CSS 241

CSS 241 BASIC SECURITY AND SECURITY THREATS
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
COURSE CODE :CSS241
COURSE TITLE: BASIC SECURITY AND SECURITY THREATS
1
COURSE GUIDE
CSS241 BASIC SECURITY AND SECURITY THREATS
Course Developer/Writer Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

Non-Violence and Intercultural Communication
Advocacy Initiatives, Ibadan, Nigeria
Course Editor Rasidi Okunola, Ph. D

Department of Sociology
University of Ibadan
Oyo State
Course Coordinator Adeniyi T. Adegoke, Ph.D

Criminology and Security Studies
School of Arts and Social Sciences
National Open University of Nigeria
Programme Leader Prof. Abdul-Rasheed Yesufu

Dean, School of Arts and Social Sciences
2

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
Printed
ISBN:
All Rights Reserved
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction……………………………………..………....i-ii
What You Will Learn in this Course ...................................ii
Course Aims…………………………………………..... ..ii-iii
Course Objectives……………………………………… …iii-iv
Working through this Course ...............................................iv
Course Materials……………………………….………. …v
3
Study Units…………………………………….………. …v-vi

Textbooks and References…………….……….……… ….vi-vii
Assignment File ………………………………………. ….vii
Assessment ………………………………….………. ……viii
Tutor-Marked Assignment……………………………. …..viii
Final Examination and Grading…………………..……. …viii
Course Marking Scheme ………………………………. …viii
Course Overview ………………………………………. …viii-ix
Presentation Schedule …………………………………. …x
How to Get the Most from this Course ……………………x
Reading Section.....................................................................x-xi
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials ……………………….. ...xi-xii
Summary……………………………………………………xii
Introduction
CSS 241: Basic Security and Security Threats is a 3-credit unit course. It is a
compulsory course for all undergraduate students in the field of Criminology and
Security Studies of the University. The course is also recommended to any other
student(s) particularly those in the School of Arts and Social Sciences, who may have
interest in the study and survey of security theory and practice. The course can also be
taken as elective or required course by other students whose main field(s) of discipline
is not Criminology and Security Studies. However, the Course consists of 20 units,
which include the meaning and approaches to security, forms of security, simulation
in security planning and management, natural and manmade threats to security, safety
measures to the management of security threats, civil security, intelligence and
counter intelligence, etc. In this study, security issues and policies in Nigeria and
Africa are given special focus with the aim of stimulating effective knowledge of the
overall security situations and agenda in Nigeria and Africa, among the students so
that they can identify, analyse, and proffer solutions to security problems locally and
internationally.
The course has no compulsory pre-requisites. The course guide informs us on what
this course is all about, what the student should appreciate in each unit, what text
materials will be used and how we can make best use of these materials. This course
guide also emphasises the need for students to take tutored marked assignments
seriously. However, necessary information on tutored marked assignments shall be
made known to students in a separate file, which will be sent to each student at
appropriate time. This course is also supported with periodic tutorial classes.
What You Will Learn in this Course
CSS 241: Basic Security and Security Threats as a course in the field of Criminology
and Security Studies at the National Open University of Nigeria focuses on a wide
range of issues concerning ways to effect basic security measures and policies and
identifying various threats that can jeopardise the security of any people or
4
community. In this course, we carefully analyse and assess security threats, to assist
the student not only to identify these threats but also to develop diagnostic framework
through which they can proffer solutions to hazard mitigation and effective security
management. In this course, the student or reader will also be exposed to various
measures that can safeguard the protection of life and property against the incidence
of security threat and hazard.
Nevertheless, the essence of these safety measures is to provide the student or reader
with various ways through which he/she can reduce losses from any incidence of
hazard or security attack, if you cannot prevent such threat or hazard from occurring.
Knowing the impact that active involvement of civilians in security process can have
in complementing and increasing the capacity of the security personnel to carry out
their duties effectively well, the course also explores the strategic importance of civil
security and how it can contribute to effective security management and threat
mitigation. However, the issue of intelligence is very germane in security planning
and management. Due to this reason, it is not surprising to see a great number of
countries expending huge resources in human and financial terms to fortify their
intelligence security and infrastructure. And owing to the fact that security discourse
cannot be complete without looking at the issue of intelligence, it is pertinent in this
course to also discuss the subject (intelligence).
Thus, the course covers a wide spectrum of issues regarding security intelligence
including meaning of intelligence, intelligence collection, to mention but a few. In this
course, we shall complete our study by studying the importance of data mining and
automated data analysis to crime prevention and detection, intelligence gathering,
intelligence analysis, threat mitigation and the overall security management.
Course Aims
The overall aim of CSS 241: Basic Security and Security Threats as a course is aimed
at introducing you to the basic meaning of security and basic ideas, methodologies and
approaches in security management. It is also aimed to expose the student or reader to
knowing most of the existing threats to security. This may be categorised into two:
natural and manmade. The study also explores the meaning of other manmade threats
i.e. information warfare, arms production and proliferation, as well as war, and how
they pose a risk to any people or communities.
Undoubtedly, the way the course draws its references from Nigeria and Africa in the
analysis of various security threats makes it astounding and thought-provoking. It will
provide assist the student a pathway in the field of Criminology and Security Studies
to develop deliberate analytical consciousness on the aspects of general security
practice and management through which the student can develop viable frameworks in
proffering solutions to security problems locally and internationally. The course is
also aimed to:
 Identify basic security ideas and policy actions;
5
 Clarify various forms of security especially how they constitute basic security
management;
 Describe the application of simulation in security planning and management;
 Conceptualise the term security threat;
 Categorise security threats;
 Discuss various types of major natural security threats;
 Examine various manmade security threats;
 Draw inferences on how information warfare, arms production and
proliferation like war constitute security threats;
 Propose safety measures against both natural and manmade threats to security;
 Explore how civil security can advance effective management of security in
any community;
 Provide operational definition or meaning of the term intelligence;
 Elaborate on the activities and processes of intelligence of collection;
 Illustrate the processes of intelligence analysis; and
 Stress the importance of data mining and automated data analysis to
intelligence gathering, intelligence analysis, crime investigation, crime
prevention and detection, threat mitigation as well as security planning and
management.
Course Objectives
With utmost desire to achieve the aims set out above, the course has a set of objectives
demonstrated in all the units of the course. Each unit has its own objectives.
Objectives are included at the beginning of every unit to assist the student to
appreciate what he or she will come across in the study of each unit to facilitate his or
her better understanding of the course-CSS 241: Basic Security and Security Threat.
Student is therefore advised to read these objectives before studying the entire unit(s).
It is helpful to do so. You should always look at the unit objectives after completing a
unit. In this way, you can be sure that you have done what was required of you by the
unit. Below are the wider objectives of this course as a whole. By meeting these
objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the course as a whole.
At the end of the course, you should be able to:
 Explain the meaning of security and its approaches;

 Clarify various forms of security especially how they constitute basic security
management;
proliferation as war constitute security threats;
6
 Propose safety measures to the management of both the natural and manmade
threats to security;
any community;
management.
Working through this Course
In completing this course, the student is required to study all the units, and try to read
all (or a substantial number of) the recommended textbooks, journals and other
reading materials including electronic resources. Each unit contains self assessment
exercise(s) and the student is required to submit his or her assignment for the purpose
of assessment. At the end of the course, the student(s) shall be examined. The time of
the final examination and venue shall be communicated to all the registered students
in due course by relevant school authorities or study centre management. Below are
the components of the course and what you are required to do.
Course Materials
Major components of the course include:
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Textbooks
4. Assignments File
5. Presentation Schedule
It is incumbent upon every student to get his or her own copy of the course material.
You are also advised to contact your tutorial facilitator, if you have any difficulty in
getting any of the text materials recommended for your further reading.
Study Units
In this course there are twenty units, which include:
Module 1
Unit 1 Security: Meaning and Approaches

Unit 2 Forms of Security I
Unit 3 Forms of Security II
7
Unit 4 Forms of Security III

Unit 5 Simulation in Security Planning and Management
Module 2
Unit 1 Meaning and Types of Security Threat I: Natural Threats

Unit 2 Meaning and Types of Security Threat II: Manmade Threats
Unit 3 Information Warfare as a Security Threat
Unit 4 Arms Production and Proliferation as a Potential Threat to Security
Unit 5 War as a Security Threat
Module 3
Unit 1 Safety Measures to the Management of Natural Threats

Unit 2 Safety Measures to the Management of Manmade Threats I
Unit 3 Safety Measures to the Management of Manmade Threats II
Unit 4 Civil Security: Meaning and Approach I
Unit 5 Civil Security: Meaning and Approach II
Module 4
Unit 1 Meaning of Intelligence

Unit 2 Intelligence Collection and Disciplines
Unit 3 Intelligence Analysis and Evaluation
Unit 4 Counter-Intelligence
Unit 5 Data Mining and Automated Data Analysis
The first module consists of five units, which will expose the student or reader to the
conceptual definition of security and various approaches to security studies and
practice. In this set of units, we shall also examine different forms of security and the
last area of discourse in this module is simulation in security planning and
management. In this course, we shall dedicate the second module to explore some of
the major threats to security. We shall begin our study in this module by explaining
the meaning of security threat and then categorise types of threats. In order to further
illuminate the subject (security threat), we shall be drawing inferences to show how
such issues like information warfare, arms production and proliferation as well as war
undermine the security of any people or community.
In the third module, we shall be focussing on various actions and processes through
which we can safeguard our lives and property against hazardous incidents or
threats/attacks. We are aware that our discourse on safety measures cannot be
complete if we fail to discuss issues of civil security, which can help in building the
capacity of the people, towards acting creatively and effectively to mitigate or reduce
the losses that may accompany a hazardous incident or attack. Owing to the strategic
importance of intelligence to security management, we shall be discussing wide range
8
of issues about it (intelligence) in a few units. We shall do this by adapting the past
works of the author for the same programme and university on the subject of
intelligence. In furtherance of our knowledge on basic security and threat mitigation,
we deem it necessary to shed light on the importance and application of data mining
and automated data analysis to security operation.
Text-Books and References
The following textbooks are recommended to each student taking the course.
Alemika, E. E. O. (1997). Police, Policing and Crime Control in Nigeria. Nigerian

Journal of Policy and Strategy 12 (1 & 2): 71 - 98.
Alemika, E. E. O. (1993). Colonialism, State and Policing in Nigeria. Crime, Law and
Social Change 20: 189-219.
Dannreuther, R. (2007). International Security: The Contemporary Agenda. West

Sussex: John Willey & Sons.
Kinkus, J.F. (2002). Science and Technology Resources on the Internet: Computer
Security. Issues in Science and Technology Librarianship, No. 36. Available on
://www.istl.org/02-fall/index.html. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
Molander, R. C., Riddile, A. S. & Wilson, P. (1996). Strategic Information Warfare:

A New Face of War. Santa Monica, California: RAND, MR-661-OSD.
Bar, M. S, (2005). West Africa: From a Security Complex to a Security Community.
African Security Review 14 (2). Also available on ://www.iss.co.za/index.php
?link_id=3&slink_id=1936&link_type=12&slink_type=12&tmpl_id=3. Retrieved on
3 December, 2009.
Shettima, K. & Chukwuma, I. (2002). Crime and Human Rights in Nigeria. Paper
Presented at the International Council on Human Rights Policy Review Seminar,
themed Crime: Managing Public Order in Countries in Transition. New York, 21-22
October.
Sutton, J. L. & Kemp, G. (1966). Arms to Developing Countries: 1945-1965. London:

Institute of Strategic Studies.
Onyeozili, E. C. (2005). Obstacles to Effective Policing in Nigeria. African Journal of

Criminology and Justice Studies 1(1): 32-54.
Tickner, J.A. (1995) Re-visioning Security. In: Booth, K. & Smiths, S. (eds.).
International Relations Theory Today. Cambridge: Polity Press. 175-198.
Waever, Ole (1995). Securitization and Desecuritization. In: Lipschutz, R.D (ed.). On
Security. New York: Columbia University Press. 46-86.
9
Wardlaw, G. (1989). Political Terrorism: Theory, Tactics and Counter Measures.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2nd Edition).
Garland, D. (2001). The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary
Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lipschutz, R. D. (ed.). (1995). On Security. New York: Columbia University Press.
Davies, P. H. J. (2002). “Ideas of Intelligence: Divergent National Concepts and
Institution”. Intelligence, Vol. 24 (3), Fall. Also available on .harvardir.org/articles
/1064 131. Retrieved on 8th April, 2008.
Monahan, T. (ed.). (2006). Surveillance and Security: Technological Politics and
Power in Everyday life, New York: Routledge.
Dory, A.J. (2003). Civil Security: Americans and the Challenges of Homeland
Security. Washington DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies (September).
Assignment File
In this file, you will find the necessary details of the assignments you must submit to
your tutor for assessment. The marks you get from these assignments will form part of
your final assessment in this course.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First the tutor-marked
assignments and second is there is a written examination. In tackling the assignments,
you are expected to apply information and knowledge acquired during this course.
The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for assessment in accordance with
the deadlines stated in the Assignment File. The work you submit to your tutor for
assessment will count for 30% of your total course mark. At the end of the course, you
will need to sit for a final three-hour examination. This will count for 70% of your
total course mark.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
There are twenty tutor-marked assignments in this course. You need to submit four
assignments out of which the best three will be used for your assessment. These three
assignments shall make 30% of your total course mark. Assignment questions for the
units in this course are contained in the Assignment File. You should be able to
complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your set
textbooks, reading and study units. However, you are advised to use other references
to broaden your viewpoint and provide a deeper understanding of the subject. When
you have completed each assignment, send it, together with TMA (tutor-marked
assignment) file to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment gets to your tutor on or
before the deadline. And in case of being unable to complete your work on time,
10
contact your tutor or betterstill your study centre manager (overseer) before the
submission deadline of assignments elapses to discuss the possibility of an extension.
Final Examination and Grading
The final examination of CSS 241 shall be of three hours’ duration and have a value
of 70% of the total course grade. The examination shall consist of questions which
reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercises and tutor-marked problems you have
come across. All areas of the course will be assessed. You are advised to revise the
entire course after studying the last unit before you sit for the examination. You will
find it useful to review your tutor-marked assignments and the comments of your tutor
on them
before the final examination.
Course Marking Scheme
This table shows how the actual course marking is broken down.
Assessment Marks
Assignment 1 – 4 Four Assignments are to be submitted,
out of which the three best shall be
considered at 10% each, making 30% of
the overall scores
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks
Table 1: Course Making Scheme
Course Overview
This table brings together the entire units contained in this course, the number of
weeks you should take to complete them, and the assignments that follow.
Unit Title Week’s Assessment (end of

Activity Unit)
Course Guide 1
1 Security: Meaning and Approaches 1 Assignment 1
2 Forms of Security I 2 Assignment 2
3 Forms of Security II 2 Assignment 3
4 Forms of Security III 3 Assignment 4
5 Simulation in Security Planning and 4 Assignment 5
Management
6 Meaning & Types of Security Threat I: 5 Assignment 6
Natural Threats
7 Meaning & Types of Security Threat 6 Assignment 7
11
II: Manmade Threats

8 Information Warfare as a Security 6 Assignment 8
Threat
9 Arms Production and Proliferation as a 7 Assignment 9
Potential Threat to Security
10 War as a Security Threat 7 Assignment 10
11 Safety Measures to the Management 8 Assignment 11
of Natural Threats
of Manmade Threats I
of Manmade Threats II
14 Civil Security: Meaning and 11 Assignment 14
Approaches I
15 Civil Security: Meaning and 11 Assignment 15
Approaches II
16 Meaning of Intelligence 12 Assignment 16
17 Intelligence Collection and Disciplines 13 Assignment 17
18 Intelligence Analysis and Evaluation 14 Assignment 18
19 Counter-Intelligence 15 Assignment 19
20 Data Mining and Automated Data 16 Assignment 20
Analysis
21 Revision 17
22 Examination 18
Table 2: Course Overview
Presentation Schedule
The Presentation Schedule included in your course materials gives you the important
dates for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and attending tutorials.
Remember, you are required to submit all your assignments by the due date. You
should guard against falling behind in your work.
How to Get the Best from this Course
In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the
great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially
designed study materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suit you best.
Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In this same way
that a lecturer might set some reading for you to do, the study units tell you when to
read your set of books or other materials. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class
exercise, your study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points. Each
of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the
subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units
and the course as a whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives shall
12
let you know what you should do by the time you have completed the unit. You
should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished the units you
must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If you make a
habit of doing this, you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course.
The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources.
Reading Section
Remember that your tutor’s job is to assist you. When you need help, don’t hesitate to
call and ask your tutor to provide it.
1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.
2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the ‘Course overview’ for more details. Note
the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments related to
the units. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide on and write in your
own dates for working on each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to
it. The major reason why students fail is that they fall behind in their course work. If
you run into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too
late to help.
4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given
in the ‘Overview’ at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always need both the
study unit you are working on and one of your set books on your desk at the same
time.
6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a
sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit you will be instructed to
read sections from your set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading.
7. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them.
If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or consult
your tutor.
8. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you can then
start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your
study so that you can keep yourself on schedule.
9. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for
its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment
13
is returned, pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the Tutor-
Marked
Assignment form and also on what is written on the assignment. Consult your tutor as
soon as possible if you have any questions or problems.
10. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final
examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning
of each unity) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials
There are between 8 and 12 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. The
dates, time and venue of these tutorials shall be communicated to you. The name and
phone number of your tutor will be made known to you immediately you are allocated
a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close
watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide
assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutor-marked assignments to
your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days are required). They will
be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to
contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board if you need help. You will
definitely benefit a lot by doing that. Contact your tutor if:
 you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings;
 you have difficulty with the self-tests or exercises; and
 you have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor’s
comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.
You should make an effort to attend the tutorials. This is the only opportunity you
have to enjoy face to face contact with your tutor and ask questions which are
answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course of your
study. To gain the maximum benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list
before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating by active discussion.
Summary
CSS 241 aims to expose you to the basic ideas and methodologies to security planning
and management as well various issues and incidents that constitute threat to overall
security arrangement of any people or society. As you complete this course, you
should be able to answer the following questions:
 Explain the meaning of security and its approaches;

 Clarify various forms of security as especially they constitute basic security
management;
14

proliferation as well as war constitute security threats;
 Propose safety measures to the management of both the natural and manmade
threats to security;
any community;
management.
Finally, you are advised to read the course material appreciably well in order to
prepare fully and not be caught unawares by the final examination questions. We
sincerely wish you success in your academic career as you will find this course
(CSS 241) very interesting. You should always avoid examination malpractices!
15
CSS241 BASIC SECURITY AND SECURITY THREATS
Course Developer/Writer Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

Non-Violence and Intercultural Communication
Advocacy Initiatives, Ibadan, Nigeria
Course Editor Rasidi Okunola, Ph. D

Department of Sociology
University of Ibadan
Oyo State
Course Coordinator Adeniyi T. Adegoke, Ph.D

Criminology and Security Studies
School of Arts and Social Sciences
Programme Leader Prof. Abdul-Rasheed Yesufu

Dean, School of Arts and Social Sciences
16

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
Printed
ISBN:
All Rights Reserved
17
CONTENT PAGE
Module 1 ............................................................................................. 1
Unit 1 Security: Meaning and Approaches..................................... 1

Unit 2 Forms of Security I............................................................... 12
Unit 3 Forms of Security II ............................................................. 22
Unit 4 Forms of Security III............................................................. 32
Unit 5 Simulation in Security Planning and Management............... 43
Module 2 ................................................................................................ 53
Unit 1 Meaning and Types of Security Threat I: Natural Threats...... 53

Unit 2 Meaning and Types of Security Threat II: Manmade Threats.. 67
Unit 3 Information Warfare as a Security Threat................................. 82
Unit 4 Arms Production and Proliferation as a Potential Threat to Security..90
Unit 5 War as a Security Threat............................................................ 99
Module 3 ................................................................................................... 109
Unit 1 Safety Measures to the Management of Natural Threats......... 109

Unit 2 Safety Measures to the Management of Manmade Threats I.... 124
Unit 3 Safety Measures to the Management of Manmade Threats II.... 135
Unit 4 Civil Security: Meaning and Approach I................................... 148
Unit 5 Civil Security: Meaning and Approach II.................................. 160
Module 4 ................................................................................................... 171
Unit 1 Meaning of Intelligence........................................................... 171

Unit 2 Intelligence Collection and Disciplines................................... 180
Unit 3 Intelligence Analysis and Evaluation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 189
Unit 4 Counter-Intelligence,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 199
Unit 5 Data Mining and Automated Data Analysis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 207
18
MODULE 1
Unit 1: Security: Meaning and Approaches

Unit 2: Forms of Security I
Unit 3: Forms of Security II
Unit 4: Forms of Security III
Unit 5: Simulation in Security Planning and Management
UNIT 1
SECURITY: MEANING AND APPROACHES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Definition of Security
3.2 Approaches to Security
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutored Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading
1.0. INTRODUCTION
The word security emanated from the Greek word Se-Cura, meaning “to be in a state
of no fear”. This state of being free from any threat within or without underscores the
importance of putting in place actions and structures that can ensure the shelving of a
people away from any harm. There is no doubt that security has been a subject that
has attracted a rapidly growing interest and concern among the scholars in social
sciences whereby a wide spectrum of issues on the subject – security has nevertheless
been studied and new breakthroughs and findings have been made. The experience of
the world in recent times emphasise a paradigm shift in security discourse.
Traditionally, State is the custodian and ultimate beneficiary of the monopoly use of
violence as advocated by Max Weber. Any internal or external threat challenging the
authority of the State in monopolising violence was considered as a security threat.
During the Westphalia period, the major threat to the political sovereignty of any State
usually emanated from another State. During that period, the threat to security usually
involved state-to-state aggression, as there was little or no presence of intra-state
violence. But, since the emergence of the Cold War in 1945, the main challenge
against state has been internal threat to security where most countries became plagued
with insurgency and civil wars as experienced on every continent. The end of the Cold
19
War in 1989 has widened the scope of security studies due to the emergence of states
without any defined political boundaries.
This is evident in the enormous political sovereignty enjoyed by international terrorist
networks that have created their own governments, standing army and other features
of a modern state except defined geographical boundaries. The authority of these non-
state actors is not limited by geographical boundary as their influence extends to
several continents and they have become a major source of threat not only to national
security but also to world security. The issue of security goes beyond the use of
violence against any internal and external threats but also has included some other
subjects like food, health, good governance, democracy, among others. We shall begin
our task in this course by defining the term security and explaining various theoretical
approaches to the study of security. I have the strong belief that you will find this unit
very interesting.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Define the term security;
Identify various approaches to security; and
Discuss various approaches to security
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Definition of Security
A layman definition of security is the protection of life and property of a person. The
concept of security has undergone a transition from traditional conceptualization to a
non-traditional meaning. Traditionally, security management was the unilateral
function of the state especially if we consider the intellectual view(s) of some political
theorists like Thomas Hobbes (1962) who argued that the essence of a state is to
guarantee the security of lives and property and ensure law and order through its
political sovereignty and monopoly of violence. This idea has made security issue a
function of effective monopoly of violence, which the state applies to engender strict
conformity and compliance to state laws by the peoples for effective security
management.
But, in contemporary times, the definition of security goes beyond the traditional
military ways of protecting the state against internal and external aggression. The fact
is that since the end of the cold war, security management has assumed a new
dimension. External threat to security resulting from international hostilities and
aggression that characterized the cold war era has been replaced with non-traditional
security threats like information warfare, drug trafficking, nuclear pollutions, disease
20
epidemics like HIV-AIDS, corruption, human trafficking, (internal) insurgency,

among others.
Nevertheless, this situation has led to multidimensional approach in security discourse

and management. Now, many governments have realized that they can no longer
monopolize the business of security in local domains as well as the world at large.
This opinion has led to extending the security community to include private players
(in security business), NGOs and above all, the civilians take the centre stage in
security management. Like every other concept in social sciences, there is no
universally accepted definition of the term security. Thus, scholars in the field of
criminology and security studies have come up with different definitions of the
concept of security according to their different theoretical rationalisations. At this
juncture, let us look at some of the available definitions of the term security. Security
can be defined as:
........an all-encompassing condition in which Individual citizens live in freedom, peace

and Safety; participate fully in the process of governance; Enjoy the protection f
fundamental rights; have Access to resources and the basic necessities of life; And
inhabit an environment which is not detrimental To their health and wellbeing (South
Africa White Paper on Defence, 1996).
......not only in terms of the internal security of the State, but also in terms of secure
systems of Food health, money and trade (Tickner, 1994:180).
…….the degree of protection against danger, loss, and criminals (Error! Hyperlink
reference not valid.).
......the protection of a person, property or organization from an attack. There are

