one because
x12 + 2 = x22 + 2 ⇒ x1 = ±x2 . That is x1 6= −x1 but f (x1 ) = f (x2 )

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 30 / 126

Horizontal Line Test: A function f is injective (one-to-one) if and only if
a horizontal line intersects its graph at most at one point only (i.e., not at
all or once).

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 31 / 126

Definition (onto)
Let f be a function from a set A into a set B. Then f is called an onto
function(or surjective) if every element of B is image of some element in A
, i.e, Range(f ) = B.

Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3}and B = {1, 4, 5}.
1 The functions f : A 7→ B defined as f (1) = 1, f (2) = 5, f (3) = 1 is
not onto because there is no element in A , whose image under f is 4.
2 The function g : A 7→ B given by g = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 1)} is onto
because each element of B is the image of at least one element of A.

Definition (one to one correspondence)

A function f : A 7→ B is said to be bijective or (a 1 – 1 correspondence) if
f is both one to one and onto.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 32 / 126

Example
Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25}. Suppose f : A 7→ B
given by f (x) = 5x for all x ∈ A. One can easily see that every element of
B has a preimage in A and hence f is onto. Moreover, if f (x) = f (y ),then
5x = 5y , i.e. x = y . Hence, f is 1 – 1. Therefore, f is a 1 – 1 correspondence
between A and B .

Definition
Let f : A → B be a function with domain A and range B. Then, f has an
inverse function g provided that there is such a function g : B → A with
domain B and range A such that f (x) = y if and only if g (y ) = x, for all
x ∈ A and all y ∈ B.

Theorem
A function f : A → B with domain A and range B has an inverse function
if and only if f is a bijection.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 33 / 126

Example
1 If f : R 7→ R is defined by f (x) = 2x, then find an inverse of f . Let
y ∈ R be such that y = f (x). Then,y = f (x) = 2x ⇒ y = 2x and
1 1
x = y . Hence g (y ) = y = x is inverse of f and is a function on R.
2 2
Check by replacing x by 21 y as f ( 12 y ) = 2( 12 y ) = y which is true.
2x
2 Suppose that f : R \ {1} 7→ R \ {2} be defined by f (x) = . Then
x −1
find the inverse of f .
Clearly f is 1-1 and onto on the given domain and codomain sets.
Hence, it is invertible. Now to find the inverse function,
2x
y = f (x) = ⇒ y (x − 1) = 2x. Then solving for x in terms of y
x −1
y
yx − 2x = y ⇒ x(y − 2) = y or x = . Therefore, the inverse
y −2
y
function g is given by g (y ) = , or in terms of a variable x,
y −2
x
g (x) = .
x −2
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 34 / 126
Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions

Definition (Polynomial Functions)

For a nonnegative integer n, a function P of the form
P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ R and an 6= 0 is called a polynomial of degree n,
In the polynomial P(x), an x n is called the leading term of the polynomial
and an is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial.
Remark
The domain of a polynomial function is always the set of real numbers.
The graph of a polynomial function is a smooth curve.
The polynomial P(x) = a0 is called a constant polynomial.
A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function.
A polynomial of degree 2 is called quadratic function..
A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function, etc
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 35 / 126
Graphs of Linear Polynomials
The graph of a linear polynomial p(x) = ax + b and a 6= 0 is a straight
line and
rises up as from left to right if a > 0.
moves downward from left to right if a < 0.

Figure: Graphs of Linear Polynomials p(x) = ax + b and a 6= 0

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) .

Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 36 / 126
Graphs of Quadratic Polynomials
The graph of a linear polynomial p(x) = ax 2 + bx + c and a 6= 0 is a
parabola.
b b
The parabola opens upward with vertex (− 2a , p(− 2a )) if a > 0.
b b
The parabola opens downward with vertex (− 2a , p(− 2a )) if a < 0.

Figure: Opens upward for a > 0. Opens downward for a < 0

.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 37 / 126
Polynomials

Definition (Division Algorithm)

Let p(x) and d(x) be polynomials with d(x) 6= 0 , and with the degree of
d(x) less than or equal to the degree of p(x). Then there are polynomials
q(x) and R(x) such that P(x) = d(x) q(x) + R(x) , where either
| {z } |{z} |{z} | {z }
dividend divisor quotient remainder
R(x) = 0 or the degree of R(x) is less than degree of d(x).

If we apply the division algorithm where the divisor,d(x), is linear (that is

of the form x − r ),we get p(x) = (x − r )q(x) + R

Example
Use division algorithm to express the quotient when
P(x) = 2x 2 − 3x − 6 is divided by D(x) = x + 3
2x 2 − 3x − 6 = (x + 3) × (2x − 9) + 21

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 38 / 126

Theorem (Remainder Theorem)
When a polynomial p(x) of degree at least 1 is divided by x − r , then the
remainder is p(r ).

Example
The remainder when P(x) = x 3 − x 2 + 3x − 1 is divided by x − 2 is p(2) = 9

Theorem (Factor Theorem)

x − r is a factor of p(x) if and only if p(r ) = 0.

Example
The polynomial P(x) = x 3 + x 2 − 3x + 1 is divided by x − 1 then from
remainder theorem we have p(1) = 0. from factor theorem this implies x −1
is a factor of P(x) = x 3 + x 2 − 3x + 1

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 39 / 126

Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)
Any polynomial with real coefficients can be factored into linear and/or
irreducible quadratic factors (where some of them could be raised to the
power of some natural number k ≥ 1), with real number coefficients.

Example
Given the polynomial
p(x) = x 3 − 6x 2 − 16x = x(x 2 − 6x − 16) = x(x − 8)(x + 2)
The zeros of p(x) are 0, 8, and – 2 each of multiplicity one.

Theorem (Linear factorization theorem)

If p(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 , where n ≥ 1 and an 6= 0,
then p(x) = an (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) . . . (x − rn ) , where the ri0 s are complex
numbers (possible real and not necessarily distinct).

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 40 / 126

Zeros of a Polynomial

Definition
Let p be a polynomial over R. A number c ∈ R is said to be a zero (or a
root) of p is p(c) = 0.

Example
a) Let p(x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x − 1. Then
1 p(1) = 13 − 3(1)2 + 3(1) − 1 = 1 − 3 + 3 − 1 = 0 and
hence 1 i a zero of p.
2 p(0) = 03 − 3(0)2 + 3(0) − 1 = 0 − 0 + 0 − 1 = −1 6= 0 and
thus, 0 is a not a zero for p.
b) Let f (x) = x 2 − 4. Then f (2) = 22 − 4 = 4 − 4 = 0 and
f (−2) = (−2)2 − 4 = 4 − 4 = 0.
Therefore, 2 and −2 are zeros of f .
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 41 / 126
Zeros of a polynomials...