people who have distorted motivations to perform such attacks. The types of
protection include prevention, response and pre-emptive attacks ( ://www.school-for-
champions.com/security/whatis.htm).
......the protection of information assets through the use of technology, processes, and
training ( ://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid14_gci1244022 ,00.ht ml).
Despite the absence of consensus in the operational clarification of the term by

different scholars, there is still a mutual agreement in the basic meaning of security
among them, simply denoting the protection of lives and property. Meanwhile, the
ways through which this basic objective can be actualised are the sources of the
differences among the scholars. Notwithstanding, their different conceptual positions
help us in broadening the frontiers of knowledge in security practice and management.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Define the term Security.
21
3.2 Approaches to Security Management
Managing security has remained an activity that requires the stakeholders to develop
connections and relationships in theoretical terms, which assist policy-makers to
explore a wide range of policy options, assessing their strengths and weaknesses in
addressing the (complex) political, socio-economic and environmental threats to
security. The basic approaches to security may include the following:
a) Idealism: This is a theoretical approach that emerged in the 1920s, as an

initiative to guarantee world peace and security. This approach opines that
security can best be managed through non-coercive or non-violent process,
owing to the fact that violence would only give birth to further violence. The
use of force or violence within national or international environment cannot
guarantee any security.
The members of this school hold that security can best be managed if
government at all levels (from local to world) ensure that a security system
‘based on development of civic culture on inter(national) agreements and
treaties, stress on depolarization, demilitarization, transcendence of enemy
imaging, and solidarity (Kasali, 2003: 43). This approach is also of the view
that democratic governance as the ultimate mechanism for effective security
management.
Meanwhile, the emergence o World War II had undermined the relevance of

this approach in the management of international security particularly as it
concerned the issues of democratic order. The experience of the world
population has not only shown that democracy cannot guarantee peace and
security but some democracies can carryout offensives capable of jeopardizing
national and international (security);
b) Realism: This is another traditional approach to security, which emerged as a

response to the failure of the idealist approach in preventing the outbreak of
World War II. The members of this school of thought agree that it is only
through the use of coercion and deterrence that international security can be
maintained. They also stress that apart from security, peace can only be
engendered through judicious application of force or violence, which will
generate effective dispute settlement and international security. This approach
ensures management of security based on balance of power and multi-
deterrence mechanisms. From the realist view point, states make decision in the
attainment of their self – interest agenda, by evaluating available policy options
and see how each of those options can fulfill or meet their security objectives.
However, in the attempt to manage national security every country has begun
to invest in the purchase of weapons to resist not only external security threats
22
but also internal aggression. In this case, coercive power and military force
play fundamental roles in the management of security. They will ensure
compliance of state and non– state actors to the laws in the maintenance of
world security. Also, in the management of internal security, state should
ensure that its legitimate use of violence is reinforced by adequate military
capability and mobility. This situation tends to lead to rapidly growing military
expenditure. The amount of military hardware and personnel according to this
approach, will determine how secure a nation will be. Realist model, therefore,
led to arms race, in which states drastically increased their military expenditure
in the defence of national sovereignty.
In developing countries, increased military budget has created internal tension

and structural violence in which the local people have often lacked basic
necessities, making them to survive marginally. On the African continent, this
problem has attracted deepening political crisis, military coups and counter-
coups, inter-ethnic violence, religious bestiality among others. The bottom–
lime is that, rather than accumulating military wares for the protection of their
various countries against the attacks from external forces, most governments in
developing countries use the arms against their own citizens for a variety of
reasons. Some of the reasons may include tenure elongation, racial
discrimination, ethnic rivalry, religious chauvinism etc.
The violence experienced in Rwanda and Burundi made Africa a true reflection
of Hobbesian state of nature. The madness that pervaded Hutus–Tutsi rivalry
was monumental with high degree of bestiality. The violence was a nightmare!
Nevertheless, foreign enemies can partner with local insurgents to undermine
internal security of any nation as experience has shown since the end of World
War II. The experience of the cold war era made great number of world states
to align along the West–East polarity. Even, those countries that were not
aligned (Non-Aligned Movement) were still mingling between the East and
West blocs. Since the end of the cold war, the world has recorded more
internal armed conflicts than international wars or aggressions, making it
necessary to seek for another approach that can address the problem of
increasing local insurgency in Africa and elsewhere;
c) Pluralism: Pluralist approach emerged in the 1960s. This approach was a

departure from the state-centred security system that dominated the world
system during the early cold war era. Pluralists articulated that balance of
power, a key element of realism had not only failed to protect human race
against insecurity but it had also aggravated pains that accompanied (such)
insecurity.
The world began to experience a security dilemma resulting from the emergent
danger posed by the politics of balance of terror where proliferation of weapons
has become the order of the day. This approach explains why regional and
world organizations have mandated their various agencies to carry out
23
programmes that can influence international security policies, which may affect
the self-interest of some (member) nations. This will bring us to the question of
which national interest policies are internationally moral? Pluralists admonish
states to discountenance any of their self interest policies that are considered to
be immoral or capable of undermining international security;
d) Marxism: This approach became popular in security studies in the 1970s.

According to this approach, economic factors and struggle for the control of
state resources are the bases for security relations among states. Within the
structure, the struggle for the control of means of production can lead to violent
conflict situations between the proletariat and bourgeois.
Marxist approach contends that the state should control the economy and
abolish private ownership of property and every individual should be catered
for according to his/her needs. If the state unilaterally controls the economy,
selfish pursuits, which form major security threat must be addressed. The issue
of selfish accumulation of wealth would not arise if private ownership of
property is discouraged. The crimes and threats that crop-up through the
struggle for control of resources would have been eliminated, if no individual is
allowed to own a property.
Nevertheless, struggle for the control of the state resources by individual actors
tends to generate tension in the polity and those who perceive exclusion can
resort to violence and other forms of criminality like armed robbery, terrorism,
and insurgency. Weak nations or developing counties appear to be most
palpable victims of such structural tension.
In the process, the insurgents engage government forces in armed struggle, and
in replenishing their armoury, insurgents and government often use valuable
resources (they are fighting over) in the purchase of weapons, most of which
come from developed countries. In this case, powerful nations derive enormous
economic benefits from such a situation of violence and insecurity in the weak
states;
e) Social Constructivism: This is another approach of security, which emerged in

the 1990s, immediately after the collapse of the Berlin Wall (the end of the
Cold war). This approach advocates for more cultural understanding of security
studies. In international relations as well as national politics, the self-interest of
any nation is paramount, and it is considered as the driving force of its policy
directions particularly as it relates to meeting its security goals.
State actors have now realized the need to pursue regional interest, even above
their own national interests. This approach underscores the emerging interest
nations are having towards collective security. This has created a new
understanding in security relations among states. State actors have begun to
show deep concern in the spill-over effect(s) of any insecurity in their
24
neighbouring countries, on their own internal security. One of the reasons why
Nigeria intervened and ensured the resolution of the armed conflicts in the
region, i.e. Liberian and Sierra-Leonean crises, was the negative impact that
those violent conflicts would have on her internal security.
The civil wars that plagued Sierra-Leone and Liberia generated large amount of
refugees in the sub-region, and Nigeria was one of the host countries, that
accommodated those refugees. Many of the refugees hosted by Nigeria were
not properly disarmed. Some of them came in with arms, which found their
way into the hands of some of local criminals, who used the weapons to further
terrorize the nations. This situation has posed a great security threat to the
nation.
Apart from the weapons exchanged for money, some of the refugees joined
some local criminal gangs to engage in armed robbery and other violent crimes,
constituting a threat to national security. The experience of the countries in the
Great Lakes was horrendous as the region did not only generate the highest
flow of refugees, but armed conflict also became an infectious disease that
plagued a great number of counties in that region.
Moreover, in combating crime, several countries have formed international

police (INTERPOL) community to arrest and prosecute or even repatriate
criminal suspects who are creating security problems to any of the member
nations. Few years ago, a notorious transborder bandit (Amani Tijani) who was
the leader of an armed robbery gang specialising in carjacking, known to have
robbed many innocent people of their cars in Nigeria. After robbing their
victims, the bandits usually crossed to neighbouring Republic of Benin where
the group resided. The cooperation between the police authorities in Nigeria
and Benin paid off, leading to the arrest of the suspect(s) in Benin. The suspect
was therefore repatriated to Nigeria where he is currently facing trial.
By and large, nations now appreciate taking regional approach in the

management of their internal security. This is as a result of the (negative)
impact that breakdown of order or insecurity in a country can have on its
neighbouring countries. It is against this back-drop that countries sometimes
sacrifice their national interests for regional interest. It is on record that the
rising wave of crime and insurgency in Nigeria can be blamed largely on
maladministration, but the upsurge of political strife in Liberia played a part in
the security dilemma that Nigeria has since been experiencing; and
f) Human Security: There is no doubt that in the decade preceeding year 2000
witnessed a lot of contradictions and negativities in terms of war, which posed
a great threat to national and international security. The spread of HIV-AIDS
was rapid during this period with resultant case of pandemic. Global warming
has emerged as a cankerworm ready to destroy the human race, and the
volcanic nationalism that greeted post-cold war era has become a major source
25
of state collapse. The subject of legitimate use of violence by the state has
attracted a great debate, especially as we consider the unjustifiability in the
exercise of power by some governments.
By the 1990s, the attention of the world population had shifted to redefining
security and looking for the best approach that could guarantee effective
security management, different from the traditional ones that had failed to
address the increasing security threats. The search for the best approach led to
the emergence of the term human security. This approach advocates for a
paradigm shift. Rather than allowing the state to continue to define security,
people who make up the state should be the ones to define their own security.
Therefore, it is not the function of the state (or government) to determine
security imperatives for the people but it is the people who should have the
final say in deciding their own security.
So, the state traditional security measures of coercion and deterrence are
moribund or outdated. Hence, policy-makers in several countries have adopted
this approach as the guiding principle of their security laws. The consensus of
state and non-state actors is now geared towards appreciating “any security
issues, including without limitation, those of a political, strategic, economic,
social, or ecological nature” (Vale, 1992: 100).
Nevertheless, the theoretical ingenuity brought about by the United Nations

Development Program (UNDP) in its “Human Development” Report
popularized the concept of ‘human security’ among the scholars and
practitioners in the field of security studies and management (Henk, 2005: 2).
We cannot but agree with the UNDP for reaffirming that:
The concept of security has for too long been interpreted narrowly: as security
of territory from external aggression, or as protection of national interests in
foreign policy or as global security from the threat of a nuclear holocaust. It
has been related more to nation-state than people…..forgotten were the
legitimate concerns of ordinary people….for many of them, security symbolized
protection from the threat of disease, hunger, unemployment, crime, social
conflict, political repression, and environmental hazards (UNDP Human
Development Report, 1994: 22).
Since the 1990s, this approach has not only become the priciest bride among
the state actors but also among several non-state actors including the Non
Governmental Organizations (NGOs) that have acted spontaneously in the
popularization of human security as an approach to security. One of the leading
NGOs advocating for the global adoption of this approach is the Human
Security Network. This organization has been championing the need to
“energize political processes aimed at preventing or solving conflicts and
promoting peace and development” ( .humansecuritynetwork.org/network-
e.php).
26
It is no news that several nations have articulated the relevance of human

security approach in the formulation of their security policies. South Africa
defined its national security in its “White Paper on Defence”, which was
published in 1996. As contained in the Paper:
In the new South Africa national security is no longer viewed as a

predominantly military and police problem. It has broadened to incorporate
political, economic, social, and environmental matters. At the heart of this new
approach is a paramount concern with the security of people.
Security is an all-encompassing condition in which individual citizens live in

freedom, peace, and safety; to participate fully in the process of governance;
enjoy the protection of fundamental rights; have access to resources and the
basic necessities of life; and inhabit an environment which it is not detrimental
to their health and well-being (South African Department of Defence, 1996).
Similarly, Canada has also incorporated human security approach into its
foreign policy formulation process(es). The country has redefined the concept
of security from the traditional one to that which guarantees “safety for people
from both violent and non-violent threats…..characterized by freedom from
pervasive threats to people’s rights, their safety, or even their lives”
(Department of Foreign Affairs, Canada, 1999: 5). The country has also backed
its new commitment with expending huge national resources in the promotion
of human security worldwide especially in form of aids (see
.humansecurity.gc.ca).
Discuss approaches to security.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Before the collapse of the Berlin Wall, scholars and practitioners in security had been
confronted with the problem of identifying which of the available approaches was the
best in the management of security nationally and internationally. Basically, various
traditional approaches have focused exclusively on the security relations among state
actors, relegating the relevance of individual people in security affairs. The traditional
coercion and deterrence techniques are becoming moribund and ineffective in security
management.
Non-state actors are becoming more visible in national and international theatres of
violence, such that some individuals or groups have become more powerful than the
state. A good example is Hezbollah (militant group) that is considered in several
quarters as more powerful than the government of Lebanon. One of the reasons is that
its (Hezbollah’s) membership extends beyond Lebanon. Members of this militant
27
group scatter across and beyond the whole Middle East. Al-Queda taught the whole
world that commercial planes could be used as weapon of mass destruction in the 9/11
incident where thousands of people were massacred by crashing planes at the World
Trade Centre and the Pentagon. There is need for world governments to adopt the new
non-traditional approach, human security to address the structural security threats that
bedevil most countries in the world.
The issues of hunger, poverty, proliferation of weapons, landmines, authoritarianism,

environmental pollution and degradation, social injustice, political exclusion, crime,
human rights abuse, illiteracy, economic deprivation, militarism, and
maladministration, which human security seeks to solve, must be critically addressed
in making security decisions. Thank God that several states have started adopting this
approach. On the question of whether Nigeria will soon join the league of countries
having human security as the foundation of their security agenda, it is only time that
will tell. It is only time that will tell, if the country will move beyond its traditional
AK-47 coercion and deterrence approach, which is state-centric. Human security
approach is the most effective approach to security management. Apart from other
reasons, it allows people to deliberate and decide their own security matters.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, our focus has centred on describing the meaning of security especially
through presentation of several definitions from different perspectives. Thereafter, we
explained various approaches to security. Meanwhile, the first five approaches can be
regarded as traditional approaches while the last approach is non-traditional, which
advocates for paradigm shift in security practice and management. Therefore, human
security advocates for ‘peopling’ of security in which the people define security
matters rather than the state. The writer wishes to remind you that there are other non-
traditional approaches, which could not be covered in this unit. You are hereby
advised to search for other non-traditional approaches to security in the library or on
the internet. Did you find this unit interesting? If yes, bravo! And in case you have any
question regarding any aspect of this study, please contact your tutorial facilitator or
other student(s) in your study group for assistance. Good luck.
6.0 TUTORED MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Write a short note on any five of the following approaches: Idealism, Realism,
Marxism, Social Constructivism and Human Security.
7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Canada Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (1999). Human

Security: Safety for People in a Changing World. Ottawa: Department of Foreign
Affairs.
28
Henk, D. (2005). Human Security: Relevance and Implications. Parameter 35: 91-
106.
Hobbes, T. (1962). Leviathan, New York: Collier.
Kasali, M. A. (2003). The Pacific Settlement of International Disputes in International

Law: Origin and Dynamics of Diplomatic-Legal Manouverings to Bakassi Question.
Unpublished M.Sc. Dissertation: University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
South African White Paper on Defence (1996). Pretoria: Department of Defence.
Tickner, J.A. (1995) Re-visioning Security. In: Booth, K. & Smiths, S. (eds.).
International Relations Theory Today. Cambridge: Polity Press. 175-198.
UNDP, Human Development Report (1994). Also available on Error! Hyperlink

reference not valid.. Retrieved on 10 January, 2008.
Vale, P. (1992). Can International Relations Survive? International Affairs Bulletin 16

(3): 98-119.
Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.. Retrieved on 2 August 2009.
://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid14_gci1244022,00.html. Retrie- ved

on 3 August, 2009.
.humansecurity.gc.ca. Retrieved on the 10th January, 2006.
.humansecuritynetwork.org/network-e.php. Retrieved on 10 January, 2006.
://www.school-for-champions.com/security/whatis.htm. Retrieved on 3 August, 2009.
29
UNIT 2
FORMS OF SECURITY I
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Meaning of Computer Security
3.1.1 Key Concepts in Computer Security
3.1.2 Approaches to Computer Security
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Security is a subject that has attracted a rapidly growing interest and concern among
scholars in the social sciences thereby generating a wide spectrum of issues on the
subject. It has nevertheless been attracting new studies, which have brought-out new
breakthroughs and findings in security approaches and methodologies. The
importance of security cannot be over-emphasised, considering the amount of adverse
effects that the absence of law and order can have on the overall development of any
society or nation. The fact that emanates from this intellectual position is that security
is very strategic to actualising any meaningful development and peace in any given
community. In furtherance of our study of the meaning of security, we shall be
discussing in the next three units, the various forms of security that exist. Meanwhile,
we may not be able to cover all the existing forms but the basic ones will definitely be
discussed.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define the term computer security;
Explain various key concepts of computer security; and
Discuss approaches to computer security
30
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Meaning of Computer Security
We are beginning our journey on the discourse-forms of security with the subject of
computer security. Layman may define computer security as all aspects of security,
which involves protecting our computing systems from malicious attacks and
intrusion. Meanwhile, let us consider some other definitions of computer security.
Computer security touches draws from disciplines as ethics and risk analysis, and is
concerned with topics such as computer crime; the prevention, detection, and
remediation of attacks; and identity and anonymity in cyberspace (Kinkus, 2002).
Computer security is a branch of technology known as information security as applied

to computers. The objective of computer security includes protection of information
and property from theft, corruption, or natural disaster, while allowing the
information and property to remain accessible.... ( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Computer_security).
Computer Security can also be described as:
the concept of attaining a secure computing environment (ie, an ideal state free from
risk or danger) by mitigating the vulnerabilities associated (Error! Hyperlink
....a general term relating to measures designed to protect computer assets in all
configurations ( .securiguard.com/glossary.html)
Computer security can be described as an aspect of information security which

basically involves putting some measures in place to secure your computers and
networks, or simply protect them against infiltration, illegitimate access or corruption
of data. In recent time, computers have replaced normal traditional paper system
where information is stored in physical files. You go into government ministries, you
often see files on the tables or shelves or storage cabinets marked with ‘confidential’.
In Nigeria, almost every file is marked ‘confidential’ and the irony of it, is that any
stranger can have access to any of these files because of the carefree attitude of many
public servants, official corruption and absence of security consciousness that
characterize the nation’s bureaucracy.
It is most disheartening the way important and valuable files get missing, with no
trace of recovery. Several pensioners are losing their pension entitlements simply
because their files cannot be traced. And such a situation may have security
implication on the State. For instance, a pensioner who has a number of children in
tertiary institutions, and is unable to have his entitlements because his file cannot be
traced. If the retiree does not have any other means of survival, to take care of his
31
family, the children will need to fend for themselves. And in the face of job drought,
there is the tendency for (some of such) children to be tempted to engage in anti-social
activities like ‘yahoo business’ (online scam), street begging, stealing, to mention a
few, thereby constituting a threat to the security of the larger community.
Emotionally, the children of the deprived retiree will tend to develop hatred towards a
system that denies their father of his entitlements. This problem may have also denied
the poor retiree an opportunity to carry-out his financial obligations to the family. It is
only when these children have creative thinking and positive perception that they
might not develop negative emotions, which can sometimes lure them into social
vices. I could remember a colleague of mine at the university who always complained
of hunger and financial incapacitation due to late and irregular payment of the peanuts
his father was receiving as pension. The abominable verification exercise, which
pensioners are often subject to, appears to be a source of worry. Coming to the story
of the retiree’s son, consequently, the guy had to fend for himself, and in the process
due to his vulnerability, some of his peers in the neighbourhood introduced him into
armed robbery. He was later arrested but many of his university colleagues were
astonished and sympathetic too because he was not only homely but also academically
brilliant.
The argument here is that if someone could engage in crime due to the inability of his
father, to oblige him financially, resulting from late and irregular payment of his
father’s pension by the government, then what would be the fate of a dependant whose
father was not paid at all for the inability of the relevant authorities to trace the file
that contains his employment records? The foregoing painted the danger inherent in
ineffective storing and misadministration of information. There is no doubt that
absence of proper management of information can provoke a security threat to any
State.
However, through the use of computer, the long queue and frustration that adorn
pensioners’ verification exercise would have fizzled out, and every genuine pensioner
can collect his/her pension promptly and happily without stress. The traditional means
of data management are becoming obsolete. The files that fill up a whole building can
be saved in a small and compact storage device like computer hard disk or removable
disks whereby one can store or/and retrieve or/and amend any file timely and easily.
How much space do you think will be acquired, if we physically have to open files for
ten million people? Here, it may involve occupying a very big building, which may
cost several millions of Naira to acquire but with less than five hundred thousand
Naira, we can get computers of high storage capacity that can accommodate several
hundreds of millions of such files without taking any space beyond that where you
mount your desk(s) that supports the computer(s). Even, one may not need a desk at
all, with the use of computing systems like laptops.
If information is vital to the continued existence of any organization, it is pertinent to

put in place necessary structures and applications to protect your computer(s) against
any infiltration or damage. The emergent revolution in Information and
32
Communication Technology has rendered the traditional means of storing information

like paper files moribund whereby computers have gradually replaced them. It is no
surprise therefore, that the managements of many organizations in Nigeria have begun
to mandate their staff to undergo various computer trainings in order for such to
remain relevant in their various work places. Many public workers can now use
computers effectively, as many government job functions are carried out
electronically. Many state governments especially Lagos state have computerized their
public service, as most services are now being rendered through electronic means.
Taxes are currently paid by individuals and corporate bodies through electronic
medium.
The Immigration Service in Nigeria has also gone computerized. Processing and
issuance of passport is now done electronically, and this appears to be faster and more
convenient. However, let us consider a scenario where the details of all those who
applied for Nigerian passports in the last two years get erased through malicious
attack from intruders or hackers. Another case is a situation whereby the data system
of a commercial bank gets corrupted through virus attack. How do you think the bank
will manage to get out of such crisis without any back-up? Considering these two
scenarios, you may agree with me that it is important to provide adequate security for
our computer system(s).
Essential measures and applications must be put in place to secure our computer
system especially as security experts. The nature of the security profession demands
for adequate computer security, and we should make enough efforts to protect our
computer systems from malicious attack like corruption of data, theft, intrusion, illegal
access to data, and damage emanating from natural disaster. In the subsequent part of
this segment, we shall be discussing various ways to secure our computers but before
we do that, let us quickly explain key concepts of computer security in order to
stimulate a better appreciation of the subject.
Describe the term computer security.
3.1.1 Key Concepts in Computer Security
Anti-Virus Software: There is a conflict among scholars on the originator of anti-

virus software but history has it that the first public virus removal task was performed
by Bernt Fix in 1987 (Wells, 1996). Anti-virus software is used to detect, prevent and
destroy any malware like computer viruses, worms as well as trojan horses. Apart
from protecting the computer against malicious attacks, anti-virus also helps to detect
spyware or any other programmes or websites that can constitute security threats to
the computer system like virus attack, intrusion and hacking. It also assists the
computer user to identify sites that are not secure, or those designed to perpetrate
online scam, through prompt alert and warning of the imminent danger such sites pose
to the user and/or system, and will advise that the user should not give the details of
33
his/her vital information or betterstill to close the suspected sites and avoid copying
anything from such sites.
Anti-virus software is actually a set of computer programmes designed purposely to

identify, block or destroy computer viruses and malicious agents with the aim of
protecting the computer from information theft, corruption, hardware damage, to
mention a few. There are various types of anti-virus software in the market today,
including Norton, AVG, McAfee among others. Due to the way new viruses are
generated almost on a daily basis for commercial, strategic or other reasons, it is very
pertinent to upgrade the anti-virus software on one’s computer from time to time, so
that your computing system will be immune from any attack. Apart from virus attack,
hackers may try to break into your system to steal, modify or delete some of the files
in your system or the whole information contained therein.
Before the advent of the internet, computer viruses were usually spread through
floppy disks (diskettes) but now computing systems get infected with viruses and
other forms of malware through the internet. Before now, it was rare for computer to
be infected with viruses through the use of recordable or rewritable discs but now the
story is different. That is why it is advisable to restrict access of people into your
computer and avoid the use of storage facilities like MP3, Flash disk, diskette etc, that
have used somewhere else especially at commercial cyber centers without being
scanned properly. It is also important to note that it is most appropriate to delete any
virus infected files that cannot be repaired by the anti-virus package on your computer
system.
Authentication: This involves a technique in which we create password to restrict

access to one’s computer. In this case, it is only those who can provide the correct
password that can be allowed by the computer to gain entry into it. Authentication can
also be defined as:
....the process of identifying an individual, usually based on a username and

password. In security systems, authentication is distinct from authorization , which is
the process of giving individuals access to system objects based on their identity.
Authentication merely ensures that the individual is who he or she claims to be, but
says nothing about the access rights of the individual (Error! Hyperlink reference not
valid.).
Sometimes, within the same system, there may be several users, each of whom will
create his/her username and password before he/she can access his/her information on
the system but the computer will prevent every user from gaining access to another
user’s information, if he/she fails to provide the correct username and password. There
are several ways compute authentication is initiated by the system, and these may
identify the users through username or/and password, identification cards, smart cards,
as well as biometric systems.
34
Automated Theorem Proving: This is a verification tool in secure computing system

that allows vital algorithms as well as code to be proven mathematically through
which the specification of the computer can be met.
Backups: These are simple techniques that help us to secure information in our
computing systems by copying and keeping our important files in another storage
locations like a more secure section in the computer hard drive (less reliable because it
goes with the computer in case of theft), MP3 storage device, i-pods, recordable
and/or rewritable discs, tapes, flash disk, external hard drive and file hosting on the
web.
It is noteworthy to know that there are inherent dangers in keeping files on the web, if
adequate security cannot be guaranteed. Highly secure backups are supposed to be
very safe and secure storage locations that are not easily susceptible to theft, loss, or
destruction resulting from fire, heat, water, or even natural disasters. A good example
is a university that has been existing for more than forty years, and experiences fire
outbreak that destroys all its academic records. Without any backups, how do you
think it will be able to supply the academic records of those who have graduated from
the school? You answer may be the same as mine.
Capability and Access Control List: These techniques are usually used to guarantee
privilege separation and compulsory access control.
Chain of Trust: This enables us to verify the authenticity of any software loaded on
the system, through which we can identify the software certified authentic by the
system’s designer.
Cryptographic Techniques: These techniques are applied basically to reduce the risk
of interception or modification of data whenever data are being exchanged between
two or more systems. These techniques involve changing information in such a way
that it will remain unreadable to any intruder when data is transmitted from one
system to another. In this case, it is only the genuine recipient of the information that
can unravel the content of the message while anybody who gains access to such
message will not understand the content of the message unless it he/she can break the
code to unscramble it, which may be very difficult if the encryption is done very
securely.
Encryption: This tool is used to prevent any strange or unintended person from
comprehending the content of a message. It involves scrambling of the information in
a way that it will be unreadable by anybody other than the real recipient(s) whom the
information is meant for. It is the recipient who has the code to unlock the
information that can decipher a message. This approach can be used to send secret or
very confidential information to several people irrespective of their number in as
much they have the cryptographic key, which will enable them to decrypt it.
35
Decryption: Decryption can be defined as the tool used with the aim of “…reversing
an encryption, i.e. the process which converts encrypted data into its original form”
( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/decryption).
Firewall: This technique helps to protect your system against any malicious attack or
illegal access by hackers and intruders whenever you are online. It alerts you
whenever it senses any intrusion, so that your computer will not be vulnerable to bugs.
Honey pots: These are computing systems made vulnerable to intrusion and attacks by
hackers most times deliberately, to identify areas of defect or vulnerability to effect
fixing it.
Mandatory Access Control (MAC): MAC is used to “protect the network and file
systems, block users from accessing certain ports and sockets, and more”
( ://www.freebsd.org/doc/en/books/handbook/mac-understandlabel.html). It is
however advisable for optimum use of policy modules, to load many security policy
modules at the same time with the aim of providing a multi-layered security setting,
and thus “….a multi-layered security environment, multiple policy modules are in
effect to keep security in check” (ibid). The MAC application does not allow the users
to change their access codes indiscriminately because all security features are usually
controlled by the access rules presented by the selected security policy modules. Here,
it is the system administrator that (absolutely) controls the MAC access rules.
Secure Cryptoprocessor: A secure cryptoprocessor can be said to be “a dedicated

computer for carrying out cryptographic operations, embedded in a packaging with
multiple physical security measures, which give it a degree of tamper resistance”
( ://neohumanism.org/s/se/secure_cryptoprocessor.html). The essence of a secure
cryptoprocessor is to serve as the foundation of securing the system. It is a security
sub-system that ensures protection of the system against any intrusion or malware.
Some of the examples of secure cryptoprocessor include smart cards and ATM cards.
The ways through which secure cryptoprocessor works include:
• tamper-detecting and tamper-evident containment;

• automatic zeroization of secrets in the event of tampering;
• internal battery backup;
• chain of trust boot-loader which authenticates the operating system before
loading it;
• chain of trust operating system which authenticates application software before
loading it; and
• hardware-based capability registers, implementing a one-way privilege
separation model ( ://neohumanism.org/s/se/secure_cryptoprocessor.html).
Microkernels: Microkernel can be described as a computer kernel that enables

relevant mechanisms, which help to initiate an operating system like low-level address
space management, thread management, and inter-process communication. In a
situation whereby multiple priviledge levels are offered by the hardware, “the
36
microkernel is the only software executing at the most privileged level (generally
referred to as supervisor or kernel mode). Actual operating system services, such as
device drivers, protocol stacks, file systems and user interface code are contained in
user space” (Joe, 1996 cited on ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microkernel). In securing the
computing system, microkernels are often used for systems designed for use in high
security applications like KeyKOS, EROS and strategic security systems.
3.1.2 Approaches to Computer Security
a) Security Design: There are several ways through, which security systems are
designed. It is paramount to mount effective security strategies that can ensure
adequate safety for computing systems. One of such ways is to initiate the
principle of least priviledge that “where an entity has only the priviledges that
are needed for its functions” ( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security). In
this case, if an intruder gains access (illegally) into a part of the system, it will
be difficult for him/her to access the whole system due to the fine-grained
security.
It is therefore advisable to mount a security design that breaks the system into
several smaller units with each of the units designed in a less complicated way,
and may involve the application of automated theorem proving to verify the
exactness of key software subsystems. In a situation where formal correctness
is missing, careful application of code review and unit testing will be a best-
effort approach in securing the modules. Enough efforts should also be made to
discourage or eliminate security breaches by the system users, and it is
therefore, important to create full audit trails that will assist us in detecting and
determining the nature of breach, its degree and the time it occurs. Audit trials
should be stored very discreetely in such a way that it will be difficult for the
intruder to track it to cover up every trace of the illegal entry;
b) Security Architecture: Security Architecture is also a very viable approach to

computer and information security. It simply means the design artifacts that
explain the state of existing security controls or security countermeasures,
showing how they relay with the general information technology architecture.
The security controls basically focus on providing platform to enhance the
capacity of the system to sustain quality attributes including confidentiality,
integrity, availability, accountability and assurance (see Error! Hyperlink
reference not valid.). Security Architecture assists us to identify the areas that
demand much security measure, and thus, “if the plan describes a specific
solution then, prior to building such a plan, one would make a risk analysis”,
but in a situation where “the plan describes a generic high level design
(reference architecture) then the plan should be based on a threat analysis”
(Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.); and
c) Secure Hardware: Computer security can be enhanced through hardware-based

security because of the capacity of hardware-based security solutions to present
37
strong resistance against bugs and intrusion. It can deny any intruder or hacker
the avenue to read and write access to data.
What are the approaches of computer security?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The introduction of computer to the world population has really affected the culture of
information generation, storage and amendment among people. People have now
found it more convenient and safer to use computer to do all forms of activities
regarding their collection, collation and storage as well as amendment of information.
Computer systems, apart from being convenient, help us to store a lot of information
and reduce the risk of data-loss through file-mishandling, file-missing and destruction
of files by man-made and natural security threats or attacks. It is against the
background of the importance of computer systems to information management that it
is mandatory on our own part, to secure our computers and protect them against any
malicious attack or hazard. In the subsequent units, we shall be exploring other forms
of security.
5.0 SUMMARY
Due to the limited space and time we have on each of our lessons, in this unit, we
were only able to discuss one of the forms of security-computer security.
Notwithstanding, we began our discussion by examining the meaning of computer
security. Thereafter, we explained various concepts of computer security, and the third
and the last area of inquiry on the subject was a list of approaches to security
management. As reiterated earlier, we shall continue our task of identifying and
discussing various forms of security subsequently. Thank you very much for your
patience and drive for learning.
6.0 TUTORED MARKED ASSINGMENT
a) What is computer security?

b) List any four concepts of computer security;
c) Discuss any two approaches of computer security.
Kinkus, J.F. (2002). Science and Technology Resources on the Internet: Computer
Security. Issues in Science and Technology Librarianship, No. 36. Available on
://www.istl.org/02-fall/index.html. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
38
Wells, Joe (1996). Virus Timeline. Available on ://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/

Microkernel. Retrieved on 31 July 2009.
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security. Retrieved on 1 August 2009.
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/decryption. Retrieved on 2 August, 2009.
://neohumanism.org/s/se/secure_cryptoprocessor.html. Retrieved on 31 July 2009.
://www.freebsd.org/doc/en/books/handbook/mac-understandlabel.html. Retrieved on
31 July 2009.
://www.webopedia.com/TERM/a/authentication.html. Retrieved 1 August 2009.
.infosat.tamu.edu/students/glry/htmossa. Retrieved on 31 August, 2009.
.opensecurityarchitecture.com. Quoted on ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Computer _

security. Retrieved on 31 July 2009.
.securiguard.com/glossary.html. Retrieved on 31 August, 2009.
39
UNIT 3
FORMS OF SECURITY II
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Meaning of Information Security
3.1.1 Approaches to Information Security
3.2 Meaning of Physical Security
3.2.1 Approaches to Physical Security
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall continue our search of the basic existing forms of security. Do
not forget, in the last unit, time and space only allowed us to discuss the meaning and
key concepts of computer security (a form of security) as well as its various
approaches. In furtherance of our study on forms of security, we shall be introducing a
new set of forms of security to the reader. The two forms of security that we shall be
considering in this unit for our study include information security and physical
security. In that case, let us quickly browse through the various tasks we shall be
undertaking in this study unit. These shall be found in the next segment of the unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain the meaning of information security;
Identify and discuss various approaches to information security; and
Define the concept of physical security; and
Describe key approaches to physical security.
40
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Meaning of Information Security
Information security can be defined as a means of protecting information systems

from any illegitimate access and use, theft, amendment, or malicious attacks or
penetration. Information security can also be described as “the process by which an
organization protects and secures its systems, media, and facilities that process and
maintain information vital to its operations” ( ://www.ffiec.gov/ffiecinfobase
/booklets/information_security/information_security.pdf).
Conceptually, it is important to clarify the differences in the meaning between the

terms information security and computer security, which are often mistaken for each
other. There is no doubt that the two concepts are inter-related because professionally
speaking, they aim to advance the protection of information through the principles of
confidentiality, integrity and availability. Despite the similar goals they both articulate
or simply pursue, the two terms still have some differences. These differences are
fundamentally found in their approaches, methodologies and variability in their areas
of focus. Here, information security concentrates on ways to provide adequate
confidentiality, integrity and availability of information but is less concerned with the
data form be it electronic or print or any other forms of data. So, information security
goes beyond the use of computer to create, modify, delete or store information.
Therefore, its boundary goes beyond mere electronic medium.
On the other hand, in computer security, the central focus dwells on the techniques
that enhance the availability and correct operation of a computer system with little
attention on information stored and processed by the computer. One thing to note from
the foregoing is the limited boundary that computer security acquires in information
discourse. The point is that computer is entirely electronic, and there are other means
like print through which we generate, amend, store or discard information. It is against
this background that we conclude that information security is wider in scope than
computer security, but each of them complements the functions and operations of the
other.
Away from conceptual differences between information security and computer

security, the experience of state and actors in the contemporary world has shown the
growing relevance of information security. The increasing complexity of the modern
state and sophisticated nature of contemporary business environment and corporations
underscore the importance in mounting relevant mechanisms towards the protection of
information and information system. For instance, let us look at the commercial banks
in Nigeria in the 20th century, by the close of that century, virtually none of the banks
could boast of having a capital base of US$ 1 billion. Again, during that period, online
financial transactions like the use of ATMs, online shopping etc, were either non-
existent or very limited.
41
Similarly, the period saw majority of the banks not having services that could enable
their customers to save and withdraw their money from any of their branches without
any geographic limitation, while most banks did not have up to one hundred thousand
customers. But due to the opportunities provided by information technology
revolution and recapitalization agenda of the Nigerian government, initiating the
financial sector to be proactive in increasing their capital base and improving on their
information system. The emergent information technology breakthrough especially
the development of groundbreaking computer software and electronic machines like
ATM have really helped in gradually fizzling-out long queues and the use of tally
number as well as manual counting money by cashiers.
Nostalgically, I could remember those days when customers would wake up as early
as 4am in order to reach their respective banks latest by 6am in order to be attended to
early enough due to heavy traffic of customers. One could even reach the bank and
meet some people already on the queue outside the bank premises. Then one would be
asking himself if those met on the queue slept at home. But now, with the introduction
of ATM, people can withdraw their money electronically anytime and anywhere.
Considering the opportunities provided by innovations in information technology, you

may agree with me that financial transactions, trading, information exchange, mailing,
communication etc, have been made so easy. You should however note that there are
always two sides to a coin. Though, there is much convenience and fun derivable from
modern information system but it can be awful considering the risk and danger one
can fall into. For instance, if one wants to purchase items online and logs on a wrong
web platform hosted to perpetrate scam, and you ignorantly provide your credit card
details, and before you know, you have been duped. For this reason, people are being
alerted to be very careful when doing online transactions.
One of the ways to reduce such risk is to install very strong security software that can
easily detect and inform you if you are on a malicious site. Many organizations have
gone into comatose or collapsed as a result of stealing, modifying, corrupting or
deleting of vital information. It is therefore very important to put in place viable
structures and programmes to protect your information. Now, let us quickly explain
some of the methods we can use to safeguard our information systems and protect our
information.
3.1.1 Approaches to Information Security
a) Confidentiality: In securing information systems, it is very germane to

mount necessary machineries to advance the confidentiality of information.
It is very paramount for the management of any organization to enlighten its
staff on the need to take the issue of information very seriously. They need
to know that it is very essential to prevent the organisation’s vital
information from disclosure to unauthorized person(s) or system(s). Stiff
penalty should be applied against any erring staff to deter others from doing
the same. By commission or omission, if confidential information gets into
42
the wrong hands of unauthorized person(s) or system(s), it will amount to a

breach of confidentiality.
In procuring an international passport, you can log-on the website of the

Nigerian Immigration Service to begin the process for your e-passport
application. After filling the necessary forms online, you are requested to
proceed with your payment, and here, you are given two options: offline or
online payment. You may decide to do the payment online with use of your
ATM card. In the process, the system will demand for your ATM details
through ETRANSACT platform, and you provide it correctly. The gateway
will debit your account where the ATM card domiciles, and consequently
you will be allowed into the next stage of the application process after the
confirmation of your payment, which will be electronically receipted.
Here, you need to be careful by not allowing anybody to peep into your
financial transaction to avoid an unauthorized person to have access to your
secret (pin) code, and if you allow such to happen before, during or after the
period of transaction, you have committed a breach of confidentiality. You
should know that it is incumbent on the organization(s) you transact with
online to uphold the principle of confidentiality. Expectedly, when you are
making your transaction, your credit card or ATM card details including
pin-code will be transmitted from you to the organization/party with which
you transact, and the details will also be transmitted from the said
organization to a transaction processing network.
The system will ensure that confidentiality is enforced by encrypting (refer

to 3.1.1 of last unit for the meaning of encryption) your ATM details
especially the pin-code during the transmission, which are stored in a very
secure location with highly restricted access. In a situation whereby you
confirm that unauthorized person(s) has access into your financial details
while the fault or criminal intent does not emanate from you, you have the
right to institute a legal action against such erring organization for a breach
of confidentiality.
Even if your spouse is allowed to access your bank statement account

without authorisation is a breach of confidentiality, and the affected person
can institute a legal action or warning to the bank management for the
breach, or may close down his/her account for lack of security necessitated
by the confidentiality breach. If one has the right to sue for a breach of
confidentiality that involves his/her own spouse let alone a stranger or a
distanced person, it is evident that information security is very important. It
will be baseless, if the management of an organization argues that it will not
be liable if an offence of breach of confidentiality is committed by any of its
staff without its involvement against any customer especially if it involves
loss of money.
43
Recently, due to importance of information, the approach of due care and

due diligence has been adapted in information security. Due care involves
measures and actions that are taken by a company not only to protect its
corporate image but also show liability for all activities that take place
within it, and establish regulations that will help to protect the company, its
resources and employees. Due diligence means “continual activities that
make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and
operational” (Harris, 2003). Therefore, if an organization fails in its
responsibilities to check the activities of its staff, it will definitely be liable
for any misdeed perpetrated by any of its staff such as disclosure of a
customer’s information to an unauthorized person, leading to a breach of
confidentiality;
b) Integrity: Integrity can be described as a way of protecting information by

restricting access to modification of data without authorization. Here, no
amendment can be made on the data without authorization. In information
security, efforts should be made to restrict activities of users of the systems
from any data modification without being authorized. There are several
ways through which the integrity of an information system can be violated.
One of such ways is accidental or deliberate exposing of the system to
malicious attacks.
Undoubtedly, this kind of violation occurs in many organizations where

employees exhibit nonchallant attitude or criminal intent to compromise the
integrity of the system. For instance, in some organizations with large
network of information systems, family members, siblings or friends and
even neighbours visit some employees, and many of these visitors may be
allowed to use the organization’s computers especially where they are
connected to the internet. These use all sorts of storage facilities to down-
load information from the internet. This attitude is likely to violate the
integrity of the information system because apart from exposing the system
to malware or virus attack, it will also allow strangers or visitors to have
access to information, which ordinarily they are not supposed to;
c) Availability: Information system cannot be complete if there is no

availability of information. It is the availability of information that makes
information system what it is. Therefore, it is imperative to have a network
of actions functioning well. These actions include the computer system that
is tasked with the storing and processing of the information while the
security controls do the protection of the system, and the communication
channels enable the users to access that information.
If we consider this network of functions, we may agree that it is difficult to

have ‘high availability systems’ in countries like Nigeria where there is
frequent power outage that can easily disrupt the operation of the system.
High availability systems are those systems that are always available, and
44
demand necessary mechanisms to be brought to bear in order to prevent

disruptions that may result from hardware failures, power outages, physical
destruction of the information systems, to mention a few;
d) Authenticity: Information security demands that we can just collect

information whether electronic or print for the sake of it, but we should
endeavour to clarify the authenticity or genuineness of such information. It
is by so doing we can have reliable and quality information;
e) Risk Management: Everything about life is a risk. There is risk, even in the
relationship between two or more people. How do we describe risk
management? According to CISA Review Manual (2006), risk management
can be described as:
…..the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information

resources used by an organization in achieving business objectives, and
deciding what countermeasures, if any, to take in reducing risk to an
acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the
organization.
Risk is the everyday business of each man. Sometimes, we decide out of the
blues to see a loved one in his/her place work, even after calling him/her of
our coming, the subconscious still has a doubt about meeting him/her at the
office because every second is clouded with eventuality. It is possible for
the receptionist to inform us that he/she had an emergency from the
headquarters and he/she tried to get you on phone to inform you about the
new development (urgent call to report at the headquarters) but he/she could
not reach on phone.
Considering the above scenario, you may agree with me that risk is second
nature to man. The decision of a man and a lady to get married is a risk: the
marriage may succeed or fail. It is against this background that many people
adopt various approaches or measures to manage risk in their relationships.
In information security, risk management is very essential because it
determines the preparedness of an organization against any threat as it
relates its information system.
Furthermore, in as much that information from its collection, modification

to erasure involves risk, it is pertinent to develop countermeasures or
controls to manage the risks but it is more important to “strike a balance
between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasures, and the
value of the informational asset being protected” (Error! Hyperlink
reference not valid.), meaning that it is not appropriate to spend too much
money or employing highly productive and effective in securing an
information asset that has little importance to the overall interest of an
organisation; and
45
f) Information Classification: There are different types of information in

information system, and there is the need to classify these according to their
level of importance and confidentiality. By doing so, we will be able
identify the amount of protection to be accorded to each of these available
information. For the purpose of engendering culture of information security,
it is imperative for an organization to adopt a classification policy, so that it
will be able to determine the required security controls of every information
in accordance with its classification.
For instance, the head of an organization is having an extra-marital affair

with a former female staff who he communicates on regular basis. May be
because he is not internet-literate and always asks his male secretary to help
him send mails to his ‘lady-friend’ while mandating the secretary to classify
the mails as top secret, giving more importance to such mails than the very
important information of the organization. This reflects a clear case of
misuse of office and misclassification because it abnormal to place private
issues above those that concern the organization and the work environment.
Within an organizational setting, we can classify information based on the

value of it to the organization. In private organizations, classification
models are usually labelled as: public, sensitive, private, confidential. But
in big security outfits and government organizations the classification labels
used include: unclassified, sensitive, but unclassified, restricted,
confidential, secret, top secret. These classification labels are listed
according to the security controls needed in protecting them, and the
classification exercise should be continually reviewed.
Explain approaches to information security.
3.2 Meaning of Physical Security
Physical security involves creating designs that deter malicious entry into a facility.
Here, the facility can be described within various contexts. It may mean office or
private apartment, information systems, safe, among others. Physical Security can also
be described as:
...the measures used to provide physical protection of resources against deliberate

and accidental threats ( .tsl.state.tx.us/ld/pubs/compsecurity/glossary.html)
......protecting the system unit, system devices, and backup media from accidental or
deliberate damage (http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/iseries/v5r4/topic/rza
mv/rzamvbasicterm.html).
46
......the protection of personnel, hardware, programs, networks, and data from

physical circumstances and events that could cause serious losses or damage to an
enterprise, agency, or institution. This includes protection from fire, natural disasters,
burglary, theft, vandalism, and terrorism ( ://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/
sDefinition/0,,sid14_gci1150976,00.html).
Due to revolution in modern technology, many innovations have been made in

fortifying the security of facility. For instance, there are some computers that will
demand for your biometric information before you are granted access into it. When we
are talking about biometrics, we are not actually talking about username and/or
password. The security technology of biometric usually involves hi-tech security
measures especially where the computer will request to take the finger-print and
eye(s) sample of the intending user to know his/her permission status. If the specimen
is not found to be among the list of authorised users, you will not be able to gain
access. Some of these systems are made in a way that if you make any attempt to
forcefully gain (illegal) access, the machines will alert the relevant security guards of
the intrusion attempt, and before you know what is happening, the security guards are
there to effect your arrest.
I know many of us may be wondering why Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) are
not usually attacked to get the money loaded in them. The truth is that most times,
especially in developed countries, attempting to steal money in the ATMs is usually
an effort in futility because, even, one is able to gain entry into the machine, the
money will be destroyed. The machine may destroy the money by making some
stamps on it, so that such money can be identified as stolen money from the ATMs.
And in this case, nobody will accept the money and the law enforcement agents will
also be alerted to arrest the culprit.
Meanwhile, I don't think we have orientation to that extent in Nigeria, which will
make the people to identify money stolen from ATMs. Please, be cautious not to
mistake breaking into ATMs to steal money loaded in it or engage in illegal ATM
transactions like the theft of someone's ATM card. Here, we are discussing a situation
where someone destroys the automated teller machines to steal the money loaded in it.
Notwithstanding, in Nigeria, the security measure to deter criminals from looting the
money ATMs may be by automating the machines, if they suspect such illegal entry,
to destroy the money in it, so that they can become unspendable for the looters.
How do you describe physical security?
3.2.1 Approaches to Physical Security
Summarily, physical security can be explained from three different approaches, all of
which are interdependent in order to provide adequate physical security for any
facility. These approaches include the following:
47
(a) The first approach is concerned with mounting of obstacles or barriers that can
prevent potential attackers, intruders or malicious personalities from gaining
easy access into facility. The threats being accidents, environmental disaster or
human attackers will be impeded by putting in place some measures like
multiple locks, fencing, walls, and fireproof safes, to mention a few;
(b) The second perspective to physical security is the installation of surveillance

and notification, which will help us to optimise the security of the facility by
monitoring and detecting the activities of (potential) attackers to the facility.
This involves the use of such security methods like installation of lighting, heat
sensors, smoke detectors, intrusion detectors, alarms, and cameras; and
(c) The third approach involves putting in place measures that can help in effecting
the arrest of attackers or hazards. For instance, there should be security guards
that will act promptly and effectively when alert of attack is raised to arrest the
attackers. Also, in fighting fire incidents, it is expected for us to have fire-
fighting equipment or call professional fire-fighters to come to the rescue to
quench the fire. There is the need too, to have in place emergency workers and
disaster managers for hazard and disaster mitigation. These and other measures
will help us recover quickly from accidents, fires, or natural disasters.
Explain the three basic approaches to physical security.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Considering the various forms already discussed within the last two units, you will
agree with me that the security profession is very versatile. This is because each of
these forms demands expertise in the fields. And that is the reason why we have
different departments, divisions or areas in security sector. In this case, it is expected
to place security employees into various available departments according their
expertise in the relevant fields. It is only when this is done that there can be optimal
performance among the security professionals. In the next unit, we shall complete our
task in explaining various forms of security.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we continued our discussion on various forms of security. The first form
of security we discussed was information security. Consequently, we explained the
meaning of information security, as its various approaches were also explained.
Thereafter, we highlighted the second form of security in this unit, as we described
what physical security is all about. Our final area of discourse, however, was plotting
an inquiry into the list of approaches to physical security. At this point, it is my belief
that you have found this unit intellectually stimulating.
48
Write a short note on:

a) The Meaning of information security and any three of its approaches; and
b) The meaning of physical security.
CISA Review Manual (2006). Information Systems Audit and Control Association
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_security. Retrieved on 1 August, 2009.
://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/ sDefinition/0,,sid14_gci1150976,00.html. Retrieved

on 2 August, 2009.
http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/iseries/v5r4/topic/rzamv/rzamvbasicterm.ht
m. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://www.ffiec.gov/ffiecinfobase/booklets/information_security/information_security.p
df. Retrieve on 2 August 2009.
.tsl.state.tx.us/ld/pubs/compsecurity/glossary.html). Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
49
UNIT 4
FORMS OF SECURITY III
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Infrastructure Security
3.2 Seaport Security
3.3 Airport Security
3.3.1 Elements of Airport Security
3.4 Food security
3.5 Health Security
3.6 Economic Security
3.7 Environment Security
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the two previous units, we have discussed some of the basic forms of security
including computer security, information security and physical security. To complete
our task, we shall be explaining some other forms of security in this unit, which will
include infrastructure security, seaport security, airport security, food security, and a
host of other forms of security. Before we go into the nitty-gritty of these, let us
quickly look at the objectives of this study.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Describe the meaning of infrastructure security;