Remark
If p(x) = ax + b, where a 6= 0, is a linear polynomial, then x = − ba is
the only zero of p.
If p(x) = ax 2 + bx + c, where a 6= 0 is quadratic polynomial, then
b
x = − 2a is the only a zero of p in R if b 2 − 4ac = 0;
√ √
2 2
x = − b+ b2a−4ac and x = − b− b2a−4ac are the two real zeros of p, if
b 2 − 4ac > 0.
If b 2 − 4ac < 0, then p has no real zero.
To determine zeros of polynomials of degree greater than or equal to
3, further investigations are needed.
The Location Theorem and Rational Root Test are useful in determin-
ing roots of polynomials.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 42 / 126

location theorem, allows us to verify that a zero exists somewhere within
an interval of numbers, and can also be used to zoom in closer on a value
Theorem (Location theorem)
Let f be a polynomial function and a and b be real numbers such that a < b.
If f (a)f (b) < 0, then there is at least one zero of f between a and b .

Example
Let f (x) = x 3 + x 2 + x − 1. Then
f (0) = 03 + 02 + 0 − 1 = −1 < 0 and
f (1) = 13 + 12 + 1 − 1 = 2 > 0.
This implies f (0)f (1) = (−1) × 2 < 0 and hence f has at least one zero
between 0 and 1.
That is, there exists c ∈ (0, 1) such that f (c) = 0.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 43 / 126

Theorem (The Rational Root Theorem)
Suppose that f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 , where n ≥ 1, an 6= 0
is an nth degree polynomial with integer coefficients. If qp is a rational root
of f (x) = 0, where p and q have no common factor other than ±1, then p
is a factor of a0 and q is a factor of an .

Example
Find all the zeros of the function p(x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 23x − 12

p
If is a rational zero of the given function, then the possible values of
q
p
q : ±1, ± 12 , ±2, ±3, ± 32 , ±4, ±6, ±12.
Then p(− 21 ) = 0, p(−4) = 0 and p(3) = 0 and hence − 12 , −4 and 3 are
the zeros of p. Alternatively,
Since p(− 21 ) = 0, then (x + 12 ) is a factor of p(x). Using longdivision,
we obtain p(x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 23x − 12 = (x + 12 )(2x 2 + 2x − 24) =
2(x + 12 )(x + 4)(x − 3)Therefore, the zeros of p(x) are − 12 , −4 and 3.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 44 / 126
Rational function

Definition (Rational)
n(x)
A rational function is a function of the form f (x) = where both n(x)
d(x)
and d(x) are polynomials and d(x) 6= 0.
n(x)
The domain of the rational function f (x) = is x ∈ R : d(x) 6= 0
d(x)

Example
√
2x + 1 7 x3 + x2 − 3
The functions f (x) = 2 , g (x) = , h(x) =
x + 3x + 1 x +1 5
are all rational functions, whereas the functions
√
x (3/2) + x 1/2 + 2 3x − 5
f (x) = 3
, g (x) = 2 are not rational functions
x +1 x +1
as their either numerator functions or denominator functions are not poly-
nomials.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 45 / 126
Graphs of Rational Functions
1
Consider the behavior of the function f (x) =.
x
At x = 0, f (x) is not defined. Hence, the domain of f , Dom(f ) =
R \ {0}.
However, as x gets closer and closer to 0 from both sides, the value of
1
f (x) gets larger and larger as = Big No.
small no.
1 1
For example, = 1, 000, 000 and = −100, 000.
0.000001 −0.00001
We express this fact symbolically as
f (x) → ∞ as x → 0+ (from the positive side)
and
f (x) → −∞ as x → 0− (from the negative side)
Therefore, we shall call the vertical line x = 0 to be a vertical asymptote
to the graph of y = f (x).

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 46 / 126

Graphs of Rational Functions...

On the other side, since dividing a constant number, 1 in this case, by

any number does not give zero, the value of the function f (x) never
attains 0. However, ax x gets larger and larger, the value of f (x)
becomes smaller and smaller as
1
= small number.For example,
Big Number
1 1
= 0.00000001 and = −0.00000001.
100000000 −10000000
We express this fact symbolically as

f (x) → 0 as x → ∞ and f (x) → 0 as x → −∞.

Therefore, we shall call the horizontal line y = 0 to be a horizontal

asymptote to the graph of y = f (x).

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 47 / 126

Graphs of Rational Functions...

1
Figure: Graph of the rational functions y = .
x

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 48 / 126

Graphs of Rational Functions...

Definition (Asymptote)
1 The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the graph of the
function y = f (x) if y approaches ±∞ as x approaches a from the left
or the right side of a.
2 The line y = b is called a horizontal asymptote of the graph of the
function y = f (x) if y approaches b as x approaches ±∞.
1
Now, applying transformation on the graph of y = we may get a general
x
a
form of the function as y = + k. The graph of the transformed
x −h
function has
domain Dom(f ) = R − {h}.
vertical asymptote at x = h.
horizontal asymptote at y = k.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 49 / 126
Graphs of Rational Functions...

Example
5
The graph of y = + 3 has a vertical asymptote at x = 2, and a
x −2
horizontal asymptote at y = 3, and the sketch of the graph of this function
is given below.

5
Figure: Graph of the rational functions y = + 3.
x −2

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 50 / 126

Graphs of Rational Functions...
p(x)
Asymptote of a rational function f (x) = can be any one of the
q(x)
following.
1 The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of f (x)

if the function f (x) is not defined at x = a; and

if the value of the function f (x) keeps increasing in magnitude as x-
approaches a from either side (i.e., from left or right side of a).
2 The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of f (x), if the value of the
function f (x) cannot attain the value b, while its value approaches b
either from above or from below as x keeps increasing in magnitude.
i.e., f (x) → b as x → ±∞.
3 The line y = ax + b is called an oblique asymptote (or a “slant line”)
of the rational function f (x) if the value of the function cannot be
equal to the line y = ax + b, but approaches it in magnitude as x
keeps increasing in magnitude.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 51 / 126
Remark
(i) A vertical asymptote for a rational function can be obtained by finding the
zeros (or roots) of the denominator function. When looking for the vertical
asymptote the denominator matters a lot.
However, some points x = a, which makes the denominator zero, could only
be a hole of the graph but not an asymptote, if the second condition of a
vertical asymptote is not satisfied. This can be checked by factoring the
numerator and if the numerator also has (x − a)k as a factor with the same or
more multiplicity k as in the denominator, then it can be canceled and cannot
lead to a vertical asymptote at x = a.
(ii) A graph of the rational function f (x) has a horizontal asymptote if the degree
of numerator is less than or equal to the degree of the denominator. If the
degree of numerator is by 1 greater than the degree of the denominator,
then an oblique asymptote arises instead of a horizontal asymptote.
(iii) A graph of a rational function f (x) may cross its horizontal or oblique
asymptotes but note its vertical asymptote.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 52 / 126
Graphs of Rational Functions...

p(x)
To find all possible vertical asymptotes of a rational function f (x) = ,
q(x)
we follow the following steps.

Remark (Vertical asymptotes)

1 Step 1 Factor the denominator (and also the numerator, if possible).
2 Step 2 Cancel common factors from the numerator and the denomi-
nator, if there are any.
3 Step 3 Denominator factors that cancel completely during the simplifi-
cation process give rise to a hole of the graph. Those that don’t cancel
completely give rise to vertical asymptotes.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 53 / 126

Graphs of Rational Functions...

Example
Find the vertical asymptotes and/or holes for the graph of
(3x + 1)(x − 7)(x + 4)
(a) f (x) = .
(x − 7)2 (x + 4)
Solution
(3x + 1)(x − 7)(x + 4)
(a) In the function f (x) = , the terms (x − 7) and
(x − 7)2 (x + 4)
(x + 4) can be canceled from both the numerator and the denominator.
But since the denominator contains one more term of the factor (x −7),
the simplified form of f (x) is

3x + 1
f (x) = for x 6= −4.
x −7
Therefore, x = 7 is a vertical asymptote while x = −4 corresponds to
a hole to the graph of f .
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 54 / 126
Graphs of Rational Functions...

Example
Find the vertical asymptotes and/or holes for the graph of
2x 2 − 5x − 12
(b) f (x) = 2 .
x − 5x + 4
Solution...
2x 2 − 5x − 12
(b) In the case of the function f (x) = , first we shall fac-
x 2 − 5x + 4
torize both the numerator and the denominator and then simplify, to
get

2x 2 − 5x − 12 (2x + 3)(x − 4) 2x + 3
f (x) = = = for x 6= 4.
x 2 − 5x + 4 (x − 1)(x − 4) x −1

Thus, x = 1 is a vertical asymptote, and x = 4 corresponds to a hole

to the graph of f .

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 55 / 126

To find horizontal or oblique asymptotes for the graph of the rational function,

an x n + · · · + a1 x + ao p(x)
f (x) = =
bm x m + · · · + b1 x + bo q(x)

we just need to first check the degrees of the numerator and denominator
polynomial functions. Thus, if
(a) deg(p(x)) = n<m = deg(q(x)), then y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote to the
graph of y = f (x).
an
(b) deg(p(x)) = n=m = deg(q(x)), then y = is a horizontal asymptote to
bn
the graph of y = f (x).
(c) deg(p(x)) = n= m + 1 = deg(q(x)) + 1, then the graph does not have a
horizontal asymptote but rather y = ax + b is an oblique asymptote to the
graph of y = f (x).
To find the equation of the oblique asymptote apply long division method and
write f (x) as
p(x) r (x)
f (x) = = ax + b + , with deg(r (x)) < deg(q(x)).
q(x) q(x)
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 56 / 126
Graphs of Rational Functions...
Example
Find horizontal or oblique asymptotes for the graphs of
6x 4 − x + 2
(a) f (x) = 5
7x + 2x − 1
Solution: Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of
6x 4 − x + 2
the denominator in f (x) = 5 , the line y = 0 is a horizontal
7x + 2x − 1
asymptote to the graph of f .
6x 3 − 2x 2 + 1
(b) g (x) =
2x 3 + 7
6x 3 − 2x 2 + 1
Solution: In the expression g (x) = , since both the
2x 3 + 7
numerator and the denominator have the same degree, we divide the
leading coefficient of the numerator by the leading coefficient of the
denominator to get y = 26 = 3 and therefore, the line y = 3 is the
horizontal asymptote to the graph of g .
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 57 / 126
Graphs of Rational Functions...

Example (... continued)

2x 3 − 3
(c) h(x) = .
x2 − 1
2x 3 − 3
Solution: In the fractional expression h(x) = , the degree of the
x2 − 1
numerator is by 1 greater than the degree of the denominator. Therefore, we
will have an oblique asymptote of the form y = ax + b. To find the formula
for y , we apply long division as

2x 3 − 3 2x − 3
h(x) = = 2x + 2
x2 − 1 x −1
Thus y = 2x is the oblique asymptote to the graph of h.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 58 / 126

Graphs of Rational Functions...

Example
x 2 + 3x + 2
Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
x2 − 1
Solution:
x 2 − 1 = 0 implies x = −1 or x = 1.
Thus, Domain of f is R \ {−1, 1}.
On the other hand
x 2 + 3x + 2 (x + 1)(x + 2) x +2
f (x) = 2
= = for x 6= −1.
x −1 (x + 1)(x − 1) x −1

Thus, x = 1 is a vertical asymptote to the graph of f and y = 1 is a

horizontal asymptote to the graph of f .
The graph of f has a hole at (−1, − 12 ).

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 59 / 126

Graphs of Rational Functions...

Example (... Continued)

x 2 +3x+2
Figure: Graph of the rational functions f (x) = x 2 −1 .
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 60 / 126
Graphs of Rational Functions...

Example
(x 2 − 0.25)(x − 2)
Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
x2 − 1
Solution:
x 2 − 1 = 0 implies x = −1 or x = 1.
Thus, Domain of f is R \ {−1, 1}.
On the other hand
(x 2 − 0.25)(x − 2) (x + 0.5)(x − 0.5)(x − 2)
f (x) = 2
= for x 6= −1, x 6= 1.
x −1 (x + 1)(x − 1)

Thus, x = 1 and x = −1 are vertical asymptotes to the graph of f and

y = x − 2 is an oblique asymptote to the graph of f .
The graph intersects the x axis at the points x = 2, x = 0.5 and x = −0.5.
It intersects the y axis t y = −0.5

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 61 / 126

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 62 / 126
Exponential functions

Definition (Power function)

For a natural number n and a real number x , the power x n , read “the
nth power of x” or “ x raised to n ”, is defined as follows:

xn = x| · x {z
· · · · x}
nfactors each equal to x

In the symbol x n , x is called the base and n is called the exponent.

x 0 = 1, (x 6= 0) Definition of zero exponent.
Note here 00 is undefined.
1
x −n = n , (x 6= 0) Definition of negative exponent.
x

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 63 / 126

Exponential functions
Note That
Rules for integer exponents

1 x n · x m = x n+m . xn
5 = x n−m .
xm
2 (x n )m = x nm .  n
−n 1
3 (xy )n = x n · y n .
6 x = .
 n x
x xn 7 x0 = 1 x 6= 0
4 = n. √
y y n m n
8 xm = x

Remark
For rational exponent a1/n
If n is an odd positive integer, then a1/n = b if and only is b n = a
If n is even positive integer a ≥ 0, then a1/n = |b| if and only is b n = a
√n
a = a1/n where n is a positive integer is nth root of a
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 64 / 126
Definition (Exponential Function)
A function of the form y = f (x) = ax , where a > 0 and a 6= 1, is called an
exponential function with base a.