Discuss what seaport security is all about;
Elucidate on the meaning of airport security;
Explain food security;
Define health security;
Clarify the meaning of economic security;
Examine what environmental security denotes.
50
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Infrastructure Security
Infrastructure security can be described as that aspect of security designed purposely

to provide protection for specific infrastructure particularly those infrastructure
considered critical. The examples of critical infrastructure may include airports, sea
ports, railway, network communications, hospitals, the Central Bank, dams, and oil
refineries among others. Highways and bridges are also an aspect of critical
infrastructure ( ://www.tsa.gov/travelers/highway/index.htm). Due to the importance
of these infrastructures on the lives and overall wellbeing of the people, it is
paramount to provide adequate security for them and immune them against any threat
or attack.
Take for instance, if the dams or water systems that supply water to all households in
a community are poisoned, you can imagine how many lives will be lost due to that
attack. So, every government is expected to make efforts to equip infrastructure
considered critical with enough security in order to avoid disaster. Another example is
where the airport is not well secured and there is no doubt that there is tendency for it
to be easily attacked by terrorists or saboteurs. If an airport or seaport is considered
porous, it will be easy for enemies to bring into the country harmful and destructive
materials that can undermine the security of that country.
Nonetheless, this shows how important it is to provide adequate security for

infrastructure. It is a matter of fact that any damage intentionally or accidentally done
to critical infrastructure will have far-reaching effect on the economy and overall
security of a country. For instance, the continued destruction of gas pipes often
disrupts level of power supply in the country with serious consequences on the power
generation capacity of the Power Holden Company of Nigeria (PHCN). Threats
which can damage infrastructure basically include the following (which shall be
discussed extensively later in this course):
 Sabotage;
 Terrorism;
 Natural disaster; and
 Information warfare
What is infrastructure security?
51
3.2 Seaport Security
Ports are simply passages that lead into any country. Apart from seaports, people also
use airports for the shipment of their cargos from one destination to the other.
Meanwhile, the quantity of loads will determine which of these two ports should be
used for the shipment. The seaports are where major shipping activities take place.
And they are also vulnerable to security threats. for instance, through seaports, some
(unsuspected) criminals can bring in hazardous goods like expired drugs, contraband
products, illegal arms and ammunitions, among others. At this point, how do you
describe seaport security? Seaport security can simply be described as:
...the defense, law and treaty enforcement, and counterterrorism activities that fall
within the port and maritime domain. It includes the protection of the seaports
themselves, the protection and inspection of the cargo moving through the ports, and
maritime security ( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_security).
There is no doubt that seaport security is very strategic to the political sovereignty and
security of any country, and that is why governments of various countries take the
issue of fortifying their ports as a very important one. The reason is that any
government that fail to secure its seaports can be said to be on the verge of losing its
sovereign power because not only the government but also the public at large that will
be vulnerable to threats especially if enemies bring harmful and destructive materials
into the country.
For instance, if there is no provision of sufficient security at the seaports, there may a
situation of proliferation of weapons and small arms in that country, and terrorists can
easily take over the ports. Destructive weapons like bombs, guns, or chemical
weapons among others can be hidden and later used against the country. This view is
shared by Greenberg et al., contending that:
...whenever and wherever a container is handled during movement represents a

potential vulnerability for the security and integrity of the cargo (Greenberg et al.,
2006 cited on ://en.wikipedia.Org/wiki/port_security).
There is no doubt that poor security handling of cargo can expose the country to
security risk. In a country where there are sharp ethno-religious divisions like Nigeria,
circulation of weapons can engineer insurgency and growing criminality as being
experienced in the country in recent times. The level of sophistication in armed
robbery operation compared with the weapons that bandits use in recent times, calls
for total overhauling of our security sector and policy. It is a fact that most of these
dangerous weapons are not manufactured locally but come into the country through
the seaports and borders. The attendant consequences that accompany arms
proliferation in Nigeria underscore the strategic relevance of effective port security.
52
Describe seaport security.
3.3 Airport Security
An airport is a place that involves an aspect of transportation. People travel either by

road, sea or rail or air. All these means of transportation deserve to be provided with
sufficient security. It is no exaggeration that the airport has continued to receive
greater attention due to very strategic reasons. One of the reasons is that apart from
being the most popular means of transportation, it is the fastest. It is a means of
moving people from one destination to another, as well as for transporting goods. The
journey that may take a ship three weeks or more can be covered by a plane in hours.
Airport accommodates a large number of people including the travellers, the crew and
management of various airliners present at the airport(s) as well those who escort
travellers to departure and those waiting to receive travellers on arrival. It is a network
of people having different motives and it is important to put in place adequate security
to protect lives and property at the airport.
The airport is also sensitive that it has become one of the veritable avenues being
exploited by terrorists to carry out their attacks. The ugly incidents of terrorist attacks
in many airports have necessitated the need by various countries to fortify security in
their airports with the aim of making their airports less vulnerable to enemy's attack.
Previously, less attention was paid to screening passengers for possession of arms and
weapons which were usually hidden in their hand bags Some of the incidents may
include arbitrary killing of innocent civilians by terrorists and disgruntled elements.
A good example of terrorist attacks is that of a Cubana Flight 455 from Barbados to
Jamaica hijacked by terrorists on October 6, 1976 in which seventy-three people were
murdered. On 30th May, 1972, a gang of three terrorists who were linked to the
Japanese Red Army, shot and sporadically threw grenades at people at Lod Airport
(now Ben Gurion International Airport) in Tel Aviv, Israel. Before they were
overpowered, they had already killed twenty-four people and no less than seventy-
eight people sustained various degrees of injury.
Also, in December 1985, the Rome and Vienna airports became targets of terrorist
attacks. The terrorists took advantage of security lapses in these airports to carry out
their nefarious acts. They shot and threw grenades at people and this led to the killing
of no less than 20 people. The worst of all was the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack
where some commercial planes were hijacked by terrorists linked to the Al-Qaeda
network and deliberately crashed into the World Trade Centre and Pentagon while one
meant to be crashed on the White House but was forced down by the passengers on
board, missing the target.
53
3.31 Elements of Airport Security
Due to the large number of people being accommodated on a daily basis at the airports
worldwide, various governments have begun to install different security systems. The
infrastructure in most airports, especially in the US and UK since the 9/11 incident are
being fortified with all sorts of security gadgets and procedures, as dictated by kinds
of security challenges being experienced in various airports. For example, before now,
the presence of touts and area boys was very evident in major airports in Nigeria.
During that time, stealing of travellers' belongings and baggage was very rampant.
The new security measures put in place since the civilian administration of Obasanjo
(1999-2007) has drastically reduced the presence of touts in our airports. The
incidence of missing baggage is reducing fast by the day. Let us quickly discuss some
of the elements of effective airport security.
(a) Airport security personnel: The enforcement authority in the airports very
according to the class of each airport. There are first class airports that can
serve as international airport to be used as entry and exit point for travellers
coming into or leaving the country. Conventionally, an international airport
must definitely fulfil international aviation safety standards and should be
equipped with facilities that can accommodate big aircrafts. The reason is
that not all aircrafts can be accommodated by every airport. That is why
some airports are used for local travels, many of which can only
accommodate relatively small aircrafts.
Apart from the class of airports, the amount of security threats being
experienced by an airport also determines the level of security to be provided
in the place. By and large, most incidents of terrorist attack are usually
effected through international airports, and this makes it pertinent to assign
adequate security personnel there. Unlike countries like the United States
where state and local governments have the highest control in the provision
of security personnel to the airports, in Nigeria, airport law enforcement
whether in local or international airports is largely controlled by Federal law
enforcement agencies. The type of security personnel arrangement, you are
likely to find at any international airport depends largely on the security
policy of that country. For instance in Nigeria, there is absence of state police
and no state government can provide security for any local airport without
seeking assistance from the Federal government. Generally, the security
agencies that can be found in airports may include:
 Policemen and officers specially attached to the airports;
 A permanent police station equipped with adequate equipment and

competent personnel;
 Members of the Public Intelligence Community like State Security

Service (as in Nigeria) who will be stationed at strategic locations
54
within and outside the airports to gather security-related information

that can be used to prevent or reduce crime or terrorist threat at the
airports;
 Some members of (other) paramilitary agencies like Immigration

Service and Customs Service to identify illegal immigrants,
importers/exporters of harmful and banned products, and other
culprits which should be arrested, investigated and if found wanting,
they should be subjected to immediate prosecution;
 Emergency team that can respond timely and effectively to events of

disaster like plane crash or fire outbreak at the airports;
 Anti-bomb experts to detect concealed bomb items or detonate any

explosive found at or around the airports;
 Trained police dogs should also be used for the detection of explosives,
hard-drugs and dangerous objects;
 Location of military barracks or situating a unit consisting of the

military forces within the airports to provide complementary security
services at the airports in protecting the nation’s airports against any
internal or external aggression;
 The use of Private Guards: Private security personnel can play

complementary roles in providing security to the airport(s). For
instance in Spain, private security officials are allowed by the
government to provide security services at the airport. The airliners
can also be encouraged to contract private security guards, the practice
which exists in some countries. Some of these guards if not able to
conduct the main screening at the screening points, can still use the
method of “screening the passengers by observation techniques”
(SPOT) that is already being used in several airports in the United
States ( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport_security); and
(b) Installation of security equipment: In recent times especially resulting from the
experience of the September 11 terrorist attack in the US, most countries
have fortified their airports with sophisticated security equipment. With
metal detector, security officials can easily identify someone with arms or
weapons like knives and other sharp objects that can be used to harm
passengers and crew on any aircraft. In most international airport, it is illegal
for restaurant operators within specific locations in the airports to use plates
that may be converted into weapons by terrorists. In those restaurants, the
operator use plastic to serve their customers. Technological advancement has
brought about invention of very effective explosive machines or gadgets like
X-ray machines, explosive trace detection (ETD), and puffer machines.
55
These machines are used to conduct screening for baggage and other
travelling loads with the aim of detecting if there are explosive substances
particularly volatile compounds that can make explosives using gas
chromatography. According to Edward J. Staples (Ultrahigh-speed) gas
chromatography (GC) can be described as:
....a powerful method for analyzing odours, fragrances, and chemical

vapours produced by explosives, chemical and biological weapons,
contraband, and hazardous industrial materials. A new chemical-profiling
system directly measures odour concentration and intensity with an
integrated GC sensor. Using a solid-state surface- acoustic-wave (SAW)
sensor with electronically variable sensitivity, it identifies the chemical
species in the vapours inside cargo containers and determines their
concentrations in 10 s with picogram sensitivity ( ://www.aip.org/tip
/INPHFA/vol-10/iss-3/p22.html).
The invention of backscatter X-ray scanners makes it possible to detect any

hidden weapons on a any passenger. Here, passengers are asked to move
close to a flat panel and in the process a high resolution image is produced
through which someone with weapon(s) can be identified and arrested
immediately for further interrogation.
What is Airport security?
3.4 Food security
The situation brought about by the introduction of exclusively crude oil economy in
Nigeria in the 1970s has put the agricultural sector of the nation’s economy into
comatose. Nigeria which used to be one of the major food baskets and exporter of
agricultural products in the world has become a perpetual importer of food items,
meaning that, adequately feeding the masses is becoming a difficult task. There is no
doubt that the agricultural sector has however become moribund. More than 70% of
urban dwellers go about on empty stomachs. Hunger has continued to make people
become more vulnerable by the day. This situation has been one of the major
contributing factors to the increasing crime rate in the country especially the urban
centres. In order to make food available abundantly to the people, government needs
to adopt strategic and policy actions that can engender food security in the country.
Then, what is food security? Food security can be described as:
...the reliable availability of a sufficient quantity and quality of nutritious food for a
population ( .personal.umich.edu/~alandear/glossary/f.html).
.. the availability of food - in other words whether it is physically available and if so at

what price. The term is sometimes confused with that of food safety which refers to the
56
extent to which food is safe to eat (http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/glossary/index _en

.htmm).
...having access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life ( .pbs.org/
wgbh/rxforsurvival/glossary.html.
Bearing in mind the foregoing definitions of food security, you may agree with me
that availability of food is very germane to the maintenance of law and order in any
society. It is therefore important for every society or country to initiate policies, which
can create opportunities to providing the people with food in qualitative and
quantitative terms. Although, food security underscores the strategic importance that
self sustenance in food production has on the security of any nation. The
interdependence that dominates relations among nations also includes food. This is
because there are particular types of agricultural items that cannot be grown in one
country but which can be found in another country. For the fact that food is not luxury
but necessity, a secure society will always undertake activities that will enhance their
capacity to produce food locally, and endeavour as much as it can, to avoid importing
the food items it can produce locally.
How do you explain the meaning of food security?
3.5 Health Security
This involves safety against pandemics and diseases. It is part of government

responsibilities to provide health security for its citizens, knowing the impact that
good health condition(s) can have on the development of any country. That is why in
advanced countries, government provides platform to promote healthy living among
the people. Health security is very crucial to national development, and that is the
reason why countries like the United States have created opportunity for their people
to access national health insurance scheme, where everybody will make contribution
(premium) to the scheme. When people fall sick, there is insurance cover that will take
care of their hospital bills according to their policy type(s).
In addition, most governments usually have some strategic interventions to respond to

health crisis and pandemics. One of such interventionist techniques is awareness
programme educating people about the danger of the outbreak of some diseases
particularly those that are infectious like HIV/AIDS, SARS, and tuberculosis, to
mention a few. Enlightenment also helps to guide people against (reckless) lifestyles
and ignorance, which can aid spread of disease(s) especially those with high
contagion.
Also, in most states sanitation officers are appointed by government to ensure strict
compliance of the people to environmental and sanitation laws. The reason is not only
to ensure good sanitation behaviour but also to guarantee the health security of the
57
state. Another way of providing health security is by putting in place free health
services for the people. Though, this kind of programme is very expensive, some
governments still take up the responsibility of providing both qualitative and
quantitative health services to the people at low cost. The purpose of doing this is to
provide health security for the people.
Define health security.
3.6 Economic Security
This can be described as a way of putting in place measures and strategies that will
ensure that every individual in the state is not only entitled to employment but also has
the right to a living wage. In advanced countries, government often puts in place
social security for citizens who are out of job whereby stipends are provided for the
citizens to keep body and soul together. But, it is quite unfortunate that in most
developing countries, unemployed people are left to their own fate, such that nothing
is provided by government to ameliorate the plights of unemployed citizens. The
people who have jobs don’t have job security as several employees are cheated and
underpaid by their employers.
This situation has therefore been one of the major factors responsible for the
increasing criminality and criminal activities among the people especially the youths.
It is important to know that economic exploitation, which is an aspect of economic
insecurity cuts across all spheres of our national life. It is one of the factors
responsible for poor quality of personnel in Nigeria Police making it inept as a
security institution in discharging its primary functions (see Alemika, 1997).
How do you define economic security?
3.7 Environment Security
The concept of environment has begun to dominate international discourse. The issue
of environmental pollution has continued to attract the attention of the individuals,
Non-Governmental organizations (NGOs), nations as well as international
organizations. It is imperative, that we consider the adverse effects of environmental
hazards on the people, so that government and the people can ensure the security of
their environment. Conceptually, environmental security can be described as:
....ability of a nation or a society to withstand environmental asset scarcity,

environmental risks or adverse changes, or environment-related tensions or conflicts
( ://www.pacinst.org/reports/environment_and_security/env_security_and_climate_ch
ange.pdf).
58
.....the total surrounding or external conditions within which an organism or a

community exists (Adeboyejo, 1994: 74).
Within the world body (the United Nations), efforts are being made through the
(relevant) agency – the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), to monitor
environmental issues, and make reports and plans for such issues and to act and
promote legal instruments on environment. If we want to talk about environmental
security, our focus should be on the atmosphere, lithosphere hydrosphere and
biosphere. People now talk about issues like damage in the ozone layer, climate
change, water pollution and environmental degradation (to mention a few).
Environment has great impact on the general well-being of the people, and that is the
reason why increasing interest of state and non-state actors on environmental
protection and security has become evident. The growing interest since 1980s on
environmental security has also attracted a number of international agreements aimed
at protecting the environment.
What is environmental security?
4.0 CONCLUSION
So far, in the last three units including this one, we have explored several forms of
security. One revelation about these forms of security is that security as a whole
usually involves a network of activities and actions geared toward hazard mitigation,
crime prevention and detection, threat mitigation and elimination, risk reduction and
management among other objectives. It is therefore, imperative on security
practitioners to build synergy through the different functions they perform by working
collaboratively on the development of effective security system and management.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we drew our attention to other forms of security not previously discussed.
And we began with the meaning of infrastructure security, and later went ahead to
describe seaport security, and subsequently we explained airport security and its
elements. Also, we explained food security, health security, economic security and
last but not the least was environmental security.
Describe on any five of the following forms of security:
Infrastructure Security
Seaport Security
Airport Security
Food security
59
Health Security
Economic Security
Environment Security
Adeboyejo, Thompson A. (1994) “Man’s Physical Environment System”, in S.K.

Balogun (ed.) Basic Concepts in Society, Government and Economy, Ibadan: Sam
Bookman Ltd.
Alemika, E. E. O. (1997) “Police, Policing and Crime Control in Nigeria” Nigerian

Journal of Policy and Strategy 12 (1 & 2): 71 - 98.
Greenberg, M. D., Chalk, P., Willis, H. H., Khilko, I., Ortiz, D. S. (2006). Maritime
Terrorism: Risk and Liability. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/glossary/index_en.htmm. Retrieved on 30 August 2009.
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_security. Retrieved on 25 August 2009
://www.aip.org/tip/INPHFA/vol-10/iss-3/p22.html. Retrieved on 29 August, 2009.
://www.tsa.gov/travelers/highway/index.htm. Retrieved on 28 August
://www.pacinst.org/reports/environment_and_security/env_security_and_climate_cha
nge.pdf. Retrieved on 29 August, 2009.
.pbs.org/wgbh/rxforsurvival/glossary.html. Retrieved on 29 August, 2009.
.personal.umich.edu/~alandear/glossary/f.html. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
60
UNIT 5
SIMULATION IN SECURITY PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Definition of Simulation
3.2 Types of Simulation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Simulation can be applied in different ways, and these may include modelling of
natural systems aimed at having an idea of possible vulnerability of the system to
specific threats or attacks. It can also be applied to insight on the performance of
(security) technology for optimization and effectiveness, safety engineering and
training. Simply, simulation assists us to identify potential shortcomings or failures in
operation that we may later encounter in the discharge of our duties as security experts
or professional.
It is important to note that we must be very careful in our choice of information source
to be selected for the simulation process. Selection of relevant information is very
strategic in arriving at decision on the crucial characteristics and behaviours to select
for the process. It is essential to use simplifying approximations and assumptions in
simulation activities. In this unit, the reader/student shall be exposed to the meaning
and various types of simulation, and show how they can be applied as well as their
relevance to security planning and management.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Describe the concept of simulation;
Identify types of simulation; and
Explain the identified types of simulation.
61
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Meaning of Simulation
Simulation is not a new concept and practice in security. In traditional African society,
simulation was often applied by the guards and warriors. For instance, in the
traditional Ila-Orangun in present Osun state, Nigeria, after a series of simulation
exercise by the community guards, they discovered that offensive attacks may come
from enemies without prior notice especially in the middle of the night. Therefore,
they decided to dig a trench to surround the entire community, as a booby trap against
the enemy(ies) who may wish to launch an offensive attack, and avoid being caught
unaware. Other examples may include the old Oyo Empire wall, Kano wall etc. At
this juncture, let us draw our attention to the task of this segment of the unit, which is
to expose ourselves to some of the existing definitions of the term simulation.
Simulation can be defined as
the imitation of some real thing, state of affairs, or process. The act of stimulating
something generally entails representing certain key characteristics or behaviours of
a selected physical or abstract system" ( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/simulation).
...the act of imitating the behavior of some situation or some process by means of
something suitably analogous (especially for the purpose of study) (Error! Hyperlink
....something which simulates a system or environment in order to predict actual

behaviour ( ://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/simulation).
....the process of creating a model (i.e., an abstract representation or facsimile) of an

existing or proposed system (e.g., a project, a business, a mine, a watershed, a forest,
the organs in your body) in order to identify and understand those factors which
control the system and/or to predict (forecast) the future behavior of the system.
Almost any system which can be quantitatively described using equations and/or rules
can be simulated. The underlying purpose of simulation is to shed light on the
underlying mechanisms that control the behavior of a system. More practically,
simulation can be used to predict (forecast) the future behavior of a system, and
determine what you can do to influence that future behavior. That is, simulation can
be used to predict the way in which the system will evolve and respond to its
surroundings, so that you can identify any necessary changes that will help make the
system perform the way that you want it to ( ://www.goldsim.com/ Content.asp?
PageID=91)
a broad collection of methods used to study and analyze the behavior and
performance of actual or theoretical systems. Simulation studies are performed, not
on the real-world system, but on a (usually computer-based) model of the system
created for the purpose of studying certain system dynamics and characteristics. The
purpose of any model is to enable its users to draw conclusions about the real system
62
by studying and analyzing the model. The major reasons for developing a model, as
opposed to analyzing the real system, include economics, unavailability of a “real”
system, and the goal of achieving a deeper understanding of the relationships between
the elements of the system ( ://www.answers.com/topic/simulation).
If we subject the foregoing definitions to operational dissection, you may agree with
me that simulation can be used differently by various professions or for different
purposes. But, at the beginning of the 20th century, introduction of computer to the
world population and the emerging appreciation of systems theory and cybernetic
studies unified to a large extent the processes of simulation in various fields. For
instance, relevant officials in an Examination body like the West African Examination
Council (WAEC) can conduct simulation to test the reliability of various measures put
in place by the examination body to curb or reduce examination practices. Emergency
workers can also engage in simulation to examine the effectiveness or efficiency of
their emergency systems and level of preparedness to responding to emergency
situations.
In addition, the police can also conduct simulation exercise to put their preparedness
to test on how timely and effectively they can respond to any security threats. They act
the simulating scripts as if the situation is real. Frankly, it is no exaggeration that
Nigeria police lacks the culture of security simulation. Otherwise, the way the men
and officers of the police are being killed on a regular basis from attacks on police
stations, armed robbers' bullets or any other threats/hazards would have been very
minimal. It is no surprise that police personnel always fail to respond very
appropriately and effectively to emergencies. This shows that their level of
preparedness is very far below the average. This is one of factors responsible for the
call being made by concerned citizens, for the introduction of joint patrol that would
be composed of members of police and the armed forces especially the Army.
Simulation can be facilitated with computer in health-care, military, or education