Remark
The domain of an exponential function is the set of real numbers.
The range of an exponential function is the set of positive real numbers.
The graph of y = ax exhibits exponential growth if a > 1 and expo-
nential decay if 0 < a < 1.
The y - intercept of the graph of an exponential function is 1. and x
-axis is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of an exponential function.
The function f (x) = ax is 1-1, that is, ax = ay if and only if x = y .
The exponential function f (x) = e x , where e = 2.7182 . . ., is called
the natural exponential function.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 65 / 126

Graphs of Exponential Functions...
The following graphs represent the graphs of exponential functions
f (x) = ax for both a > 1 and 0 < a < 1.
In the figure the values of a are taken to be a = 2 and a = 12 and the
two values are representative of all the cases to study the behaviour of
the graphs of f (x) = ax .

Figure: Graphs of Exponential Functions

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 66 / 126

Note That
For any positive real numbers a, b > 0, with a 6= 1, b 6= 1 and for any real
numbers x, y ∈ R, each of the following hold.
a) ax · ay = ax+y . b) (ax )y = axy .
ax  a x
c) (ab)x = ax · b x . d) x = .
b b x
a x 1
e) y = ax−y . f) a−x = .
a a
x √
g)b 0 = 1 h) a y = y ax

Example
Solve each of the exponential equations.
1 3x+1 = 81 2 4x = 32 3 5x = √1 .
125
Solution:
1 S.S. ={3} 2 S.S. ={ 25 } 3 S.S. ={− 32 }.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 67 / 126

An Application: Compounded Interest

Remark
If an initial principal P is invested at an annual rate r and the interest is
compounded n times per year, the amount A in the account after t years is
given by  r nt
A(t) = P 1 +
n

Example
If a capital of Birr 100,000,000 is invested with an annual rate of 14% and
the interest is compounded 4 times per year. Find the amount after 6 years.
Solution: The amount after t years is given by
0.14 4t
 
A(t) = 100000000 1 + = 100000000 (1.035)4t .
4

So, A(6) = 100000000(1.035)(4×6) = 100000000(1.035)24 ≈ 228332448 Birr.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 68 / 126

Definition (Logarithmic)
For a > 0 and a 6= 1, we write y = loga x to mean y is the exponent to
which a must be raised to yield x . In other words,
x = ay ⇔ y = loga x

Note That
Let a, b ∈ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) be arbitrary real numbers. Then for all x, y ∈
(0, ∞),  
x
(a) loga x + loga y = loga (xy ) (b) loga x − loga y = loga
y
loga x
(c) loga x y = y loga x (d) logb x =
loga b
(e) logb (b x ) = x logb b = x (f) b logb x = x

Ex:- Solve the given logarithmic equation.

a) log2 (x 2 − 4) = 5 b) log3 (x 2 − 2x + 9) = 2

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 69 / 126

Remark
The domain of a logarithmic function is the set of positive real numbers
Its range is the set of real numbers.
Its graph exhibits logarithmic growth if b > 1 and decay if 0 < b < 1.
The x-intercept is 1.No y-intercept & the y-axis is a vertical asymptote.
f (x) = log10 x is called the common logarithm function usually writ-
ten as: log10 x = log x.
f (x) = loge x is called the natural logarithm function. loge x = ln x.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 70 / 126
Since y = log3 x is the inverse of y = 3x , we can obtain the graph of
y = log3 x by reflecting the graph of y = 3x about the line y = x, as
shown below.

logb (b x ) = x logb b = x b logb x = x

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 71 / 126

 1 x


To get the graph of y = log 1 x is the inverse of y = 2 , we can obtain
2
1 x


the graph of y = log 1 x by reflecting the graph of y = 2 about the line
2
y = x, as shown below.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 72 / 126

Example
If a capital of Birr 100,000,000 is invested with an annual rate of 14% and
the interest is compounded 4 times per year. when does the capital double
it self.
Solution: The amount after t years is given by
0.14 4t
 
A(t) = 100000000 1 + = 100000000 (1.035)4t .
4

we are looking for t such that A(t) = 2P So,

 r nt
2P = P 1 +
n
200000000 = 100000000(1.035)(4t)
2 = (1.035)(4t)
4t = log1.035 2
1 ln 2
t= ≈ t = 5.04
4 ln 1.035

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 73 / 126

Trigonometric functions and their graphs
An angle is the figure formed by two half-lines or rays with a common end
point. The common end point is called the vertex of the angle.

In forming the angle, one side remains fixed and the other side rotates.
The fixed side is called the initial side and the side that rotates is called
the terminal side. If the terminal side rotates in a counter clockwise
direction, we call the angle positive angle, and if the terminal side rotates
in a clockwise direction, we call the angle negative angle.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 74 / 126

Definition (Radian Measure)
An angle of 1 radian is the measure of a central angle (angle at the center
of the circle) θ that intercepts an arc s equal in length to the radius r of
the circle (see the Figure below). Algebraically, this means that

s distance travelled
θ= = ,
r radius
where θ is measured in radians.

Figure: Radian measure.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 75 / 126
Radian Measure of an Angle...

In the case of a full revolution, the angle in degree measure is θ = 360◦ ,

whereas in radian measure it is given by
Circumference 2πr
θ= = = 2π,
Radius r
since the distance traveled is the circumference of the full circle, which is
C = 2πr .
Now comparing these two quantities will give us the conversion factors:
 180 ◦
360◦ = 2π rad ⇒ 180◦ = π rad Or 1 rad = ≈ 57.3◦
π
Based on this, the following table gives the correspondence between
degree and radian measures of some special angles.
Degree 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 135◦ 150◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
π π π π 2π 3π 5π 3π
Radian 0 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
π 2
2π

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 76 / 126

Radian Measure of an Angle
An angle is in standard position if its vertex is placed at the origin of
the coordinate plane and its initial side is on the positive x-axis.
By convention, an angle is positive if it is obtained by rotating the
initial side of the angle in counterclockwise direction as in Figure (A).
An angle is negative if it is obtained by rotating the initial side of the
angle in clockwise direction as in Figure (B) below.