simulation or any other sector. A lot of simulation software have been invented,
having the user to decide on which one will fit into the purpose for which the
simulation is to be carried out.
What is simulation?
3.2 Types of Simulation
The importance of simulation in strategic security planning and management cannot

be over-emphasised, especially as it concerns identifying any weakness in our systems
and operation through which we can develop alternative ideas and policies to address
such weakness and vulnerability to mitigate the risk of system or/and operational
failure. As we have rightly pointed out earlier, simulation can be used for numerous
purposes depending on the problem we want to unravel and apply solution to.
63
The complexity of the problem we are working on may require a simulation package
or exercise that will demand from us, a very sound knowledge on how to apply the
tool(s). In this case, the services of experts may be required to guide the simulation
process if the application is a (very) technical one. Let us go back to the basis of this
segment of the unit, which involves explaining various types of simulation. Basically,
types of simulation may include the following:
(a) Education and Training Simulation: The security profession requires sufficient
mental alertness and physical strength, and that is why it is not everybody that
can hold a security job. The nature of the security profession underscores the
need by professionals to engage themselves in periodic training. For instance, it
is very sad to hear such situations where police pursue armed robbers and fail
to pin down the bandits despite the numerical strength and strategic advantage
the police ought to have over them. Sometimes, the bandits appear to be more
equipped than the police as a result of operational failure on the part of the
police. Situations like these undermine the relevance of the public security
personnel's capacity to maintain law and order as well as check any acts of
criminality (Onyeozili, 2005: 40).
Also, the problem of police team being overpowered by the sophistication of

the weapons that robbers carry can be easily addressed if the men and officers
of the police undergo simulation exercise from time to time. Even members of
patrol team should simulate before going out to discharge their duties, so that
they can weigh their vulnerability against their capacity for optimal
performance. If they can identify areas of vulnerability in their operations, they
can then map out strategies to build their capacity towards preventing the
threats from happening or mitigating the effects, that such threats can have on
them or their operation when and where they occur.
For instance, a security patrol team that receives a signal that a bank robbery is
going on in a place will be expected to act immediately to foil the robbery. But,
most times, police patrol (rescue) teams are in the habit of announcing their
(the police) coming to the robbers through the blowing of sirens.
Unfortunately, before they reach the location of the robbery, the robbers would
have laid ambush for them, a situation which often forces the lucky policemen
to retreat, as they always find it difficult to recover promptly due to lack
preparedness in hazard mitigation and strategic planning.
Where security men simulate, their preparedness level against any attack will
be very high because this would have projected into the future and identified
potential threats or challenges that may be encountered in the course of
discharging duties as a security professional. And in doing this, you will
prepare yourself before hand, and in the event that such hazard or attack occurs
the losses that may be recorded will be minimal. I feel it is more appropriate for
64
the police not to alert the robbers of their coming through blowing of siren.
This is because the daring nature of most armed robbers in the country has
made blowing of siren by law enforcement agents obsolete. They are die-hard
and always willing to challenge the law enforcement agents in gun battle.
Strategically, for the fact that the rescue team do not know the identities of the
bandits, it is better that they send an intelligence team to do some collation of
vital information about the happening in the affected area for situation analysis.
After conducting situation analysis, we need to conduct risk analysis and

assessment to know if it is most appropriate to move straight into where
robbery is taking place or it is most reasonable to block all roads that lead to
the affected location and wait for the robbers to come out. The reason for this
process is to avoid fatality or loss of lives especially civilians that may be hit
by strong bullets in the course of engaging the bandits.
After conducting a risk assessment, it may be agreed that a team should be sent
to the scene, all members of whom should be in plain-cloths, so that they
cannot be easily identified by the robbers. But, if it is considered that the
robbers will do more harm by being allowed to complete their operation before
attacking them, a team of experienced officers and men may be sent in.
Caution should be exercised here as there is the need to equip the policemen
and officers with bullet-proof vests because people are not applying for
security profession with the ultimate desire to suffer avoidable death. The use
of tear-gas may be required to make the robbers lose their balance and
destabilise them. I feel, here is the most convenient place to stop our discussion
on ways to foil or liquidate a robbery incident. As you may know, we cannot
exhaust all aspects of security discourse in a forum. Security requires continued
research and intellectual probing.
By and large, education simulation helps us to know the most appropriate

training (academic or fitness) we need to undertake to optimise our
performance in the discharge of our duties as security experts and
professionals. There is no doubt, security professionalism is very tasking
considering the hazards and work overload that characterise it. Security
personnel work long hours that sometimes they hardly have time to attend to
personal issues. It is pertinent for policy makers to see education simulation as
important element of security sector reform (SSR).
There are three types of education and training simulation. The first one is live
simulation. In live simulation, it is expected that trainees use stimulated or
mannequin equipment in the real world. As you may be aware, it is not all
security trainings that can be undertaken with the real equipment. For instance,
if a training is going to be conducted in knowing how effectively, each of your
security officers can act in the face of hazard or in shoot-outs with criminals
(terrorists, militants, armed robbers etc), one cannot expect that those trainees
65
should be equipped with live ammunitions because of the risk involved in such
action.
It might not be wise to allow the use of real weapons for training due to the
possibility of recording avoidable deaths among the trainees. It is, therefore,
advisable to use live simulation through which we can still know the level of
competence of each trainee without putting them to unnecessary risk of killing
themselves. In the process, the trainees will identify their individual and
collective areas of vulnerability and subsequently develop ways through which
they can improve on their capacity for optimal performance.
It is unfortunate that in Nigeria, security personnel, most times, are posted to

specific positions without considering their level of competence for the job or
assignment. For instance, officers of the armed forces lobby to be included in
peacekeeping contingent without training on simulation, which can help in
making them aware of the inherent risks involved in undertaking peacekeeping
mission in troubled zone(s), and be well-prepared psychologically, physically,
emotionally and strategically. Many soldiers lose their lives after being seduced
with ladies by the enemies. Live simulation is also known as “high fidelity”.
This demonstrates the samples of the (possible) real performance of the
trainees compared to the “low fidelity” simulation that is based on the use of
pencil and paper that can only show “signs of performance” (Error! Hyperlink
reference not valid.) rather than the practical performance of the trainee(s).
The second type of simulation is virtual simulation. Virtual simulation

actually involves the use of real people using simulated tools in a simulated
world. In virtual simulation, the process often involves the use of computer
simulation by the trainees in undergoing training. Virtual simulation usually
involves security employees training in an artificial environment (generated
through computer software), and take it as if it is real. The exercise is
undertaken through the manipulation of the computer keys or mouse. Virtual
simulation is often facilitated through sight and sound.
The third type is Constructive simulation. Constructive simulation usually

involves a process whereby simulated people use simulated tools in a simulated
world. This simulation type is also known as war-gaming. It can be described
as a form of simulation whereby “players command armies of soldiers and
equipment that move around on around on a board” (Error! Hyperlink
reference not valid.). We shall discuss this type of simulation extensively
subsequently (see military simulation);
(b) Health Care Simulation: This form of simulation is also in security and safety.
It affords health care providers an opportunity to examine their capacity to
respond to emergency situations. Simulation helps to reduce the situation of
crisis in patients because, as stressed by Eder-Van Hook (2004):
66
A health care provider's ability to react to prudently in an unexpected situation

is one of the most critical factors in creating positive outcome in medical
emergency, regardless of whether it occurs on the battlefield, freeway, or
hospital emergency room (cited on ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/simulation).
Eder-Van Hook stressed further, saying that medical errors or lack of adequate
medical attention to patients by health care providers have led to almost ninety-
eight thousand (98,000) deaths, with a lot of financial implications, which
amounts to between $US37 and $US50 million on an annual basis. It is very
unfortunate the way health-care providers in Nigeria respond to emergency
cases. For instance, somebody who is shot by a group of robbers will hardly
survive the bullet wounds he/she sustains from the bandits. The issue is not
basically because he/she has been shot in part(s) of the body and can hardly
survive but the poor handling of the situation always results in high rate of
avoidable deaths in our hospitals.
It is a very abnormal situation for some patients in teaching hospitals to be

given referral to private clinics for treatment, and the reason always given is
lack of competent medical hands that can manage the medical needs of these
poor patients. What a situation like that denotes is that our teaching hospitals
can no longer be considered as tertiary health-care institutions as they have
relegated their responsibilities (in the name of making money) and transfer
such to private clinics many of which can hardly boast of having enough
qualified medical staff. In this kind of messy situation, health-care simulation
will make no sense to the health practitioners because many of them have
found it more important to make brisk business than saving lives. Sadly, the
decision makers that are supposed to caution them are less bothered because
they can afford treatment abroad most times.
Bringing our attention back to the subject under discourse, health-care

simulation has been demonstrating growing relevance in the modern medical
world. Several medical simulations usually involve connecting computer to a
plastic simulation of related anatomy e.g. the use of dummy that reacts to
injected drugs and can also be automated to generate simulations of life-
threatening emergency situations or cases. In some instances, the simulation
procedures are captioned and reproduced by computer graphics tools. Health-
care simulation has continued to be found useful in training medical
practitioners on the ways to build their individual and collective capacities in
responding effectively and timely to emergency situations especially as regards
the issue of saving lives and management of health crisis; and
(c) Military simulation is also known as war-gaming. It involves an act of

simulating with the intention of putting various theories of war into test and if
need be, refine those theories without undergoing the real hostility of warfare.
The rationale behind military simulation is to facilitate a process through which
one can arrive at tactical, strategic and doctrinal answers to problems that
67
bother on defence and warfare. War-gaming can be described as a form of

game or hobby that showcases various activities of military operation in a
simulated environment.
War-gaming can be used for relaxation or game-playing, and this is known as

conflict simulations or consims. But, if we desire to engage in war-gaming for
the purpose of warfare, the process is usually known as war-game or military
exercise. Meanwhile, those that engage in war-gaming as a hobby don't usually
draw any distinction between the two aspects of warming earlier mentioned
because they always contend that whether for war-making or relaxation, any
war-game should demonstrate to a large extent characteristics of human
behaviour as it would be have been in the real world when war is being
conducted (see .alanemrich.com/PGD/Week_03/PGD_what_is_a_War
game.htm.
However, war-game can be classified as historical, hypothetical, fantasy, or

science fiction. Historical war-games are often modelled after real events and
putting into simulation reasonable approximations of the actual forces, terrain
as well important factors that represent the experience of the real players or
participants. For instance, those who usually have experience of Play Station
(game) especially the soccer, will notice that each of the players demonstrates
the real capacity of the model player(s).
In Play Station 2, the scoring ability of Christian Ronaldo (formerly of

Manchester United FC of England, but now of Real Madrid FC of Spain)
cannot be compared with his scoring ability in Play Station 3, there being
tremendous improvement in his scoring ability. Play Station 3 reflects the
improvement in his scoring ability, showing that the simulated Christian
Ronaldo demonstrates the actual ability of the real Ronaldo as at the time the
programme or application was being written. Here, the history of the
performance and experience of players is considered in determining the
capacity of the simulated players.
Hypothetical war-games are actually those games that involve drawing

simulating materials about wars that did not happen. Fantasy and science
fiction war-games usually involve developing games from wars generated
from works of fiction or (creative) imagination. There are more types of
simulation but the three we have discussed in this unit can be considered as the
basic types of simulation for security planning and management. The reason is
that they cover virtually all aspects of securitisation namely disaster
management, law enforcement, defence, warfare, to mention a few.
Explain types of simulation.
68
4.0 CONCLUSION
In the final summation of our discourse on the concept of simulation, the concept can
be described as an essential instrument of decision analysis. It affords us a great
opportunity as security experts or practitioners to know the various areas of deficiency
in our service delivery, operations as well as potential threats. The relevance of
simulation in modern security planning and management is enormous owing to the
nature of uncertainty that characterises the general affairs including security issues in
recent times. For instance, since the end of the Cold War, state actors have constituted
less threat to national and international security compared to the destructive attitude
portrayed by some non-state actors, which absolutely undermine the potentials of the
security sector to maintain law and order.
The event of September 11 2001 terrorist attack in the US has shown the very
destructive dimension that threat emanating from non-state actors has assumed. Prior
to that ugly incident, we could hardly conceive the idea that commercial planes could
be used as weapons of mass destruction. There is no doubt, simulation assists us to
appraise and compare among alternative designs, plans and policies, so that we can
choose those that will enable us achieve optimal performance for best results.
Simulation is very vital in security planning due to its capacity to unravel secrets of
uncertainties and guide us in deriving solutions to the problem of uncertainty that can
affect our operations and policy-actions as security professionals in a quantifiable
way. Above all, simulation provides us an avenue to explore ways through which we
can improve on our preparedness for risk and hazard mitigation and high recovery
capacity in the event of any hazards or threats.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we explored some of the existing definitions of the concept ‘simulation’.
One fact that appeared from the various definitions presented, shows that simulation
can be applied in various fields or disciplines and for different purposes. We have
therefore discussed some of the basic types of simulation that can be employed in
security planning and management in order to safeguard the security of people as well
as their property. I hope that you have found this unit as interesting as you expected it
to be. If you have any question on any aspect of this unit or the course in general,
please feel free to get in touch with the instructional and tutorial facilitator. Good luck.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What is simulation?
Write short note on three types of simulation.
69
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/simulation. Retrieved on 25 August 2009.
://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/simulation. Retrieved on 25 August 2009.
://www.alanemrich.com/PGD/Week_03/PGD_what_is_a_Wargame.htm. Retrieved
on 14 April, 2008.
://www.answers.com/topic/simulation. Retrieved on 24 August 2009.
://www.goldsim.com/ Content.asp? PageID=91. Retrieved on 24 August 2009,
Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
MODULE 2
70
Unit 1: Meaning & Types of Security Threat I: Natural Threats

Unit 2: Meaning & Types of Security Threat II: Manmade Threats
Unit 3: Information Warfare as a Security Threat
Unit 4: Arms Production and Proliferation as a Potential Threat to Security
Unit 5: War as a Security Threat
UNIT 1
MEANING & TYPES SECURITY THREAT I: NATURAL THREATS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Meaning of Security Threat
3.2 Types of Natural Security Threat
3.2.1. Earthquakes
3.2.2. Hurricane
3.2.3 Flood
3.2.4 Drought
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0. INTRODUCTION
The meaning of security has been generating a great debate among scholars in recent
times. There has been a call on government at all level to change the operational
direction in the management of security in their various domains. Initially, apart from
natural hazards, major threats that confronted every nation were thoese emanating
from state actors. The security of communities were being undermined through
invasion, reprisal attacks or war of solidarity where two or more communities or
countries came together to confront and challenge the hegemony of a powerful
community or nation. One major fundamental objective of war of solidarity is
embarking on policy of aggression with the utmost desire of actualising balance of
power where no community or nation will be considered too powerful, knowing the
implication of such power on the political and territorial sovereignty of the
neighbouring communities or countries.
It is no gainsaying, with the contemporary experience of security situations in world

politics, to assert that there is a paradigm shift in security discourse. Recent
71
experiences show that major threats often come from other sources other than the state
actors. The role of resource scarcity in undermining the general security and
challenging the political sovereignty of any nation underscores the tendency of
situation of poverty and deprivation can generate disorder and insecurity in any
community or state. In this unit, we shall be defining security threats and further
discussing the natural threats as manmade threats shall be explained in the next unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain the meaning of security threat;
Identify types of natural threats; and
Examine the major types of natural threat
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Meaning of Security Threat
Waever (1995) associates the concept of security threat to security problems that
undermine the security of any nation or community, and relates it to various
“developments that threaten the sovereignty or independence of a state in a
particularly rapid or dramatic fashion, and deprive it of the capacity to manage by
itself. This, in turn, undercuts the political order. Such a threat must therefore be met
with the mobilization of the maximum effort” (Waever, 1995: 54). Similarly, security
threat can be described as the capacity of any human or non-human element to destroy
the vital interests of others considered as targets. Security threat also means:
......a party with the intent and capability to exploit a vulnerability in an asset. This
could be a malicious hacker or a disgruntled employee :/ /proxy.11a.nu/2006 /02/
11/definition-of-risk-vulnerability-and-threat).
.......an explicit or implicit message from a person to another that the first will cause
something bad to happen to the other, often except when certain demands are met.
Often a weapon is used. Examples are a robbery, kidnapping, hijacking, extortion,
blackmail ( ://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Threat).
........anything that threatens the residents of a community or the things they value
(Gordon, 2000).
..........are persons, things, events, or ideas, which pose accidentally or deliberately

some degree or danger to an asset. (US National Institute of Standards and
Technology cited in Kuban & MacKenzie-Carey, 2001).
72
Dissecting the foregoing definitions of the term security threat, you will conclude that
security threat covers all aspects of any malicious intention or action or occurrence
geared towards making a party vulnerable and exposed to security risk. Security threat
can simply be divided into two, namely natural and manmade threats. The former are
usually generated by nature while the latter involve cruel attacks arising from human
actions and behaviour. The manmade threats involve malicious activities of man,
which may include armed robbery, assassination, computer intrusion, information
hacking and corruption, violent behaviour, ethnocentrism, religious bigotry, terrorism,
to mention a few.
Meanwhile, our focus in this unit, apart from explaining the meaning of security
threat, is to explain the major natural threats to security. As a matter of fact, there are
several forms of natural threats to security and in this segment we shall be discussing
some of these threats. Natural threats can be divided into two, namely minor and
major. Examples of these major natural threats include hurricane (cyclone),
earthquake, drought and flood. On the other hand, those natural threats or hazards
considered to be minor may include cold wave, storm, mudslide, thunderstorms, to
mention a few. However, we shall be focussing on the major natural threats or
hazards, and you are advised to engage in further reading or independent study, and
make sure you source for the meaning of the various minor natural threats or hazards.
3.2 Types of Natural Security Threat
A natural disaster is the consequence of a natural hazard. If there are no measures put
in place towards hazard mitigation, there is likelihood for such hazard to result in
disaster. Thus, disaster involves massive loss of lives and/or property to hazardous
situation or attack. Example of natural hazards may include earthquake, flood,
volcanic eruption, landslide, to mention a few. We shall begin to discuss them one
after the other.
3.2.1. Earthquakes
Mythologically, earthquake was believed among the Greek to be caused by Poseidon

the god of earthquake. It was argued Greek mythology that whenever Poseidon was in
a state of sadness, he would smack the land with a trident, causing the earth to quake.
It was claimed that this god also used earthquake as a tool of fear, warning people of
the damaging effect of his punishment on men and their environment(s), as a way of
admonishing men not to offend him (see Sellers, 1997).
Conceptually, an Earthquake is an unexpected and hazardous vibration resulting from

the sudden shake of the Earth's crust. The degree of the vibrations may differ. An
earthquake can be said to have two points. The first point concerns the “.... point of
origin underground”, and this is known as “focus” while the second point is usually
“directly above the focus on the surface”, and it is regarded to as the “epicentre”
( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake).
73
One unique character of the earthquake is that it does not constitute any danger to
people or animals on its own, but its consequences such collapse of building and
electric poles, electric shock, fire, to mention a few usually cause harm to people. This
means that it is imperative to have safety measures in place and encourage hazard
mitigation as the best practices to avoid disaster. Let us consider some other
definitions of earthquake.
An earthquake (also known as a tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of

energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are recorded with
a seismometer, also known as a seismograph ( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth quake).
Sudden motion in Earth caused by abrupt release of slowly accumulated strain.

Shaking of the Earth caused by a sudden movement of rock beneath its surface
.Geocities.com/seiswash/terms_and_definitions.htm
It is the rupture of geological faults that often causes earthquake but nuclear
experiments, landslides, mine blasts as well as volcanic activity can also provoke the
earth to quake. Some of the incidents of earthquake include the 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake, which was the second largest earthquake in history. The attendant
tsunamis occasioned by this earthquake affected several countries including Pakistan
and India, leading to the death of over two hundred thousand people. There is no
doubt that the effects of earthquake can be very devastating not only to man but also
the general ecosystem. Some of these effects include the following:
(a) Tremulous shaking of land and ground ruptures. These are the major effects of
earthquake, leading to serious damage to buildings and other rigid
structures like bridges, street lights and their stands, electric poles, bill
boards, among others. The amount of damage and destruction that will be
occasioned by the incident of earthquake depends largely on the complex
combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from epicentre as
well as the geological and geomorphologic conditions that may magnify or
lessen wave propagation (see ://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/doc
/contents.html). However, ground acceleration is usually used in measuring
the degree of ground shaking.
(b) Fires: Another effect that can be caused by earthquake is the occurrence of
fires. After the shaking, a lot of structures and building get damaged or
destroyed including petroleum/gas pipelines and facilities. As earlier
mentioned, the quake can also uproot electric-pole and damage power-lines,
and in the process, spark from the power-line or electric-poles may come in
contact with gas or petrol to generate fire. The pressure of these fires may
be high and thereby be very difficult to contain them. An example of where
the earthquake caused lesser threat than its fire outbreak effect was 1906
74
San Francisco earthquake where many people died as a result of the fires
that accompanied the earthquake incident (see Error! Hyperlink reference
not valid.)
(c) Soil liquefaction: One of effects of earthquake is soil liquefaction, which

involves a situation whereby soil losses its firmness and transforms from
solid to liquid. The situation is caused when water-saturated granular
material like sand losses it strength and in the process its solidity becomes
liquid, resulting in the sinking of buildings because the soil does not have
strength to carry the weight of these structures any longer due to the quake
of the earth such as experienced in the 1964 Alaska earthquake (Error!
Hyperlink reference not valid.);
(d) Other effects of earthquake may include tsunami and flood, which will be
discussed later in this unit, as well as massive destruction of lives and
property. Earthquake can also lead to outbreak of diseases and food
insecurity resulting from the damage.
How do you define earthquake as a natural threat to security?

What are the effects of earthquake?
3.2.2. Hurricane
In the last twenty years, there has been huge amount of losses in human and material
terms through incidence of hurricane, though, the problem is less visible in sub-
Saharan Africa compared to Asia, Oceania, North America, among others. For
instance, the destruction that emanated from Hurricane Andrew (1992) alone was
“estimated at more than $25 billion in South Florida and Louisiana and undoubtedly
would have been higher had the storm hit Miami directly”
( ://hurricanes.noaa.gov/pdf/hurricanebook.pdf). For the sake of conceptual clarity, let
us at this juncture explore some of the existing definitions of hurricane. What is a
hurricane?
A hurricane is a type of tropical cyclone, which is a generic term for a low pressure
system that generally forms in the tropics. The cyclone is accompanied by
thunderstorms and, in the Northern Hemisphere, a counterclockwise circulation of
winds near the earth's surface ( ://hurricanes.noaa.gov/pdf/hurricanebook.pdf).
A hurricane is an intense, rotating oceanic weather system that possesses maximum

sustained winds exceeding 119 km/hr (74 mph). It forms and intensifies over tropical
oceanic regions. Hurricanes are generally smaller than storms in mid-latitudes,
75
typically about 500 km (311 miles) in diameter. At the ocean’s surface, the air spirals
inward in a counterclockwise direction. This cyclonic circulation becomes weaker
with height, eventually turning into clockwise (anticyclonic) outflow near the top of
the storm ( ://www.comet.ucar.edu/nsflab/web/hurricane/311.htm).
Source: ://www.why-is-the-sky-blue.tv/what-is-hurricane.htm
Hurricanes emanate and build-up over oceanic regions. They usually entail sea-
surface temperatures of at least 26°C (80°F) as well as “the influence of the earth’s
rotation to initiate a spinning circulation (Coriolis effect)” (Error! Hyperlink reference
not valid.). There are four phases to the incidence of hurricane. The first phase usually
involves tropical disturbance evident in the rain clouds such that moist air increases
and becomes cooler. The second phase is characterised by tropical depression with
thunderstorms. Here, there will be low pressure-winds with circular patterns. The third
phase consists of tropical storm, which usually involves wind that travels 38 mile per
hour, occasioning storm clouds and rough sea. At this stage, one does not need to be
told of the impeding danger. The last phase finally welcomes the incidence of
hurricane itself, featuring wind that moves at 74 miles per hour and heavy rainfall. At
this stage, hurricane will get to its climax. It is important to note that hurricane is
given different names in other places, and these names may include tropical cyclone
and typhoons (see table 1.1):
Table 1.1: Hurricane and Its other Names in Different Parts of the World
Hurricanes North Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea,
Northeast Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of
Mexico
Typhoons Northwest Pacific Ocean
Tropical cyclones Australia and the Indian Ocean
Effects of Hurricane
76
Hurricanes have destructive effects, and these effects may include storm surges,
inland flooding and tornadoes. Several lives and property have been lost resulting
from inland flooding, even more than the hurricane itself. The storm corrodes beaches,
destroys coastal highways and erodes house foundations. Hurricanes create destructive
surface winds and storm surges. High winds bring about huge structural and
environmental damage, as the storms are usually the most destructive component of a
hurricane.
A storm surge actually involves a rise in the level of the sea along a coastline
necessitated by the combination of a hurricane’s surface winds and physical
geography of a coastline. The surface winds above the surface of the ocean drive
water towards the hurricane’s eye, mounting a mound of water. The mound of water is
provoked by the slope of the coastline as the hurricane comes close to land. In a
situation whereby the coastline is shallow, it will be difficult for water to flow away
from the mound and the mound grows. But, if the coastline is deep, then water can
easily “disperse and the mound may grow slowly or disperse depending on hurricane
strength” ( ://www.comet.ucar.edu/nsflab/web/hurricane/311.htm). The destructive
level of any hurricane depends largely on the attendant wind speed and storm surge
(see Table 1.2)
Table 1.2: The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Intensity

Category Wind Speed Storm Surge Damage
km/hr mi/hr m ft
1 119-154 74-95 1-2 4-5 Minimal
2 155-178 96-110 2-3 6-8 Moderate
3 179-210 111-130 3-4 9-12 Extensive
4 211-250 131-155 4-6 13-18 Extreme
5 >250 >155 >6 >18 Catastrophic
Adapted from ://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/00795/hurricanetypes.html
How do you describe hurricane?
3.2.3 Flood
Flood is another type of natural threat. It usually involves submerging of land by

overflowing water. Flood goes beyond having volume of water like river or lake
running off its normal boundaries to cause flooding, but also involves a situation
whereby the overflow is engineered by tide. Natural hazards like hurricane and
earthquake have the tendency to provoke flood in the affected community. Let us
quickly define flood. In doing so, we shall be considering the definition of the term as
presented by various sources. Thus, flood can be described as:
77
......a general or temporary condition of partial or complete inundation of normally

dry land areas from overflow of inland or tidal waters or from the unusual and rapid
accumulation or runoff of surface waters from any source (Error! Hyperlink reference
not valid.).
....the rising of a body of water and its overflowing onto normally dry land
( ://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=flood).
The phenomenon of flood is becoming increasing in Africa and elsewhere due to

climate change and environmental pollution. The incident of significant variability in
climate has been attracting growing attention among the world population in recent
times owing to its impact on man and his/her environment. The trapping of the
atmosphere with CO2 has been the major cause of climate change.
Types of Flood
a) Riverine floods: These can be divided into slow kinds and fast kinds. Slow
kinds usually involve water overflow generated by high rainfall or huge fall of
snow melt, which goes beyond the capacity of a river's channel. The factors
responsible for this kind of riverine floods may include heavy rainfall,
monsoons, hurricane and tropical depression, among others. Similarly, these
floods that also be caused by unexpected drainage obstruction through dumping
of refuse in canals, landslide or even ice. In Nigeria, the problem is basically as
a result of incessant dumping of debris in canals and building structures on
water passages, obstructing water-flow. On the other hand, fast kinds are
experienced as a result of "convective precipitation (intense thunderstorms) or
sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind a dam,
landslide, or glacier” ( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood);
b) Estuarine Floods: They are normally caused as a combined effect of sea tidal
surges necessitated by storm-force winds from either a tropical cyclone or an
extra-tropical cyclone;
c) Coastal floods: These are floods generated by severe sea storms or due to a
destructive hazard like hurricane or tsunami; and
d) Catastrophic floods: These kinds of floods are initiated by accidental dam

breakage or earthquake or volcanic eruption, capable of creating huge
destruction of lives and property.
Effects of Floods
78
a) Destruction of infrastructure and other physical structures: Effects of Floods

particularly the severe ones include destruction of houses, sewer systems,
bridges, schools, to mention a few;
b) Casualties: The incidence of floods can result in the loss of lives and livestock.
It is capable of creating epidemic in the affected communities;
c) Shortage of water: As a result of contamination of water, there may be (acute)

shortage of portable water;
d) Loss of Environmental sustainability: Incidence of flood can lead to shortage of

resources because of the effect that such floods may have on the development
of affected communities. In the process of flooding, many farms might be
destroyed, and food shortage will be imminent except there is intervention of
food supply to the affected communities by government or emergency agencies
and donors; and
e) Outbreak of disease(s): The event of flood can generate an outbreak of diseases

in the affected community. For instance, there is possibility of experience
water-borne diseases like cholera, where sewer systems have been destroyed by
flood.
Write short note on the meaning, types and effects of flood.
3.2.4 Drought
Drought is actually a normal climatic situation. It is experienced in almost all parts of

the world, but it can constitute a security threat if its occurrence is significant. This is
because it is supposed to be a temporary condition, which should not last for too long.
Drought appears to be another hazard that can lead to disaster if its effects are not
mitigated by the people or concerned communities. It is no gainsaying that it can
exacerbate condition of hunger in any community due to food shortage resulting from
poor agricultural yields. Meanwhile, drought goes beyond agricultural condition, and
it is imperative at this juncture, to look at some of the definitions of the term, drought.
A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency

in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below
average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and
agriculture of the affected region ( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought).
Drought is an insidious hazard of nature. Unlike many disasters which are sudden,
droughts result when there is less than normal precipitation over an extended period
of time, usually a season or more. The decreased water input results in a water
shortage for some activity, group, or environmental sector. Drought can also occur
79
when the temperature is higher than normal for a sustained period of time; this causes
more water to be drawn off by evaporation. Other possible causes are delays in the
start of the rainy season or timing of rains in relation to principal crop growth stages
(rain at the “wrong” time). High winds and low relative humidity can make matters
much worse (IFAS, 1998: 1).
Bearing in mind the foregoing definitions, you may agree with me that the problem of
drought becomes evident especially when man's demand for water grows at geometric
progression and reduction in the volume of water supply is also experienced at
geometric progression. At this point, the incident of drought can lead to disaster
except adequate interventionist measures and mitigation initiatives are brought to
bear. There is no doubt that the incidence of drought exists everywhere, particularly
where there is high usage of water. This hazard has the potentials of undermining the
economic and environmental security of any society. The problem is very evident in
Africa due to lack of adequate preparedness and mitigation strategies (irrigation, crop
rotation and environmental protection) to reduce the impact of the risk that drought
poses to environmental sustainability and economic wellbeing of the people.
Types of droughts
a) Meteorological drought: This is a form of drought effected by a long absence

of normal precipitation. Here, the period is greeted with precipitation that is
below average. This type of drought is the first drought that can be experienced
before other forms of drought emerge. Therefore, it provides a kind of warning-
signal to the affected communities of the impeding risk;
b) Agricultural droughts: These are droughts that propel poor yields in farm
cultivations. They have adverse effect on crop production and can lead to food
insecurity in the affected community; and
c) Hydrological droughts: These usually mount environmental security threat to

people by reducing the level of water in water reserves like aquifers, lakes and
reservoirs, such that the water level will be short of the statistical average. In a
situation like this, the possibility of having (acute) water shortage is very high.
Effects of droughts
a) Poor agricultural yields and crop production which can lead to food insecurity,
of which food insecurity is usually accompanied by starvation and hunger,
which can also generate political tension, violence, and increase in crime rate
among other security risks;
b) Forced migration: Droughts can also propel a situation of migration among the
people of any affected community to another place in search of arable land for
cultivation or greener pasture. In a situation whereby the host community
cannot provide the visitors the needed opportunities to actualise their hopes,
80
may be due to prevailing socio-economic and political circumstances in the

host community, there is tendency that the immigrants will look for alternative
means to survive, some of which can constitute a greater security threat to the
hosts. A good example is the migration of several Tuareg from Niger Republic
to many states in northern Nigeria especially Kano due to endemic droughts
being experienced in their home country.
The rapid migration of these foreigners from neighbouring countries has been
said to be a major cause of increasing incidence of religious violence in the
north especially Kano, Borno and Bauchi states. It was no surprise in the
Akaluka religious riot in Kano, that out of several rioters arrested by security
operatives in Nigeria, only one was Nigerian while others were foreigners
notably from neighbouring Niger Republic (see Albert, 1999: 292). This
situation shows the amount of threat that droughts can pose to the security of
any nation;
c) Famine: Droughts can also generate famine due to lack of water for irrigation.
Drastic reduction or absence of water as occasioned by droughts, will definitely
affect farming adversely, capable of generating scarcity of food (famine);
d) Disease outbreak: Droughts can also provoke a situation of Malnutrition,

dehydration and related diseases due to shortage in water supply for agriculture
and human consumption; and
e) War and Violence: Resulting from the problem of environmental resource

scarcity caused by droughts, there may be growing struggle among the people
to compete for the available lean resources, which cannot go round. Therefore,
people will live under harsh conditions adorned with the attitude of survival of
the fittest, which creates violence and hostilities especially where there is sharp
ethnic division with patron-client ideology. Other effects may include increase
in the incidence of snakebites as experienced in drought-ridden areas in
northern Nigeria and elsewhere (see ://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific
/6282075.stm), desertification and erosion, social unrest and criminality, and
wildfires, to mention a few.
How do you describe drought as a security threat?
4.0 CONCLUSION
It is a truism that the capacity of any community to respond to hazardous situations

depends largely on its resilience and preparedness towards risk reduction and hazard
mitigation. The recovery capacity of any community, wishing to mitigate the effect
that the occurrence of any hazard may have on her and its people, must be substantial
enough to withstand the threat or hazard. If no efforts are made to mitigate or reduce
81
the impact of hazard or attack, there is the possibility that such hazard will result in
disaster. It is therefore important for stakeholders to adopt strategies through which
they can improve their capacity to respond to hazardous situations timely and
effectively. A fact that comes out of this intellectual standpoint is that disaster does
not usually occur where vulnerability is low or absent.
Take for instance, in Nigeria, the problem of flood would have been minimised if
government had put in place measures and adopted policy actions that mitigate risk
emanating from environmental degradation and deforestation, which form part of the
causes of flood. The culture of deforestation has continued to be evident especially
from the felling of trees as firewood for cooking. The problem is that households
especially those in rural settings cannot afford the exorbitant cost of kerosene and
cooking gas to do their cooking. Therefore, many have resulted in the use of firewood,
a situation that can be a driving force for the incidence of flooding. The problem of
climate change is becoming phenomenal considering its adverse impact on
environmental sustainability of every nation especially the developing countries.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we focussed on the meaning of security threat. After defining the term
security threat, we also identified the two types of security threat to include natural
threats such as earthquake, flood etc, and manmade threats including robbery,
terrorism, war, etc. Thereafter, we explored the meaning of natural threat and various
major natural threats or hazards. In the next unit, our searchlight shall be beamed on
manmade threat and its various forms. I have no doubt that you have found this unit
very thought-provoking and decipherable.
What is security threat?

What are the basic types of security threat that you know?
Briefly explain any three natural threats that you know.
Albert, I.O. (1999). Ethnic and Religious Conflicts in Kano. In: Otite, O & Albert, I.O
(eds.). Community Conflicts in Nigeria: Management, Resolution and Transformation.
Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd & Academic Peace Associates Work, Abuja, Nigeria.
274-309.
Gordon, J. (2000). Risk Assessment and Management in Local Government

Emergency Planning, Part 1: Basic concepts. Canadian Journal of Emergency
Management 2(2): 11-12.
Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) (1998). Extreme Heat and
Drought. In the Disaster Handbook. Florida: University of Florida (Chapter 16). Also
82
available on ://disaster.ifas.ufl.edu/PDFS/CHAP16/D16-05.PDF. Retrieved on 1

September, 2009.
Sellers, Paige (1997). Poseidon. Encyclopedia Mythica. Available on Error!

Hyperlink reference not valid.. Retrieved on 2 September 2008.
US National Institute of Standards and Technology cited in Kuban, R. & MacKenzie-

Carey, H. (2001). Community-Wide Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment. Office of
Critical Infrastructure Protection and Emergency Preparedness, Canada.
Waever, Ole (1995). Securitization and Desecuritization. In: Lipschutz, R.D (ed.). On
Security. New York: Columbia University Press. 46-86.
Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://hurricanes.noaa.gov/pdf/hurricanebook.pdf. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/00795/hurricanetypes.html. Retrieved on 30 August,

2009.
://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6282075.stm. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://proxy.11a.nu/2006 /02/ 11/definition-of-risk-vulnerability-and-threat). Retrieved on

30 August, 2009.
://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/doc/contents.html. Retrieved on 30 August,

2009.
://www.comet.ucar.edu/nsflab/web/hurricane/311.htm. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
.geocities.com/seiswash/terms_and_definitions.htm. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Threat. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://www.why-is-the-sky-blue.tv/what-is-hurricane.htm. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
83
://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=flood. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
UNIT 2
MEANING & TYPES OF SECURITY THREAT II: MANMADE THREATS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
84
3.1 Robbery
3.2 Theft
3.3 Arson
3.4 Kidnapping
3.5 Badger Game
3.6 Extortion
3.7 Insurgency
3.8 Terrorism
3.9 Ethno-Religious Conflict
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0. INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, our study centred on the meaning of security threat, and we also
highlighted the two categories of threat, which basically include natural types of
security threat and manmade types of security threat, but in the last unit, we only
discussed major types of natural threat. As you may have been aware, natural threats
are basically those threats created by nature, and there is little or nothing that man can
do to prevent such threats from occurring within geophysical space. Notwithstanding,
there are ways through which man can still manage those threats especially by
creating viable framework for hazard mitigation, hazard assessment, among others.
On the other hand, there exist also threats emanating from actions and behaviour of
man, which can undermine the security of any community. For instance, activities of
terrorists might attract greater losses in human and material terms than any natural
threat. The reason is that it is now found to be easier to manage all natural threats
except earthquake that cannot be predicted than terrorism. The latest most grievous
experience of using passenger aircrafts to cause a situation of mass destruction evident
in the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack in the US re-echoes the monumental threat
that acts of terrorism can constitute not only to countries but also to the world at large.
In this unit, we shall be beaming our searchlight on various manmade security threats.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Identify major manmade types of security threat,
Discuss the meaning of the various manmade security threats; and
85
Explain their characteristics of these threats and how they constitute security risk to
any community.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Robbery
One example of manmade threats is robbery, and robbery often involves the use of
instruments of intimidation and coercion by a party(ies) against another party(ies)
with the aim of compelling the victim party to concede his/her property in question to
the offender party. Such violent instruments like gun, knife, sword, cutlass, grenade,
or other dangerous objects as the case may be, are usually used by robbers to force
victims to yield to their (robbers’) demand.
Robbery is a regular feature of every human society, even among animals, robbery
takes place. For instance, in some wildlife clips, we see some hyenas hunting preys
and eventually succeeding in catching some of these preys like antelopes. But, shortly
after the catch, a group of lions larger in number may emerge from nowhere chasing
away the poor hyenas and rob them of their catches (animals killed by the hyenas for
feeding). This example nevertheless shows that the incidence of robbery is not limited
to human beings but also exists in the animal kingdom.
Robbery is the crime of seizing property through violence or intimidation. This is

different from embezzlement, larceny, and theft. Piracy is a type of robbery. Armed
robbery involves the use of a weapon. Highway robbery takes place outside and in a
public place. Robbery is generally an urban crime. Carjacking is the act of robbing a
car from a victim, usually at gunpoint ( ://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/
encyclopedia/Robbery).
Robbery is taking or attempting to take something of value from another by violence

or the threat of violence. Robbery can be committed against individuals, businesses,
and institutions like banks. It is a felony in all states. Threatening people on the streets
with a baseball bat and demanding all their money and jewelry is robbery, even if the
person is not injured. Pushing an elderly woman down on the sidewalk to steal her
purse is also robbery ( ://criminal-law.freeadvice.com/violent_crimes/offenses _
robbery.htm).
Types of robbery
a) Piracy: This is one of the types of robbery. But, we need to exercise some
caution in the conceptualisation of the concept of piracy. This is because in
intellectual property and copyrights law, the term piracy is also used to
describe the nefarious activities of offenders who steal the works of other
people especially for money-making motives. However, the piracy we are
discussing in this study or lesson is essentially maritime. The term piracy is
86
described in the relevant provisions of the United Nations Convention on the

Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of 1982 as:
(a) any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation,

committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a
private aircraft, and directed:
(i) on the high seas, against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or
property on board such ship or aircraft;
(ii) against a ship, aircraft, persons or property in a place outside the
jurisdiction of any State;
(b) any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship or of an
aircraft with knowledge of facts making it a pirate ship or aircraft;
(c) any act of inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in
subparagraph (a) or (b) (UNCLOS, 1982: Article 101).
Piracy usually involves a very violent act perpetrated by private parties of no

government affiliation. Piracy is a violent crime and robbery that takes place on
the seas. A good example includes the nefarious activities of Somalian
criminals or pirates who rob and seize ships on the sea, a situation which has
attracted so much public attention in recent times. Piracy is a form of robbery
that involves all violent acts perpetrated on the seas but it does not include
those criminal activities being perpetrated by passengers against some other
passengers on the same vessel. The phenomenon of piracy is not new but has
been an agelong security threat, which in the 17th and 18th centuries attracted
death penalty against the offenders. During these periods in Europe, pirates
caught and arrested were paraded before the public and later subjected to public
execution;
b) Car-snatching or Carjacking: This is another type of robbery that has been

phenomenal in a number of countries including South Africa, the US, Sweden,
Nigeria, among others. It can be described as the act of forcefully seizing and
taking possession of the victim’s car by the crime offender with the use of
dangerous weapons especially gun. We can also define this form of robbery as:
.....an armed auto theft, or auto theft by threat or force from a person (Error!
Hyperlink reference not valid.).
.....the crime of motor vehicle theft from a person who is present. Typically the
carjacker is armed, and the driver of the car is forced out of the car at gun
point ( ://ww.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Carjacking).
In some situations, the car-snatcher may use a toy gun to force the victim (carry
owner or driver) out the car. If the offender is arrested, he/she will still be liable
to be charged for armed robbery because he/she, by using gun either toy or real,
intends to cause fear or intimidation on the victim with the aim of criminally
seizing and/ or stealing the car from the victim. In South Africa, the incidence
of car snatching is very high, and in the process of stealing cars from victims,
87
many victims have not only lost their cars but also their lives or lives of co-
occupants (or loved ones) or sustained various degrees of injury in the hands of
car-snatchers.
Car-snatching often generates trauma among the victims. For instance, some
years ago, a popular reggae artist, Lucky Dube was killed by a gang of car-
snatchers in South Africa in the presence of his child. Can you imagine the
amount of trauma suffered by the child, seeing his father being hunted down by
some criminals in the name of car-snatching? The Shina-Rambo episode in
Nigeria is still very fresh in the memories of many of us who knew the amount
of security threat the car-snatching syndicate posed to our national security.
The leader of the syndicate, Amani Tijani has been arrested and as currently
facing trial in Nigeria.
More importantly, one is expected to know that there is a difference between

ordinary car theft and car-snatching. The truth of the matter is that not all
incidents of car theft can be regarded as car-snatching or carjacking. This is
because there may be occasions where cars are stolen from where they are
parked. In this case, cars are stolen without forcefully taking them from the
drivers. Here, the car thieves carefully remove and steal the cars from where
they are parked or by deceiving the car drivers or owners. This kind of crime
can only be regarded to as car theft and not car-snatching or carjacking;
c) Streaming: This is another type of robbery that usually involves organised

criminal activities being perpetrated on underground trains. The term is made
popular in the United Kingdom, and used to describe the violent crimes
perpetrated on train or bus passengers by criminal gangs (see
://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/6983476.stm; & Error! Hyperlink reference not
valid.). The crime ranges from mild application of intimidation and violence to
the use of serious violence like rape, assault and murder;
d) Highway robbery: Highway robbery can also be regarded as a great threat to

security. It can simply be described as a kind of robbery that takes place on the
roads, streets, or even bridges. This threat is often experienced by many
commuters using Nigerian roads. Meanwhile, there are some hotspots where
the incidence of highway robbery frequently takes place. One of such spots is
Abuja-Lokoja road where several passengers and travellers have been robbed
or/and injured or/and killed by suspected highway robbers. A pathetic case was
the incident of highway robbery that happened recently where many victim
passengers were crushed to death by an on-coming trailer, which was on top
speed while they were being pinned-down by the robbers. The ugly incident
happened when the victim passengers were asked by the robbers to lie and face
down, and many of the victims never suspected that the trailer approaching
would crush them.
88
e) Armed robbery: This is another type of robbery, which involves the use of
weapons. The weapons used by the robbers may not necessarily be deadly.
Take for instance, a robber may be armed with table knife to dispossess his/her
victims. Some robbers may use big sticks to force their victims to surrender
their valuables. Some robbers may use their physical strength to dispossess
their victims (especially the female) of their valuables. Such action may still be
regarded as armed robbery; and
f) Aggravated robbery: Aggravated robbery actually means a form of robbery

where the offenders use deadly or dangerous weapons in the course of
carrying-out their dastardly act. Aggravated robbery can also be defined as:
....the use of a deadly weapon or what appears to be a deadly weapon. If

someone robs a store with a toy pistol, that will still be aggravated robbery,
because the weapon appeared to be deadly. It is also aggravated robbery in
some states to cause or threaten serious bodily injury or death during the
commission of the robbery ( ://criminal-law.freeadvice.com/violent_
crimes/offenses_ robbery. htm).
The experience in recent time has shown the high level lethality in the weapons
being used by some robbers in carrying out their dastardly acts. The incidents
of bank robbery have taken very aggravated dimension where robbers don’t
only use sophisticated riffles but also use grenades. The warlike situation that
characterises bank robbery in Nigeria in contemporary time underscores the
need to appreciate security reengineering and reformulation of security
strategies.
Explain the meaning of robbery