Figure: (A) θ > 0 (B) θ < 0

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 77 / 126
Radian Measure of an Angle...

Example
Convert each of the following given angles to the required unit of measure.
(a) From degree measure to radian measure
(i) 75◦ (ii) 450◦

π 5
(i) 75◦ = 75◦ × ◦
= π rad.
180 12
◦ ◦ π 5
(ii) 450 = 450 × ◦
= π rad.
180 2
(b) From radian measure to degree measure
2
(i) π rad (ii) 6.25π rad
3
2 2 180◦
(b) (i) π rad = π × = 120◦ .
3 3 π ◦
625 180
(ii) 6.25π rad = π× = 1125◦ .
100 π
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 78 / 126
The Trigonometric Functions
Let θ be an angle in standard position and P(x, y ) be a point on the
terminal side
pof θ and let r be the distance from the origin O(0, 0) to
P; i.e, r = x 2 + y 2 , as in Figure below.

Figure: Angle θ measured (in rad) from positive x-axis to OP

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 79 / 126
The Trigonometric Functions ...
Definition
−→
Let θ represent the angle in radian measure that the line OP makes with the
positive x-axis, where O represents the origin and P represents the point
P(x, y ) on the coordinate plane. We define the following six trigonometric
functions, sine, denoted by sin, cosine, denoted by cos, tangent, denoted
by tan, cosecant, denoted by csc, secant, denoted by sec and cotangent,
denoted by cot, as follows
y r 1
sin θ = csc θ = =
r y sin θ
x r 1
cos θ = sec θ = =
r x cos θ
y sin θ x 1
tan θ = = cot θ = =
x cos θ y tan θ
p
where r = x 2 + y 2.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 80 / 126
The Trigonometric Functions ...
In addition, when the x and y -values of a point on the plane is replaced by
their corresponding trigonometric values,
 y like (x, y ) = (r cos θ, r sin θ),
p
2 2
where r = x + y and θ = arctan or θ is the angle that the
x
terminal side of P(x, y ) makes with respect to the positive x-axis, then the
later representation is called a polar representation of the point (x, y ) on
the plane.
Example
Find the values of the six trigonometric functions in each of the following,
where the coordinate of the given point P(x, y ) is on the terminal side of
the angle θ.
√ √ √
(2, −2 
(a) P(x, y ) =  3). (c) P(x, y ) = ( 2, − 2).
1
(b) P(x, y ) = √ , 1 . (d) P(x, y ) = (1, 0).
3
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 81 / 126
The Trigonometric Functions ...

Example (... Continued)

Solution:
√
(a) qFor the point P(x, y ) = (2, −2 3), its distance from the origin is
√
r = 22 + (−2 3)2 = 4.
Then from the definition we have

√ √ √
y −2 3 3 1 2 2 3
sin θ = = =− , csc θ = = −√ = − .
r 4 2 sin θ 3 3
x 2 1 1
cos θ = = = , sec θ = = 2.
r 4 2√ cos θ √
y −2 3 √ 1 1 3
tan θ = = = − 3 , cot θ = = −√ = − .
x 2 tan θ 3 3

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 82 / 126

The Trigonometric Functions ...

Example (... Continued)

Solution: ... Continued  
1
(b) For the point P(x, y ) = √ , 1 , its distance from the origin is
s 3
1 2

2
r= √ + 12 = √ .
3 3
Then from the definition we have
√ √
y 1 3 1 2 2 3
sin θ = = √ = , csc θ = =√ = .
r (2/ 3) 2 sin θ 3 3
√
x (1/ 3) 1 1
cos θ = = √ = , sec θ = = 2.
r (2/ 3) 2 cos θ
√
y 1 √ 1 1 3
tan θ = = √ = 3 , cot θ = =√ = .
x (1/ 3) tan θ 3 3

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 83 / 126

The Trigonometric Functions ...

Example (... Continued)

Solution: ... continued
√ √
(c) For the point P(x, y ) = ( 2, − 2), its distance from the origin is
q √
√
2
r= 2 + (− 2)2 = 2.
Then from the definition we have
√ √
y − 2 2 1 2 √
sin θ = = =− , csc θ = = − √ = − 2.
r 2 2 sin θ 2
√ √
x 2 2 1 2 √
cos θ = = =− , sec θ = = √ = 2.
r 2 2 cos θ 2
√
y − 2 1 1
tan θ = = √ = −1 , cot θ = = = −1.
x 2 tan θ −1

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 84 / 126

The Trigonometric Functions ...

Example (... Continued)

Solution: ... continued
(d) The distance of the point P(x, y ) = (1, 0) from the origin is r = 1
and applying the definition we get the following as the values of the trig
functions.
y 0 1
sin θ = = = 0 , csc θ = − −Does not exist.
r 1 sin θ
x 1 1 1
cos θ = = = 1 , sec θ = = = 1.
r 1 cos θ 1
y 0 1
tan θ = = = 0 , cot θ = − −Does not exist.
x 1 tan θ

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 85 / 126

The Trigonometric Functions ...
On the other hand, trigonometry means “measurement of triangles”.

Figure: Right triangle

The association of this name is probably due to the fact that for an acute
angle θ (i.e., when 0 < θ < π/2) the six trigonometric functions can also
be defined as the ratios of lengths of sides of a right triangle as follows
(See Figure given above).
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 86 / 126
The Trigonometric Functions ...

opp hyp
sin θ = csc θ =
hyp opp
adj hyp
cos θ = sec θ =
hyp adj
opp adj
tan θ = cot θ =
adj opp

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 87 / 126

The Trigonometric Functions ...
Many angles can be described as the sum or difference of some of the
special angles, and knowing their trig values suffices to determine the
trig values of much more varieties of angles.
The following table gives values of sin θ, cos θ and tan θ for some
special angles.

θ (deg.) 0 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 135◦ 150◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
π π π π 2π 3π 5π 3π
θ (rad) 0 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
π 2
2π
√ √ √ √
1 2 3 3 2 1
sin θ 0 2 2 2
1 2 2 2
0 −1 0
√ √ √ √
3 2 1
cos θ 1 2 2 2
0 − 12 − 22 − 2
3
−1 0 1
√ √
tan θ 0 √1 1 3 – − 3 −1 − √13 0 – 0
3

Table: Trig. values of special angles

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 88 / 126

The Trigonometric Functions ...

For both sine and cosine functions the domain is (−∞, ∞). Moreover,
the range of cosine and sine functions is the closed interval [−1, 1].
Thus, for all values of x, we have −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1.
Moreover, since these functions are defined by the amount of rotation
the terminal side of the angles make, after one full revolution their
values coincide with the one with in the first revolution.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 89 / 126

The Trigonometric Functions ...