Discuss any five types of robbery
3.2 Theft
Theft can also be said to be a form of manmade security threat. It actually involves act
of making unlawful claims over someone else’s property or “illegal taking of another
person’s property without the person’s freely-given consent” ( ://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Theft). Ordinarily, the term theft is used to describe some other criminal acts that
relate to illegal acquisition of another person’s property or acts of stealing like
burglary, larceny, looting, fraud and embezzlement, to mention a few. Theft can be
perpetrated in various ways. One of the ways may involve illegal access or intrusion
into information systems belonging to another person or organisation.
The acts of theft are not exclusively undertaken by individuals because organisation(s)
can also be found culpable. For instance, several organisations have been accused of
stealing information belonging to some other organisations, either through the use of
89
an insider or direct intrusion for the actualisation of specific objectives. Theft may
also involve the unintentional stealing of another person’s property. For instance,
someone may accidentally find another person’s unused (phone) recharge card, and
rather than returning it, he/she may decide to sell or use it. In the situation whereby the
person in question decides to sell or use the recharge card, he/she has committed theft,
showing that it is not always necessary for the act of theft to be intentional. By and
large, theft does not in any way involve the application of direct force against the
victim, and in a situation where this happens, the act can no longer be regarded as
theft, but will be considered a robbery.
Explain the meaning of theft as a threat to security.
3.3 Arson
Arson can be described to mean a deliberate act of destructively setting another

person’s or oneself’s property on fire for specific motives. For instance, someone can
decide to set his/her property on fire with the criminal intention of illegally getting
claims from the insurance company. Most times this crime is usually perpetrated by
one party against another party. The antagonistic and destructive politicking that
dominates our national politics has paved the way for the growing anarchy that the
country experiences.
From one democratic dispensation to another, the incidence of arson has been
featuring not only in inter-party relations but also in intra-party wrangling. The use of
thugs to set fire on the houses of opponents is still experienced in Nigerian politics.
For instance, the last re-run government election in Ekiti State of Nigeria saw the
burning down of the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) office in Ido
Ekiti by irate youths over the alleged manipulation of election result by the election
body and a few powerful people in the state. There is no doubt that, in the country,
arson constitutes a great security threat especially if we consider the amount of
material losses that usually occasion such incident(s).
What is arson?
3.4 Kidnapping
The incidence of kidnapping has become a grave security threat both locally and
internationally. Many families have lost their loved ones through the dastardly acts of
kidnapping. Apart from loss of lives, kidnapping also has implications on the
economy of the state as well as that of individuals. For instance, in countries like
90
Mexico and Nigeria where most kidnappings lack political motives, the kidnappers
seize their victims for ransoms, and many families pay through the nose to settle the
kidnappers’ money requests with the aim of securing the release of their loved ones.
At this point, let us quickly look at some definitions of the term kidnapping.
However, kidnapping can be described as a form security threat that involves:
.....the taking away or asportation of a person against the person's will, usually to
hold the person in false imprisonment, a confinement without legal authority. This
may be done for ransom or in furtherance of another crime, or in connection with a
child custody dispute ( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapping).
……the taking away of a person against the person's will, usually to hold the person
for ransom or in furtherance of another crime. In the terminology of the common law
in many jurisdictions, the crime of kidnapping is labelled abduction when the victim is
a woman ( ://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Kidnapping).
The nefarious activities of some of the militants in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria
has actually made popular kidnapping as a source of making quick money. The
problem is spreading fast to other regions of the country. There is increasing tension
in the south-eastern Nigeria where the business of kidnapping is becoming widely
accepted among the youths in the area. It is most pathetic that in some circumstances,
some of the victims of kidnapping were part of the plot right from the outset. They
planned the kidnapping episode with some other criminals to get money from their
family members or/and relatives or/and friends. Many drivers have also been accused
of masterminding the kidnapping of their bosses or members of their bosses’ families.
There is no doubt that the rising incidence of kidnapping is a major source of worry to
the security sector, especially as security personnel are not left out of being targeted
by kidnappers. For instance, some practitioners have at one time or the other become
preys in the hands of kidnappers. Many of these security men and officers were not
lucky as they were killed by the kidnappers.
What is kidnapping?
3.5 Badger Game
Badger Game is a form of security threat that can undermine the capacity of an
individual to perform his/her duties effectively well. The risk created by this threat
deepens the vulnerability of the affected individuals through set-ups from opponents.
Here, the individual or security officer is coerced to compromise his/her position by
playing on his/her intelligence or tricking him/her into an action that people might not
expect of him/her. For instance, a very principled security chief may be trapped with a
woman, and his conversations and sexual relations with the woman recorded by his
enemies who set him up in the first instance. Consequently, his/her enemies will
91
approach him/her and ask him/her to compromise his/her position or will be

blackmailed. This scenario reemphasises the need for security practitioners to always
be very careful in their relations with other people and to avoid engaging in any action
that can tarnish their image and that of the office they hold or which can make them
compromise their position.
How do you describe badger game?
3.6 Extortion
Extortion is another form of manmade security threat. It simply involves coercing a

person to part with either money, property or services to the offender. On daily bases,
Nigerians complain of extortion being suffered in the hands of security operatives
especially the Police. Conceptually, extortion can be described as:
.....a criminal offence, which occurs when a person unlawfully obtains either money,
property or services from a person, entity, or institution, through coercion (Error!
Hyperlink reference not valid.).
……a criminal offense, which occurs when a person obtains money or other goods
from another by threatening or inflicting harm to his person, reputation, or property
( ://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Extortion).
Extortion occurs not only in public places but also in private establishments. Many
people in the course of seeking for job are mandated to pay money or render some
services against their will before they can secure employment. Commuters always
accuse the police of extortion on our roads and even in their stations despite the
prevailing anti-corruption campaign in the country. Many customs officials have
failed to do their jobs effectively well because of their culture of extortion. They are
basically preoccupied with extorting the public, and in the process they often fail to
perform their responsibilities. One of the consequences of this failure is circulation of
proliferated weapons in the country, which come in through the borders.
The culture of extortion has continued to paint the security sector in Nigeria in bad
light, as the most needed cooperation from the public in the effective management of
security is visibly lacking. One of the reasons is the fear of being extorted by security
operatives, even when they (the civilians) wish to offer or provide important
information to the security personnel for crime prevention and mitigation. There are
several allegations that some individuals, after offering vital security information to
the police, were arrested and threatened with violence and prosecution, until the
affected innocent civilians were forced to settle the extortionist security men/officers
with varying amount of money. It is most disturbing to hear cases where some
security personnel demand for sex from their female victims before they could be
released from unlawful detention.
92
The writer can remember when in the company of a friend, being intercepted by an
anti-robbery patrol team before 8pm when there was no case of curfew, and
subsequently, the arrest was effected without any genuine reason. At the station, the
patrol team had arrested, in similar circumstances, scores of innocent civilians and
ordered everybody into the cell without any investigation. The next thing we heard
was that we should beg those whose relatives had come to pay for their release, to
assist us to get in touch with our relatives or friends to come and negotiate our own
release as well. Within a short time of the arrest, some neighbours of mine who saw
me and my friend being whisked away by the criminals in uniform came to the station
to pay for my release but I refused to succumb, requesting to see the Divisional Police
Officer (DPO) of that station.
Consequently, I stayed there till the next morning but not without being assaulted by
one of the policemen on duty. One of the inmates appealed to me to give peace a
chance by accepting the terms of release (paying illegal money as bail), and because
so much pressure from my neighbours, I gave in. To my greatest surprise, one of the
policemen told me that it was a nice decision, accepting the terms of my release.
Money was forcefully taken by the police to secure my release and that of my friend.
The policeman went further to say that if I had insisted to settle the case in court, he
was very sure, due to lackadaisical and ineffective justice system in the country, that
the court would ask us to be remanded in prison, even without making attempt to find
out if the arrest was a lawful one in the first instance.
Sadly, the police that is supposed to be friendly to people and make efforts towards
promoting developmental and democratic ethos has rather been an institution filled
with agents of anarchy and exploitation (Alemika, 1993). Police men in Nigeria often
use several forms of brutality with the aim of exploiting innocent civilians (Alemika
1999: 10). The experience of most civilians, resulting from unofficial extortion by
security operatives in the country undermines the integrity and capacity of the public
security sector to fulfill the overall goals of their establishment particularly the
security of lives and property of the citizens.
Describe extortion as a security threat.
3.7 Insurgency
Insurgency is another form of manmade security threat. It usually involves an armed

struggle or rebellion aimed to challenge the sovereign power of a constituted
authority. It can also be described as violent aggression by belligerents against the
government of any given country, especially the one recognised by the United Nations
(see Oxford English Dictionary, 1989). However, we can also define insurgency as:
93
...an organized rebellion aimed at overthrowing a constituted government through the

use of subversion and armed conflict ( ://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn).
...an armed uprising, revolt, or insurrection against an established civil or political

authority. Persons engaging in insurgency are called insurgents, and typically engage
in regular or guerrilla combat against the armed forces of the established regime, or
conduct sabotage and harassment in the land ( ://www.answerbag.com/q_view/68
079).
Some of the causes of insurgency may include electoral malpractices as experienced

in Algeria, ethno-religious conflict, human rights abuse, personal envy,
maladministration, ineffective justice system, to mention a few. The problem of
insurgency has been a regular feature of African politics due to a number of reasons.
One of the reasons is the sharp ethnic division that exists among various ethnic
groups, which compose average African state. This problem is prevalent where there
is deepened economic deprivation and patron-client network. In such a country, the
elite are often accused of flying the kite of ethnicity in the accumulation of state
resources thereby creating a culture of ethnic hatred as evident in Rwandan crisis.
The ideological rivalry between the Angolan government and the National Union for
the Total Liberation of Angola (UNITA) rebel led by late J. Savimbi especially during
the cold war era has also shown how ideological differences can attract insurgency in
any given state. There is no doubt that most insurgent groups use the instrument and
tactic of terror to attract public attention to themselves. And most times, methods
applied by insurgents do not only undermine the security of lives and property, but
they also infringe on the natural rights of the innocent civilians and dislocate them
socially and economically.
How do you explain insurgency as a security threat?
3.8 Terrorism
Terrorism of course, is not a modern concept. The term terrorism trod its semantic
pathway to the English usage in 1795. The term was popularized by the Jacobins who
ruled France between 1793 and 1794, as their reign was labelled as a reign of terror.
Right from 1798, the word terrorism has become a regular vocabulary to explain the
attempt by some individuals, state actors or groups to articulate their political goals
and aspirations through the application of systemic violence.
What is terrorism? In the definition of terrorism as a concept, Wilkinson observes the

underlying problems or dilemma, which detonate the subjective nature of terror
94
(Wilkinson, 1977) because it appears to be a “complex interplay of the subjective

forces and …frequently irrational individual responses” (Wardlaw, 1989: 8), making
the definition of terrorism a difficult one. Bruce Hoffman contends that:
On one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word

with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and
opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore.
'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, `'thus seems to depend on one's
point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can
successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded
others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some
organization `terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on
whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one
identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If,
however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more
sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not
terrorism (Hoffman, 1998: 32).
Terrorism is undoubtedly the systematic and ferocious use of violence, a form of

guerrilla alternative to conventional warfare by state or non-state actors, with the
strategic creation of psychic fear and (or) tactical production and reproduction of
wanton destruction in epochal dimension purposely in realizing political objectives or
ordinary public attention or both variables. There are different forms of terrorism.
According to the United States’ National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice
Standards and Goals, various forms of terrorism can be summarised as follows:
• Civil Disorders – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace,

security, and normal functioning of the community;
• Political Terrorism – Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to

generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political
purposes;
• Non-Political Terrorism – Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes

but which exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain high degree of
fear for coercive purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather
than the achievement of a political objective”;
• Quasi-Terrorism – The activities incidental to the commission of crimes of

violence that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which
nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the
quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of
genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of
the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction. For
example, the fleeing felon who takes hostages is a quasi-terrorist, whose
95
methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are
quite different;
• Limited Political Terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a

revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism
which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part
of a concerted campaign to capture control of the State; and
• Official or State Terrorism –"referring to nations whose rule is based upon

fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.” It
may also be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist
acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part
of their foreign policy (National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice
Standards and Goals, 1976).
Proliferation of weapons and technological advancement brought to fore by the cold

war as well as cacophonic international media coverage of international terrorism had
really altered the traditional philosophy of terrorism. Mass destruction has become an
object of international recognition and yardstick to measure the success of any
terrorist network or group, a situation that has mounted a great challenge to security
practitioners worldwide. And it is very important for the security sector to develop
alternative strategies and reforms that will reduce the vulnerability of the existing
system to any form of threat either natural or manmade.
Briefly discuss terrorism as a form of security threat.
3.9 Ethno-Religious Conflict
Ethnic origin or affiliation and religion have become fundamental elements of post
colonial Nigeria. They hinge on ideology of excluvicism and primordial affections.
Enemy imaging that characterises ethno-religious relations in Nigeria has continued to
pose a huge security risk to the country. In the last, ten years, several thousands of
people have either been killed, injured or/and internally displaced. Apart from deaths,
various degrees of injury, and internally displacement of persons that are usually
featured in ethno-religious riots in the country, there is also massive destruction of
properties. In Africa, inter-ethnic rivalry has continued to constitute a huge security
threat to the people as many countries on the continent have experienced civil war at
one or the other due to rising ethnic nationalism and inter-ethnic hatred (Kasali, 2009:
72-72). The examples include Nigeria (south-eastern people of Nigeria or Biafra vs.
The rest of Nigeria), Liberia (Putu vs. Krio), Mozambique (Shona vs. Ndebele),
Rwanda (Hutu vs. Tutsi) etc. The
In Nigeria, ethno-religious conflict is the highest contributor of underdevelopment as

ethno-religious riots have claimed many physical structures and infrastructure that
96
took the affected communities several decades to develop. This phenomenon has
nevertheless undermined the economies and investment-driving profiles of the
affected communities, as many local and foreign investors fear to invest in those
turbulent areas because of the risk that ethno-religious riots might pose not only to
their businesses but also their lives and those of their employees, undermining the
economic security of the affected communities in particular and the country in
general.
The inept handling of ethno-religious and other forms of riot by Nigerian Police has
been a source of worry as it is most times takes intervention of the military before
normalcy is restored. Law enforcement agents have also been accused of exhibiting
ethno-religious sentiments in the discharge of their duties. For instance, Onyeozili
(2005) claims that police in Nigeria have bad image for taking sides in handling ethnic
or communal riots, and often escalating the conflicts. He alleged that Nigeria police
“brazenly participated in flushing out south-easterners from hiding during the military
pogrom and the 1966 massacre of Easterners in the north” (Onyeozili, 2005: 41). If
the argument of Onyeozili (2005) is right, the issue of ethno-religious conflict is
reaching an alarming dimension because it will be more destructive if the Police or
any other law enforcement agents that are supposed to quell ethno-religious riots are
also found displaying ethno-religious sentiment or intolerance in the discharge of their
functions.
Explain ethno-religious conflict as a manmade security threat.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In the last units, we have studied the meaning and basic categories of security threat.
The growing danger that many manmade threats pose to the survival of any
community has actually attracted increasing attention of various security stakeholders
and practitioners to fathom ways, through which the impact of the manmade security
threats can be reduced or prevented. The advancement in world technology has further
made the world unsafe and on the verge of perpetual fear particularly resulting from
the development of nuclear weapons and other lethal substances that can decimate the
population by more than 25% if they are used. In the event of the usage of nuclear
weapon by any state or non-state actors, no less than 2.5 billion people will be
affected directly or indirectly. Also, the ecosystem will not be spared by the very
destructive effect that nuclear weapon can pose to the planet. It is against this
background that many national governments and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) through bilateral or multilateral arrangements to discourage proliferation of
weapons or the use of deadly weapons through several treaties and agreements like
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I & II).
5.0 SUMMARY
97
In this unit, we began our search into various manmade security threats by describing
the meaning and types of robbery. Thereafter, we discussed some other types of
manmade security threats including theft, arson, kidnapping, badger game, extortion,
insurgency, terrorism and finally ethno-religious conflict. You are expected to note
that there are several other types of manmade security threat that we could not treat in
this study due to limited time and space. And some of these threats include corruption
and embezzlement, gender discrimination, ethnocentrism, to mention a few. You are,
therefore, admonished to always engage yourself in further reading because it is
difficult to have an instructional material that will cover all areas of discourse
pertaining to any course. By and large, we hope that you have found this unit very
interesting. But, subsequently, we shall explore some other security threats yet to be
discussed in the last units.
Discuss any five types of manmade security threat.
Alemika, E. E. O. (1993). Colonialism, State and Policing in Nigeria. Crime, Law and
Social Change 20: 189-219.
Alemika, E. E. O. (1999). “Police Community Relations in Nigeria: What Went

Wrong?” Paper Presented at the Seminar on Role and Function of the Police in a Post-
Military Era, Organized by the Centre for Law Enforcement Education in Nigeria
(CLEEN), and the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) at the Savannah
Suite, Abuja, F. C. T., from 8th to 10th March.
Hoffman, B. (1998). Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.
Kasali, M. A (2009). PCR 261: Culture, Values and Conflicts in War. National Open
University of Nigeria.
National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (1976).

Disorders and Terrorism. Washington D.C.
Oxford English Dictionary (1989). Second edition.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of 10 December 1982,
Part VII: High Seas, Article 101. Also available on ://www.un.org/Depts/los/
convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part7.htm. Retrieved on 4 September, 2009.
Wardlaw, G. (1989). Political Terrorism: Theory, Tactics and Counter Measures.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2nd Edition).
Wilkinson, P. (1977). Terrorism and the Liberal State. London: Macmillan.
98
://criminal-law.freeadvice.com/violent_crimes/offenses _ robbery.htm. Retrieved on

31 August, 2009.
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapping. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbery. Retrieved on 31 August, 2009.
://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Theft. Retrieved on 31 August, 2009.
://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/698 3476.stm. Retrieved on 3 September, 2009.
://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn. Retrieved on 31 August, 2009.
://www.answerbag.com/q_view/68 079. Retrieved on 1 September, 2009.
://www.btp.presscentre.com/Content/Detail.asp?ReleaseID=675&NewsAreaID=2.
Retrieved on 4 September, 2009.
Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.. Retrieved on 3 September, 2009.
://ww.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Carjacking. Retrieved on 3 September,

2009.
://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Extortion. Retrieved on 3 September,

2009.
://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Kidnapping. Retrieved on 4 Sept., 2009.
://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Robbery. Retrieved on 3 September,

2009.
UNIT 3
INFORMATION WARFARE AS A SECURITY THREAT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Describing Information Warfare
3.2 Types of Information Warfare
99
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Information warfare is a relatively new term that has become a popular vocabulary in
national and international security settings. The concept of Information has
traditionally been a prominent feature of warfare, even right from the primitive age.
The concept has moved beyond the traditional methods of propaganda and spying.
Computers have brought a new dimension to information warfare. In contemporary

time, computers are used to perform a lot of functions as they now have great impact
on every aspect of human relations and development. Ten years ago, no less than 400
million people were using computers for various tasks but now the there are more than
1 billion computer users, which shows the growing relevance computers enjoy in the
new world order.
Well, the basis of this unit is not only to conceptually define information warfare but
also to focus on how information technology constitutes a security threat. It will
amount to disservice, if we fail to explain some of the major types of (modern)
information warfare. This we shall avoid by drawing our search-light also on various
types of information warfare. Thank you in anticipation for your attention. It is my
belief that you will find this unit very interesting.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define information warfare;
Discuss how it constitute a security threat; and
Identify types of information warfare

3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Describing Information Warfare
Traditionally, parties sought to know the strategic secrets of the other parties with the
aim of gaining strategic advantage over the enemy parties. Some people would be sent
to enemies’ camps for information-sipping and espionage. Information could also be
applied in form of propaganda and destructive rumours with the aim of subjecting the
enemy-party to perpetual confusion for political reasons.
100
Presently, information has assumed a more prominent role in relation between one
actor and the other in contemporary global system. The reason for this is not far-
fetched. The emergence of information revolution has created a new expression and a
paradigm shift in modern warfare (Libicki, 1995).
The philosophical idea, which formed the basis of the emerging information warfare
can be ascribed, or better still be linked to Sun Tzu ideological orientation, which is
interpreted as thus:
(A)ttaining one hundred victories in one hundred battles is not the pinnacle of
excellence. Subjugating the enemy’s army without fighting is the true pinnacle of
excellence (Translated in Sawyer, 1994).
Sun Tzu tried to present another face of strategy and warfare when he stressed on the
importance of creative application of information among parties, the greatest strategy
through which parties can meet their political goals rather than adopting the traditional
means of warfare like the use of weapons. The use of information in warfare is
relatively cheaper but its implication may be unprecedented and more destructive than
the traditional means of warfare.
Let us consider a scenario whereby young children arching information from a

nation’s military intelligence network, and subsequently corrupt and destroy its
strategic information infrastructure. Consequently, the impact of such electronic
intrusion and damage may be more devastating than aerial bombardment of such
nation. This tells us the importance of information technology in modern warfare and
security management.
The definition of information warfare has been a great subject of debate, especially in
the 1990s. The term information warfare appears too wide. It includes several aspects
of traditional military policy such as battlefield command and control warfare (C2W)
as well as other traditional types of electronic warfare (EW). Then, what is
information warfare? According to the Institute for the Advanced Study of
Information Warfare:
Information warfare is the offensive and defensive use of information and information
systems to exploit, corrupt, or destroy an adversary’s information and information
systems, while protecting one’s own. Such actions are designed to achieve advantages
over military or business adversaries ( .psycom.net/iwar.1.html).
The International Centre for Security Analysis describes information warfare as

“struggles for control over information activities”. It goes further to identify and
analyse various categories of information warfare, according to her: the first category
“encompasses the whole range of psychological, media, diplomatic and military
techniques for influencing the mind of an opponent, whether that opponent is military
commander or a whole population”.
101
In addition, the second category will focus on the ways through which the military or
the security sector can be transformed to the one that can dominate the “information
spectrum”. Thus, information dominance can be achieved through a party engaging
the other (enemy party) in a physical conflict “either unnecessary or at worst short,
sharp and successful”. The last category involves any form of electronic assault
directed against either the military or civilian information facilities (or both) of the
enemy party.
According to the US Air Force, information warfare can be described as:
(a)ny action to deny, exploit, corrupt, or destroy the enemy’s information and its
function-while protecting ourselves against similar actions (US Air Force (1995, 3-4)
Mark Jacobson on his part, defines information warfare as:
(a)ctions taken to preserve the integrity of one’s information infrastructure from

exploitation, corruption(,) or destruction while at the same time exploiting(,)
corrupting (,) or destroying an adversary’s information systems (,) thereby achieving
a military advantage (see .infowar.com/resource/warfare.doc).
The French Ministry of Defence describes information warfare as a concept, which

exhibits itself in three basic forms. And these forms help us in the conceptualization of
the term information warfare. According to her, the elements of information warfare
include:
War for information (guerre pour l’information): to obtain information about the
enemy’s means, capabilities and strategies in order to defend ourselves;
War against information (guerre contre l’information): at the same time to protect
our information systems and disrupt or destroy the enemy’s;
War through information (guerre par l’information): to conduct misinformation or

deception operations against the enemy in order to achieve “information dominance”
(see Moliner, 1998: 11).
Information warfare involves the application of computer and its related mechanisms
basically to plunder the military and/or civilian information networks of the enemy
party. It is no gainsaying that information warfare has begun to receive growing
interest among scholars in the field of security studies and policy makers due to its
ability to destroying military powers of enemy party.
However, information warfare is not prosecuted like traditional warfare. It is often

waged through disabling and crashing “an enemy’s armed forces and civilian
infrastructure without the use of a single bullet. The computer is the weapon of the
twenty-first century” (see .bu.edu/law/scitech/volume6/Robbat.htm#ftn1).
102
Information has remained a veritable tool of warfare from time immemorial. But it has
assumed a new dimension since the emergence of information revolution resulting
from the rapid sophistication of modern technology. The trend of modern information
system has made war a very interesting discourse.
Meanwhile, how will you feel, having a situation where nations or individuals conduct
war more through application of (modern) information systems rather than the
traditional physical aggression? What damage can a super-power like the US suffer
that is greater than crushing its economic power or hegemony?
Through information sipping, Asian countries like China have continued to constitute
an enormous threat to the US by imitating (or thieving) the American technology
models especially in automobile industry. The US would manufacture a car model
while China will do its imitation with improved quality, may even sell it at cheaper
rate, forcing buyers including Americans to rush for the China products. Due to the
emergent information revolution that characterizes the relations among state and non-
state actors, it is no news that war is fought on a daily basis through information, and
nonetheless:
There are countless ways malicious people can use a computer to perform illegal
activity—hacking into systems, leaking trade secrets, unleashing new viruses, using
phishing messages to steal personal information, and so on. And we are constantly
hearing about new exploits ( ://www.microsoft.com/technet/technetmag/issues
/2007/12/Forensics/).
The growing relevance of computers has nonetheless culminated in the contemporary

security threat that we face at every level of human relation, from personal through
national to global affairs. Enemy parties now give priority attention to ways they can
have strategic advantage over one another by attacking one another’s information
systems. These attacks are capable of not only destroying the information systems but
also constituting a threat to military and civilian infrastructures (see Lyett & Ibrügger,
1997).
What is information warfare?
3.2 Types of information Warfare
a) Data Attacks: These are done by inserting data into an information system to
distort its functionality like application of computer virus. The computer
viruses are often small programmes created and developed by some computer
science students, hackers, despicable programmers and some nefarious
computer corporations. These viruses are very destructive as they can easily
103
corrupt the information files on the target system(s), make the system(s)
malfunction or even crash the disk operating system (DOS) or even the storage
facilities like the hard drive;
b) Software Attacks: These involve penetrating the target information system(s)

by applying software to steal information or make the system(s) to fail,
malfunction or crash. There are software packages that can enable one’s
password to be accessed illegally while there are some others, which can make
the systems to malfunction. Some software if applied on your system will look
for some specific security files automatically allowing hackers to sip
information from your system(s) or even electronically destroy it;
c) Hacking and Cracking: This involves illegitimate entry into or control of

information system(s) to steal information or cause some forms of damage or
destruction to the system(s) including deleting of the target information (files).
Many of these hackers usually have evil intentions. They sometimes attack
their victims’ systems to destroy them completely or to spy and/or steal vital
information from the systems.
For instance, in the United States within the period of almost eleven months
(January to mid November 1998), the National Security Agency (NSA)
revealed that no less than 3800 illegal intrusions were attempted by hackers
against the Defence Department’s unclassified computer systems and networks.
But there’s the likelihood or possibility that the NSA deliberately reduced the
actual number of the intrusions for strategic reason(s). This is because there are
speculations that the actual number of intrusions was higher than the figure
announced or made public by the NSA ( .wired.com/news).
Another example is the case of two British boys who hacked or gained illegal
access into the system of the Air Force’s laboratories in New-York. The boys
gained the intrusion through the use of “sniffer” programme, which allowed
them to get the passwords and user-log-ins to the system network (see
.iwar.org.uk/iwar/resources/nato/as285stc-e.html).
It was no surprise, that in an attempt by the US to contain the security threat

being posed by the activities of hackers to its national security especially the
defence, the government allowed Pentagon to conduct a simulation exercise in
the summer of 1997. The simulation exercise was tagged “Eligible Receiver”.
The reason for the exercise was to see how much the US military and civilian
infrastructure could resist intrusion(s) and attack(s).
Therefore, a group of hackers known as the Red team was set up to do the
intrusion test. Though, the result of the exercise was not made public by the
government, James Adams, a Washington based journalist revealed, after
conducting a number of (secret) interviews for several senior officials of the
Pentagon that:
104
The [simulated] attacks focused on three main areas: the national information
infrastructure, the military leadership and the political leadership. In each of
these three areas, the hackers found it exceptionally easy to penetrate
apparently well-defended systems. Air traffic control systems were taken down,
power grids made to fail, oil refineries stopped pumping - all initially apparent
incidents. At the same time, in response to a hypothetical international crisis,
the Defence department was moving to deploy forces overseas and the logistics
network was swinging into action. It proved remarkably easy to disrupt that
network by changing orders [Š] and interrupt[ing] the logistics flow [Š]. The
hackers began to feed false news reports into the decision-making process so
that the politicians faced a lack of public will about prosecuting a potential
conflict and lacked detailed and accurate information [Š] (quoted in Walker &
Fidler, 1999).
There is no doubt that the danger posed by hacking to private and public
security is enormous. In the United States, the Federal Bureau for Investigation
(FBI) once reported saying that almost $10 billion is lost in the US through the
nefarious activities of the hackers (ibid). Such amount of money is far greater
than the annual budgets of several countries in Africa and elsewhere; and
d) Physical Attacks: This usually involves the use of traditional techniques like
physical destruction of information system through arson, bombing or hitting
an object against the system with the intention of destroying it. According to
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Draft Report on information
warfare and international security:
The immediate energy release from the denoted nuclear device produces
intense, rapidly varying electric and magnetic fields that can extend for
considerable distances and severely affect all electronic equipment and
electrical or radar even to the point of destroying equipment circuits,
microprocessors, and other component. Therefore, a single, very high altitude
nuclear blast….which may cause no physical damage to structures or people,
could disable all non-hardened information systems (see Error! Hyperlink
Considering the foregoing, you may agree with me that a physical attack can be
targeted against information system(s) through the use of several means particularly
the electro-magnetic pulse (EMP), which can be produced by nuclear explosions.
Discuss types of information warfare
4.0 CONCLUSION
105
There is rapid increase in people’s and nations’ reliance on computers. This is due to
the great impact information has on human and capital development. The growing
relevance of computers has also constituted a security risk to the world at large. There
is no doubt that the emergent information revolution will have some great impact in
conventional military engagement. It is no news that war planes are now being
equipped with more precision gadgets that will make it possible to hit the targets with
little or no civilian causalities. Information revolution has also made it possible to
‘crash’ a plane without shooting but through information manoeuvre.
5.0 SUMMARY
In the unit, we have been able to define the term information warfare and explain how
information warfare constitutes a security threat not only to nations but also
individuals as well as corporate entities. We thereafter discussed some of the basic
types of information warfare, which may include data attacks, software attacks, etc.
Define the meaning of information warfare and explain four types of information
warfare.
Adams, J.(1998). The Next World War. London: Hutchinson.
Libicki, M. (1995). What is Information Warfare? Washington, D.C.: Centre for