Definition (Periodic Functions)

A function f is said to be periodic if there is a positive real number p such
that f (x + p) = f (x), for every x. The smallest such positive real number
p (if it exists) is called the period of f .

For a periodic function f with period p, since we can write f (x + 2p) =

f ((x + p) + p) = f (x + p) = f (x), we can conclude using inductive
arguments that f (x + np) = f (x) for any integer n.
Therefore, the domain of f extends to infinity in both positive and
negative directions.
Since the angles θ and θ + 2nπ have the same terminal side for any
integer n, we have
sin θ = sin (θ + 2nπ) and cos θ = cos (θ + 2nπ), for any integer n.
i.e, sine and cosine functions are periodic functions with period 2π.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 90 / 126
The Trigonometric Functions ...

Example
Find a positive angle θ in the interval [0, 2π] (or between 0◦ and 360◦ )
equivalent to
7π 15
(a) rad (b) π rad
2 4
Solution:
7π
(a) Since rad is more than 2π we extract out and subtract the maximum
2
7π 7π 3π
integer multiple of 2π from . Therefore, since = 2π+ , the positive
2 2 2
7π 3π
angle θ equivalent to rad in the interval [0, 2π] is rad.
2 2
15 7 15
(b) Since π = 2π + π, the positive angle θ equivalent to π rad in
4 4 4
7
the interval [0, 2π] is π rad.
4

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 91 / 126

The Trigonometric Functions ...

Example (... Continued)

5
(c) − π (d) 560◦
3

Solution:
(c) Since negative here means the opposite direction with respect to the
positive full revolution, i.e., integer multiples of 2π, we have
5 5 1
− π = 2π − π = π. Therefore,
3 3 3
5 1
the positive angle θ equivalent to − π rad in the interval [0, 2π] is π rad.
3 3
(d) Since 560◦ is greater than 360◦ , we extract out and subtract the max-
imum possible integer multiple of 360◦ from the given value. Therefore,
since 560◦ = 360◦ + 200◦ ,
the equivalent positive angle θ between 0◦ and 360◦ is 200◦ .

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 92 / 126

The Trigonometric Functions ...

Example (... Continued)

(e) 980◦ (f) −185◦

Solution:
(e) Similarly, since

980◦ = 720◦ + 260◦ = 2 × 360◦ + 260◦ ,

the equivalent positive angle θ between 0◦ and 360◦ is 260◦ .

(f) Since negative here is with respect to the full revolution i.e., 360◦ , we
get
−185◦ = 360◦ − 185◦ = 175◦ .
Therefore, the equivalent positive angle θ between 0◦ and 360◦ is 175◦ .

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 93 / 126

The Trigonometric Functions ...
It is always possible to describe the values of the six trigonometric
functions using their values in the first quadrant.
But we only need to remember the sign of their values in each of the
quadrants. h πi
Note that, in the first quadrant (i.e., in the interval 0, or between
◦ ◦
2
0 and 90 ) all the three (and hence their reciprocal) trigonometric
functions are positive.

Figure: Regions in which the trig functions are positive. A = All, C = Cosine,
T = Tangent, S = Sine. The signs of the three reciprocal functions can be
determined accordingly.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 94 / 126
The Trigonometric Functions ...

hπ i
In the second quadrant (i.e., in the interval , π or between 90◦
2
and 180◦ ) only sin θ and its reciprocal csc θ are positive, while all the
remaining are negative.
 
3π
In the third quadrant (i.e., in the interval π, or between 180◦
2
and 270◦ ) only tan θ and its reciprocal cot θ are positive, while all the
remaining are negative.
 
3π
In the fourth quadrant (i.e., in the interval , 2π or between 270◦
2
and 360◦ ) only cos θ and its reciprocal sec θ are positive, while all the
remaining are negative.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 95 / 126

Example
1
(a) If cos θ = − , and the terminal side of angle θ is in the third quadrant,
2
then find the values of the remaining trigonometric functions of the
angle θ.
Solution:-First, we formulate a right triangle whose one of the non right-
1
angled angle is θ with positive value of the given cos θ, i.e., cos θ = .
2

Then from this triangle

√ and the terminal √
side of θ is in the third quadrant,
3 2 2 3
we get sin θ = − , csc θ = − √ = −
√ 2 3√ 3
3 √ 1 3 2
tan θ = = 3, cot θ = √ = and sec θ = − = −2.
1 3 3 1
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 96 / 126
Example
(b) If tan θ = 3, and sin θ is negative, then find the values of the remaining
trigonometric functions of the angle θ.
Solution: From the given values that tan θ = 3, and sin θ is negative,
we first construct a right-angled triangle satisfying the positive part of the
information, and then we determine the sign of the ratios from ACTS rule.

That means, from the triangle above and√ from sin θ is negative
√ while tan θ
3 3 10 10
is positive, we get sin θ = − √ = − , csc θ = −
10 10 3
√
1 10 √ 1
cos θ = − √ = − , sec θ = − 10 and cot θ = .
10 10 3
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 97 / 126
Trigonometric Identities...
The angle −θ corresponds to the point Q(x, −y ) on the Cartesian
coordinate whenever P(x, y ) corresponds to θ.
−y x
This means, sin(−θ) = and cos(−θ) = . Consequently,
r r
sin (−θ) = − sin θ and cos (−θ) = cos θ. (1)
These identities show that sin is an odd function and cos is an even
function.
The distance formula (or the Pythagorean Theorem) tells us that any
point P(x, y ) on the circle centered at the origin and with radius r
satisfies the equation x 2 + y 2 = r 2 .
 y 2  x 2 y 2 + x 2 r2
Therefore, sin2 θ+cos2 θ = + = = = 1.
r r r2 r2
We have therefore proved one of the most useful identities in trigonom-
etry:
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1. (2)
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 98 / 126
Trigonometric Identities

Since many of the identities for trigonometric functions follow from the
identity
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
, it is considered as one of the basic identities in trigonometry.
For instance, if we divide both sides of Equation (2) by cos2 θ, we get

tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ

Similarly, if we divide both sides of Equation (2) by sin2 θ, we get

1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 99 / 126

Trigonometric Identities...

Many of the other remaining trigonometric identities are consequences of

the following two basic identities called the addition formulas, which can
be verified using geometric constructions of angles and the relations
between the measure of their corresponding sides.

sin (x + y ) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y ; (3)

cos (x + y ) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y . (4)

By substituting −y for y in Equations (3) and (4) and using Equation (1)
we obtain the following identities, called the subtraction formulas:

sin (x − y ) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y ; (5)

cos (x − y ) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y . (6)

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 100 / 126
Trigonometric Identities...
Example
3 5
Given that sin α = and that cos β = , where α and β are acute angles, find
5 13
the actual values of (a) sin(α + β), (b) cos(α − β).
Solution:
3
If sin α = , then using right-triangle rule (see Figure 62), we can find that the
5
measures of the opposite side is 3, the hypotonus is 5 and the adjacent side is
√ 4
b = 52 − 32 = 4. Which gives that, cos α = .
5

12 5
Using similar arguments for angle β, we obtain sin β = cos β = .
13 13
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 101 / 126
Trigonometric Identities...

Example (... Continued)

Therefore, using the addition and subtraction formulas we get,

(a) sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + sin β cos α

     
3 5 12 4
= +
5 13 13 5
15 48 63
= + = .
65 65 65

(b) cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β

     
4 5 3 12
= +
5 13 5 13
20 36 56
= + = .
65 65 65
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 102 / 126
Trigonometric Identities...

Example
Using
 the
 values given for special angles, find the actual value of
5π
sin = sin 75◦ .
12
Solution:  
◦ ◦ ◦ 5π
Note that we can rewrite sin 75 as sin(45 + 30 ) or sin =
π π  12
sin + .
4 6
Then applying the addition formula for sine and the values given in the
Table of basic trig. values, we get,
 
5π π  π  π  π 
sin = sin cos + sin cos
12 4 6 6 4
√ √ √ √ √
2 3 1 2 6+ 2
= × + × = .
2 2 2 2 4
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 103 / 126
From the addition and subtraction formulae for sine and cosine, it is
possible to derive the corresponding addition and subtraction formulae for
the tangent function. We outline the derivation for addition here below.
From the definition of tangent we know that
sin(x + y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
tan(x + y ) = = .
cos(x + y ) cos x cos y − sin x sin y
Now dividing both the numerator and the denominator components by the
term cos x cos y we obtain
   
sin x cos y cos x sin y sin x sin y
+ +
cos x cos y cos x cos y cos x cos y
tan(x + y ) = = .
cos x cos y sin x sin y
 
sin x sin y
− 1−
cos x cos y cos x cos y cos x cos y
Simplifying the last expression gives,
tan x + tan y
tan (x + y ) = . (7)
1 − tan x tan y
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 104 / 126
Trigonometric Identities...

Using similar procedure we can derive the subtraction formula to be

tan x − tan y
tan (x − y ) = . (8)
1 + tan x tan y
The addition and subtraction formulas listed above can give rise to many other
trigonometric identities. For instance, if we put y = x in the addition formulas
(Equations (3) and (4)), we obtain the following identities, called the double
angle formulas

sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x, cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x.

Then, by using the identity sin2 x + cos2 x = 1, we obtain the following alternative
forms of the double angle formulas for cos 2x:

cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1, cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin2 x.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 105 / 126
Trigonometric Identities...

If we now solve these equations for cos2 x and sin2 x, we get the following
identities, called the half-angle formulas
1 + cos 2x 1 − cos 2x
cos2 x = , sin2 x = .
2 2
Moreover, from the addition and subtraction formulas (Equation (3) -
(6)), we get the following three identities, called the product formulas

1
sin x cos y = [sin (x + y ) + sin (x − y )] ,
2
1
cos x cos y = [cos (x + y ) + cos (x − y )] ,
2
1
sin x sin y = [cos (x − y ) − cos (x + y )] .
2

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 106 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

If f is a periodic function with period p, then the graph of f on any

interval of length p is called one complete period of f .
Therefore, to sketch the graph of a periodic function f with period p,
we usually sketch the graph of the function on the interval [0, p] and
extend the portion of this graph by repeating it every p period in both
directions.
The graph of the sine function, y = sin x, is shown in Figure(A) below.
This graph can be obtained by plotting points (x, y ) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
and then extending it over the entire domain using the periodicity of
the function.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 107 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions...
The following are the graphs of trigonometric functions y = sin x and
y = cos x.

Figure: Graphs of (A) y = sin x, (B) y = cos x.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 108 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions...

Because of the identity

π
cos x = sin (x + ),
2
(which can be verified using Equation (3)), the graph of the cosine
function y = cos x is obtained by shifting the graphs of sine by an amount
π/2 to the left (see the Figure (B) above).
Note that the zeros of sine occur at the integer multiples of π,
i.e., sin x = 0 whenever x = nπ, for any integer n;
and the zeros of cosine occur at the odd integer multiples of π/2,
i.e., cos x = 0 whenever x = n π2 , if n is an odd integer.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 109 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions...

Amplitude and Period:

Multiplying the function f (x) = sin(x) by non-zero real number a
amounts to stretching its highest and lowest points by magnitude of a.
The same is true also for g (x) = cos(x).
Therefore, for y = a sin(x) and y = a cos(x), the positive real number
|a| is called the amplitude of their graph, and it is the largest value
these functions attain across the entire domain.
Moreover, we recall that multiplying the value of x in y = f (x) by
non-zero real number b results in a horizontal stretch or shrink of the
graph by k units depending whether |b| > 1 or |b| < 1.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 110 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions...

For sine and cosine functions this will change the period of the func-
tions.
That means, the functions

y = sin(bx) and y = cos(bx), for b > 0

complete one period as the product bx varies from 0 to 2π. i.e., 0 ≤

bx ≤ 2π, or dividing both sides by b we get 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π/b.
 
2π
So, the functions complete one period on the interval 0, , that
b
2π
means they have period .
b

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 111 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions...
We generalize the above discussion by the following remark.
Remark
Graphs of sine and cosine functions are called sinusoids. One method to
write a sine or cosine function that models a sinusoid is to find the values
of a, b, h, and k for
y = k + a sin b(x − h)
or y = k + a cos b(x − h), for b > 0,
where |a| is the amplitude, (2π/b) is the period (b > 0), h is the horizontal
shift, and k is the vertical shift. An appropriate interval on which to graph
one complete period is [h, h + (2π/b)]. The value of k is the mean of the
maximum and minimum values.
(maximum value) + (minimum value)
i.e., k= .
2
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 112 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions...

Example
Find the amplitude, period, and the horizontal shift for
5  π
(a) y = sin 3x − .
3 2
Solution:
5  π
(a) For the curve y = sin 3x − ,
3 2
5
the amplitude is |a| = .
3
Now to find the period and the horizontal shift we need to factor the coef-
ficient of x to get
5  π 5  π
y= sin 3x − = sin 3 x − .
3 2 3 6
2π π
Therefore, the period is , and the horizontal shift is .
3 6

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 113 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions...

Example
Find the amplitude,
 period,the horizontal shift and the veritcal shift for
5
(b) y = 2 + 3 cos 2x +
2
Solution: (b) For the curve
   
5 5
y = 2 + 3 cos 2x + = 2 + 3 cos 2 x + ,
2 4

The amplitude is 3,
2π
The period is = π,
2
5
The horizontal shift is .
4
Moreover, the vertical shift of the graph of y is k = 2.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 114 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions...

Graphs of tangent and reciprocal Trig. functions

To sketch the graph of the tangent function, you notice that from the
sin x
definition tan x = we get
cos x
π
Dom(tan) = {x ∈ R | cos x 6= 0} = R \ {(2n + 1) | n ∈ Z} and its
2
range is (−∞, ∞).
Moreover, the tangent function has period π as:
tan (x + nπ) = tan x, for all x and for any integer n.
Moreover, as x approaches π/2 from the left the value of y = tan x
increases without bound and as x approaches π/2 from the right the
value of y = tan x decreases without bound.
That means, the lines x = −π/2 and x = π/2 are vertical asymptotes
to the graph of y = tan(x).

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 115 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions...
Therefore, the graph of y = tan x can be obtained by plotting it for
− π2 ≤ x ≤ π2 and then duplicating the result over the entire domain using
its periodicity (see Figure (A) below). Similarly, the graph of y = cot x
can be drawn using similar arguments and is given in Figure (B) below.

Figure: Graphs of (A) y = Math

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) tan 1011
x, (Chapter
(B)3)y = cot x. August 5, 2021 116 / 126
Trigonometric Identities...
Since the graphs of tan and cot share similar properties (but in the
inverted form), we will summarize the basic properties of the graph for
y = tan(x). You notice that,
the range of the tangent function is (−∞, ∞) and the domain is
{x ∈ R|x 6= nπ + π2 , where n is any integer}.
The x-intercepts are always in the form of nπ, n ∈ Z.
The period is π.
The tangent function is zero wherever the numerator (sine) is zero.
The tangent will be undefined wherever the denominator (cosine) be-
comes zero.
The graph of the tangent function has vertical asymptotes at values of
x in the form of nπ + π2 .
Since the graph is symmetrical about the origin, the function is an odd
function.
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 117 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions...

Therefore, since the graph of y = tan(x) is unbounded both from

above and below, it does not have an amplitude
(or the amplitude is ∞).
π
But the period of y = tan b(x − h) is and
b
h is its horizontal (or phase) shifting.
To graph the cosecant and secant functions we use the reciprocal iden-
tities,
1 1
csc x = and sec x = .
sin x cos x
Then we follow the same procedure as for the graph for the tangent
function.
Therefore, the graphs of the functions y = csc(x) and y = sec(x) are
shown in the Figure below.
Note that the range of both these functions is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 118 / 126
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions...
Graphs of the trigonometric functions y = sec x and y = csc x.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 119 / 126
Application of Trigonometric functions

Example
A building is 50 meters high At a distance away from the building, an
observer notices that the angle of elevation to the top of the building is 41o
to the nearest meters how far is the observer from the base of the building?
we can use the trigonometric tangent
function
opposite 50
tan 41o = =
adjacent x
solving for x we have
50
x= ≈ 58m
tan 41o
The observer is 58 meters far from the base of the building.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 120 / 126
Hyperbolic functions

Analogous to trigonometric functions, there are six hyperbolic functions,

namely, hyperbolic sine (sinh), hyperbolic cosine (cosh), hyperbolic
tangent (tanh), hyperbolic secant (sec h), hyperbolic cosecant
(csc h), and hyperbolic cotangent (coth).
Each of these functions is defined as a combination of the exponential
function as follows.
Definition of Hyperbolic Functions
e x − e −x 1 2
sinh x = csc hx = = x
2 sinh x e − e −x
e x + e −x 1 2
cosh x = sec hx = = x
2 cosh x e + e −x
sinh x e x − e −x 1 e x + e −x
tanh x = = x coth x = = x
cosh x e + e −x tanh x e − e −x

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 121 / 126
Hyperbolic functions...

Observe that, sinh x is an odd function (i.e., sinh (−x) = − sinh x) with
sinh (0) = 0, its domain is (−∞, ∞), and its range is (−∞, ∞).
However, cosh x is an even function (i.e., cosh (−x) = cosh x) with
cosh (0) = 1, domain (−∞, ∞) and range [1, ∞). The graphs of
y = sinh x and y = cosh x are shown in the Figure given below.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 122 / 126
Hyperbolic functions...
Using the fact that csc hx is the reciprocal of sinh x and sec hx is the
reciprocal of cosh x, the graphs of y = csc hx and y = sec hx can be also
easily sketched as in Figure 15.

Figure: Graphs of (A) y = csc hx, (B) y = sec hx.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 123 / 126
Hyperbolic functions...

Observe also that tanh x is an odd function with tanh (0) = 0, domain
(−∞, ∞).
Moreover, −1 ≤ tanh x ≤ 1 for all x because |e x − e −x | ≤ e x + e −x .
Thus, the range of tanh x is [−1, 1].
Consequently, the graph of y = tanh x can be sketched as shown in
Figure (A) given below.
Moreover, from the fact that coth x is the reciprocal of tanh x we get
that coth x is an odd function with domain R\{0}, range (−∞, −1] ∪
[1, ∞) and its graph can be sketched as shown in Figure (B) given
below.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 124 / 126
Hyperbolic functions...
Graphs of the hyperbolic functions tanh x and coth x.

Figure: Graphs of (A) y = tanh x, (B) y = coth x.

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 125 / 126
Hyperbolic functions...
Hyperbolic Identities:
(a) cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 (b) 1 − tanh2 x = sec h2 x
(c) sinh (x + y ) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
(d) cosh (x + y ) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y
(e) (sinh x + cosh x)n = sinh(nx) + cosh(nx) where n ∈ R

Example

Show that (a) cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 (b) 1 − tanh2 x = sec h2 x

Solution: (a):
 e x + e −x 2  e x − e −x 2
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = −
2 2
e 2x + 2 + e −2x e 2x − 2 + e −2x 4
= − = = 1
4 4 4
(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 126 / 126
Hyperbolic functions...

Example (... Continued)

Solution:... Continued
(b) We start with the identity proved in part (a); that is,

cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1.

If we divide both sides of this by cosh2 x, we get

sinh2 x 1
1− 2
=
cosh x cosh2 x
or 1 − tanh2 x = sec h2 x

Moreover, the sum of sinh x and cosh x gives us the exponential function
(i.e., cosh x + sinh x = e x ).

(Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)) Math 1011 (Chapter 3) August 5, 2021 127 / 126