Advanced Concepts and Technology/National Defence University.
Lyell, L. & Ibrügger, L. (1997). Information Warfare and the Millennium Bomb.
General Report, NAA Science and Technology Committee [AP 237 STC (97) 7]. Also
available on ://www.iwar.org.uk/iwar/resources/nato/as285stc-e.html- 2. Retrieved on
6 January, 2008.
Molander, R. C., Riddile, A. S. & Wilson, P. (1996). Strategic Information Warfare:

A New Face of War. Santa Monica, California: RAND, MR-661-OSD.
Moliner, J. (Colonel) (1998). La Guerre de L’information Vue Par Un Operationnel

Francais. L’Armement, No. 60, Decemeber 1997-January 1998. Translated on
.iwar.org.uk/iwar/resources/nato/as285stc-e.html. Retrieved on 4 January, 2008.
Rathmell, A. (1998). Information Warfare and Sub-State Actors. Information,

Communication & Society, Winter 1(4): 488-503.
Smith, George (1998), “An Electronic Pearl Harbour? Not Likely”, Issues in Science
and Technology, Fall.
106
Walker, Tony and Stephen Fidler (1999), “China studies Computer Warfare”,
Financial Times, 16 March.
://www.abcnews.go.com/. Retrieved on 20 January, 2008.
://www.iwar.org.uk/iwar/resources/nato/as285stc-e.html-14. Retrieved on 20 January,

2008
.bu.edu/law/scitech/volume6/Robbat.htm#ftn1). Retrieved on 20th January, 2008.
.infowar.com/resource/warfare.doc). Retrieved on 21st January, 2008.
.iwar.org.uk/iwar/resources/nato/as285stc-e.html). Retrieved on 21 January, 2008.
://www.microsoft.com/technet/technetmag/issues/2007/12/Forensics/. Retrieved on
18 January, 2008.
://www.mod.uk/policy/sdr/. Retrieved on 28 January, 2008.
.psycom.net/iwar.1.html. Retrieved on 28 January, 2008.
.wired.com/news. Retrieved on 28 January, 2008.
UNIT 4
ARMS PRODUCTION AND PROLIFERATION AS A POTENTIAL THREAT

TO SECURITY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main body
3.1 Arms Proliferation and production
3.2 Arms Distribution Patterns: A Threat to Security
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
107

7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The issue of arms production and proliferation has been a source of worry in recent
time. There is no doubt that the two World Wars have created an atmosphere of
tension by laying solid foundation for arms race and pervasive insecurity. The incident
of World War II has had some destructive effects on mankind as well as the general
ecosystem without any limit in geographical boundary. The world has been greeted
with proliferation of a variety of assaulted weapons and agents of mass destruction,
where mutual deterrence has taken the form of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD).
The war has marked a new phase in the history of human tragedy. In 1945, America
infested two Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with pestilence through the
use of atomic bombs, which killed tens of thousands of people and many became
deformed. Today, after 64 years of the US bombardment of these two Japanese cities,
the local people as well as the ecosystem still suffer the effects of devastating damage
caused by those military actions. In this unit, we shall study how arms production and
proliferation constitutes a great threat to national and international security.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain the meaning of arms proliferation and production;
Discuss the origin of the current proliferation of weapons in the contemporary global
system; and
Examine the threat constituted by arms distribution patterns to national and

international security.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Arms Production and Proliferation
Arms proliferation may be defined as the spread of small arms or weapons designed
for use by individuals like pistols, assault rifles, sub-machine guns and light machine
guns. It may also involve spreading of light weapons which can be deployed and used
by a group of two or more people, and these include grenade launchers, portable anti-
aircraft and anti-tank guns, as well as recoilless riffles or even missile launchers and
mortars (less than 100mm). It may also involve the spread of atomic bombs and other
weapons of mass destruction, be it nuclear, biological or chemical, among the state
and non state actors, particularly the criminal mass of people and rogue states
(Treverton & Bennett 1997:1). However, except from the world powers, other state
108
and non-state actors are not allowed to produce or be in possession of weapons

considered as weapons of mass destruction.
On the production of small arms, depending on its sophistication, it can be produced

anywhere in the world. In Nigeria, there are many outlets thriving in the production
and sales of ‘aba’ guns in the eastern part of the country. Guns and petrol bombs are
manufactured in virtually all parts of Nigeria. But these local arms are crude and not
sophisticated like the ones coming from Europe, America and Asia. One cannot
compare ‘aba’ riffles with the AK-47 assault riffles.
It is worth-knowing that, despite the sophistication of these rifles, they are cheap,
robust and durable as they are very easy to manufacture. They can even be easily
assembled, transported and used by children. For instance, in Liberian war, child-
soldiers used AK-47 riffles in the prosecution of the civil war. This has given the
international community a great concern to formulating and implementing strategic
policy actions to reduce the proliferation level of small arms and light weapons
particularly among the world civilian population. Thus, these weapons have continued
to kill or exterminate an average of 200,000 people on annual basis in the so called
peaceful societies, while over 300,000 people are killed in conflict ridden societies, as
millions of people suffer various degrees of injuries (DFID, 2003:2).
Historically, during the Potsdam Conference (July 24, 1945) Josef Stalin of the Old
Soviet Union was informed by the US President Truman on the intention of his
administration to attack Japan, unless it (Japan) surrendered, with a very destructive
bomb that had been developed by the US. This bomb would have much devastating
and catastrophic effects on human and material resources. That bomb was atomic
bomb! Student, it is better, we discuss briefly the history of the atomic bomb, to aid
your understanding of the subject matter. In 1939, Albert Einstein wrote a letter to the
then American President, Mr. Roosevelt, informing the President of the need to carry
out a project on the development of atomic bomb and its possibility. This letter gave
birth to the American Manhattan Project in September 1942. But prior to that, a Soviet
Scientist, Georgi N. Flerov wrote the Soviet State Defense Committee in June, 1942
on the need to produce a uranium bomb. This period marked the beginning of arms
race in modern history. Thus, according to C.M. Roberts:
On December 2, 1942, the first chain reaction was achieved at the University of
Chicago. The comparable Soviet achievement came on December 24 1946. The Soviet
Union did not produce sufficient plutonium for a nuclear bomb test until 1949, more
than four years after the American test at Alamagordo, New Mexico (Roberts, 1974:
6).
After the innovation of the US in the development of Atomic bomb, the government
of Soviet Union reacted swiftly by calling on its scientists and engineers to defend
their homeland by building atomic bomb in no time. The reaction of the USSR
government was to check the US monopoly of Atomic weapon or military supremacy,
particularly when there was already a Cold War existing between the West and East
109
divides. Again, after Soviet Union’s invention of atomic bomb, a series of cautions
were made between the US and USSR because of their equal power relations to
mutual destruction.
Five months after the first Soviet nuclear test, the US President Truman announced the
intention of America to develop hydrogen bomb, a quantum jump in explosive power
with the aim of maintaining arms superiority. By November 1, 1952, the H-bomb
(Hydrogen bomb) was experimentally achieved in the US after the August 12 Soviet
invention. This period attracted affection for Missile Artistry by the then two super
powers (the US and USSR). By 1955, the two super powers had achieved deliverable
H-bomb capabilities, but were striving vigorously to achieve Inter-Continental
Ballistic Missile (ICBM) capabilities. The US later launched its first nuclear powered
submarine and development of huge B-52 bombers. On 26 of August, 1957, the
Soviet government announced the first test of an ICBM (Inter Continental Ballistic
Missile) and six weeks later, she also announced the “Sputnik project”. Other ballistic
missiles already developed were intermediate and medium range ballistic missiles
(IRBMs and MRBMs).
The two super powers later developed (ABM) Anti Ballistic Missiles which the Soviet
developed to provide limited defense against American Minuteman Missiles. The US
developed ABM system before the Soviet Union. She (the US) first began with Nike-
Zeus and then developed the then more advanced Nike X. Also in the 1960s, the US
developed MRV (Multiple Warhead Re-Entry Vehicle), which carried a cluster of
warheads for a buckshot effect. The US also considered in quick succession, the
building on the Multiple Independently Guided Warhead Re-Entry Vehicle (MIRV).
In Texas meeting, the US also considered the development of “poseidon”, a new
MIRV missile for Polaris submarines.
In order to further check the American supremacy in strategic military build-up, the
Soviet built new ICBMs, particularly the massive SS-9s as well as many nuclear
powered ballistic-missile submarines often known as Yankee Class (Y-Class), which
could match American Polaris Submarines. The Soviet also developed surface-to-air
missiles (SAM). China and some other countries have joined the world nuclear
powers, and there is an ongoing debate on the development of nuclear energy by Iran,
which most western nations believe that it would spell a bad omen to the majority of
the world population, if the US-coined “member of Axis of Evil” was developed by
Iran.
One of the reasons is that Iran may supply some of the terrorist organizations in the
world some of these destructive weapons to carry out their rebellious and destructive
operations against their target state and non-state actors. There is a ban on the
development of some weapons which, may be categorized as weapons of mass
destruction by the world body and United Nations but notwithstanding, some super
powers enjoy the production of these weapons.
110
Apart from these weapons of mass destruction like chemical and biological weapons
among others, the world still looms with heightened insecurity and tension due to the
proliferation of small arms and light weapons. Agents of destruction have increased
world’s incident of terrorism, crime, human abuse and bloody conflict, promoting the
attitude of intolerance and enmity and behaviour of violent revenge in the context of
elongation of violent conflict and disorder. The genesis of this problem could be
traced to the cold war era, which attracted military industrial complex initiative with
attendant turmoil on humanity and disarticulation of spirit of friendship. The growing
production of arms and weapons has been undermining the capacity of the security
sector to guarantee the safety of lives and property. This also instructs the submission
made by the erstwhile Secretary General of the United Nations, Mr Kofi Annan, and
according to him:
Small arms proliferation is not merely a security issue; it is also an issue of human
rights and of development (see the UN Millennium Report, 2000: 52).
In the 1990s alone, the number of small arms and light weapons in circulation was
more than 200 million but now the figure has drastically increased due to bloody
conflicts, civil wars and terrorist activities that have pervaded the entire globe. The
current estimate of arms in circulation stands at no less than 500 million. This view is
corroborated by Worldwatch Institute, stressing that:
More than 500 million military style hand-held weapons exist now- enough to arm
every 12th human on earth - and millions more are produced each year, reports a new
Worldwatch study released today. Violence fed by the uncontrolled spread of these
weapons is further destabilizing societies already ravaged by war, poverty, and
environmental degradation (Worldwatch Institute, 1997).
There is a growing number of illegal arms and weapons circulated among civilians in
Nigeria. The incidence of violent crime has reached a very destructive dimension such
that every innocent civilian and security practitioners in the country live in perpetual
fear due to lethality in the weapons being used by criminal gangs in recent time.
3.2 Arms Distribution Pattern: A Threat to Security
Proliferation of arms or weapons has really posed a great challenge to the maintenance
of law and order in all countries as no country can boast to be 100% free of violent
crimes. The adverse effect of this threat to national and international security has
necessitated giving greater security priority by various governments, initiating
unilateral, bilateral and multilateral approaches and policies to limit the production of
weapons particularly those considered capable of causing mass destruction like gas
bomb. The world government has embarked on integration of defense, development,
foreign policy, legal instruments and multilateral trade arrangement to mitigate the
threat of arms/weapons production and proliferation. The world has become aware of
the implications that arms proliferation can have on the world population, particularly
111
those from post conflict societies and economically weak states like Nigeria.
According to the Nairobi Declaration:
The problem of the proliferation of illicit small arms and light weapons in the region
has been exacerbated by internal political strife and extreme poverty… a
comprehensive strategy to arrest and deal with the problem must include putting in
place structures and processes to promote democracy, the observance of human right,
the rule of law and good governance as well as economic recovery and growth (The
Nairobi Declaration, March 2000).
The proliferation of weapons has really affected the security and peace of the
contemporary global system. An average of $2.8 trillion is spent annually on security
and defence, the bulk of which goes into production and procurement of arm facilities.
If such amount of money is spent on the alleviation of poverty annually, I am very
convinced that in five years, there would be no case of poverty anywhere in the world,
even in the most remote part of the world, not even shown on the world map. Despite
the debt regime being faced by most states in Africa, Africa’s budget on defence is
still very high. This patronage has even attracted more investors into the area of arms
production, posing a danger to national and world security.
The large quantities of small arms and light weapons looted from the Army armoury
in 1997, has resulted in the breakdown of law and order in Albania. But the UN
intervention saved the nation from total political collapse. In 1998, the UNDP
developed a community based programme in Gramsch, Albania where illegal arms
were surrendered. The organization embarked on local development projects like road
repairs, and telecommunication build-ups, which were labour intensive, affording the
civilians, a great opportunity to be gainfully employed. The UNDP incentives made
the demobilization process a success.
After the end of the civil war in El-Salvador, an average increase rate of 36% was
recorded on annual basis in the country on homicide related incidents. This has given
the police in the country a great concern considering the high risk involved in the
combat of this menace and management of security. It is no surprise that, most foreign
investors usually think twice before investing in the country because of the endemic
insecurity existent. Mozambique is another country where there are over 10 million
AK-47 assault riffles in circulation. An AK-47 riffles in Mozambique costs less than
$100. This has made management of security in Southern Africa a great task, as the
incidence of violent crimes has astronomically been on the increase.
In West Africa, the civil wars in Sierra-Leone and Liberia have had some spilling
effects on the neighbouring countries. Cote d’Ivoire, a once relatively peaceful
country has joined the league of post cold-war civil strife countries in the sub region.
The country is still trying to cope with insurgent attacks from the rebels, achieving a
positive peace still remains off sight. The crime rate of banditry, arson, communal
conflict, religious crisis and assassination has gone up in Nigeria since 1990s, when
the war in Liberia became intense. Liberian civil war has contributed to proliferation
112
of small arms and light weapons in the neighbouring countries including Nigeria (Bar,
2005).
However, the use of sophisticated and deadly weapons by criminals is experienced

both locally and globally. For instance, insurgent bombing and shooting in the Niger
Delta region of Nigeria and violent armed robbery attacks like Idi-Ape bank robbery
incident in Ibadan where many innocent civilians and policemen were killed by the
robbers, have shown the destructive nature of modern weapons used and their high
capacity to undermine the security of any people or communities. On international
front, the danger that proliferation of weapons pose to security of lives and property
was displayed in several ugly events like the London bombing, the ‘unbomber’
incident in the US, Coke Prince operations in Columbia, bombings in Egypt, the
Basque bombings in Spain; among others. Some of the terrorist organizations in the
world have even adopted the use of chemical weapons like Anthrax against their
target population. The United States of America experienced incident of anthrax
attacks on some of its citizens, just after the Sept. 11, 2001 terrorist attack on the US.
The initial demobilization exercise supervised by ECOMOG that took place in Liberia
failed because, there were still many arms in circulation among the civilians and
another reason was that the Taylor ex-combatants were not demobilized, which
created a room for suspicion, which later (among other reasons) resulted in another
outbreak of armed conflict in that country. That development nevertheless thwarted
the efforts to effectively reconstruct post conflict Liberia for lasting peace and security
in Liberia until the end of Taylor’s rulership.
Somalia is another case study where over-circulation of arms among the people has
led to the collapse of political institutions in that country such that there is unstable
government. The phenomenon of piracy resulting from the activities of several
criminal gangs in that war-torn country has been a source of worry to the world at
large. Many ships’ owners and workers have fallen victim of the nefarious activities of
the Somali pirates. Nigeria has its bitter tale from the criminal activities of these
pirates as captioned by Afrik.Com as follows:
Nigerian sailors captured by Somalian pirates have been released after ten months in
captivity. A group of government delegates have been dispatched to Yemen to
facilitate the return of the freed sailors. The pirates demanded a one million dollar
ransom, but it is not clear if any ransom has been paid ( ://en.afrik.com/article
15791.html)
There is no doubt that absence of government in true sense since 1991 resulting from
the endless civil war that has been plaguing the country for almost for almost two
decades has contributed to over-circulation of arms and weapons among the Somali
population. There has been a great challenge on the government (with political power)
to ensure security of lives and property. The country is experiencing humanitarian
crisis and it remains one of the highest contributors of refugees on the continent of
Africa. All efforts by African Union and other peace stakeholders have continued to
113
be fruitless because of the presence of large number of arms and weapons among the
people. It is only when effective disarmament and demobilization is attained that the
security of lives and property can be guaranteed in that war-torn country.
By and large on the issue of distribution pattern, we can say that distribution pattern of
arms proliferation can either be vertical or horizontal. Horizontal distribution pattern
involves the distribution or access to arms by all state and non-state actors. Weapons
that can be found at this level may include small arms and light weapons. On the other
hand, vertical distribution pattern usually involves large weapons or weapons of mass
destruction like nuclear weapons, which are limited in access and production. It is the
world powers like the US, Russia, among others that can produce and access these
weapons due to the very destructive impact that the use of such weapons can have on
the world population and environment. Non-state actors and weak or less powerful
states are also barred from producing or/and accessing it. But, the recent development
is that some other states not officially in the league of nuclear powers have began to
embark on building nuclear plants and there is high suspicion that these countries can
either be careless or reckless in the handing of these deadly materials especially if
terrorists find their way into possessing them.
How do you describe the present state of small arms proliferation in your country?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The devastating effects of arms proliferation are enormous and have necessitated the
need to always call for global attention in the maintenance of security. Quite a number
of research and policy plans have been developed to address the devastating effects of
arms proliferation problem in the contemporary world system. Some instruments of
disarmament have been developed and ratified by several nations of the world with
the aim of promoting peace and security. There have persistent commitments by the
UN Security Council, United Nations at large, regional and sub-regional organization,
to always facilitate and maintain a series of Arms Limitation Treaties as a way of
fostering world peace and security.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we began our study by explaining the meaning of arms production and
proliferation. We also traced the origin of the current proliferation of arms/weapons
undermining national and international security to the World wars and 1945
emergence of the Cold War. We went further to examine distribution pattern of the
proliferated arms/weapons in the global system and the attendant negative effects it
has on the capacity of governments to maintain security in their various countries.
114
i) What is arms proliferation;

ii) Briefly discuss the history of arms proliferation; and
iii) Describe what you understand by arms distribution patterns.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Bar, M. S, (2005). West Africa: From a Security Complex to a Security Community.

African Security Review 14 (2). Also available on ://www.iss.co.za/index.php
?link_id=3&slink_id=1936&link_type=12&slink_type=12&tmpl_id=3. Retrieved on
3 December, 2009.
Boutros–Ghali, B. (1992). An Agenda for Peace. New York: United Nations.
DFID (2003). Small Arms and Light Weapons. A UK Policy Briefing.
Green, W. & Punnett, D. (1963). MacDonald World Air Power Guide, Garden City,
New York: Doubleday & Co.
Lieuwen, E. (1961). Arms and Politics in Latin America, New York: Praeger
Roberts, C. M. (1974). The Road to Moscow. In: Willrich, M & Rhinelander, J. B.

(eds.). SALT: The Moscow Agreements and Beyond. New York; The Free Press.
Sutton, J. L. & Kemp, G. (1966). Arms to Developing Countries: 1945-1965. London:

Institute of Strategic Studies.
The Nairobi Declaration on the Problem of the Proliferation of Illicit Small Arms and
Light Weapons in the Great Lakes Region and the Horn of Africa, March 2000.
Treverton, G. F. & Bennett, B. W. (1997). Integrating Counter-Proliferation in

Defense Planning. St. Monica: RAND. Issue Paper.
United Nations (2000). We the Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st
Century. Millennium Report.
Worldwatch Institute (1997). Small Arms Proliferation: The Next Disarmament
Challenge. 25 October. Also available on ://www.worldwatch.org/node/1615.
Retrieved on 7 September, 2009.
://en.afrik.com/article 15791.html. Retrieved on 2 September 2009.
.news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAMR360112005. Retrieved on 2 May 2007.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_arms_proliferation. Retrieved on 2 May 2007.
.globalpolicy.org/security/smallarms/articles/2003/0630menace.htm. Retrieved on 2
May 2007.
115
.prospect-magazine.co.uk/list.php?subject=151. Retrieved on 2 May 2007.
.smallarmsnet.org/issues/themes/armsprol.htm. Retrieved on 2 May 2007.
.thenation.com/directory/nuclear_arms_proliferation. Retrieved on 2 May 2007.
.worldwatch.org/node/1615. Retrieved on 2 September 2009.
UNIT 5
WAR AS A SECURITY THREAT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Meaning of war
3.2 Features of War
3.3 Categories of Warfare
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
116
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, marking the end of the Cold War era, security
discourse and practice has undergone a number of transformations. There has been a
paradigm shift in the analysis of security issues in recent times. It is noticeable that
new security threats have emerged, as non-state actors appear to pose greater security
risk to national and international communities. The hopes of having a global system
that will be devoid of war and violent crimes by many quarters, have been dashed
considering the state of the world polity where perpetual insecurity has become the
order of the day.
The very virulent nature of emerging security threats has been a source of worry to
governments at all levels (from local to global). The growing loyalty of people
towards sub-state entities and the pervasive attitude of ethnic nationalism and
ethnocentrism have been undermining the potential of countries like Nigeria to
effectively manage internal security, reducing the capacity of the government to
achieve nation-building. The relevance of the security sector in the maintenance of
law and order in Africa especially has been a subject of debate. The recent incident of
Boko Haram crisis in northern Nigeria especially Borno and Bauch states where some
anti-Western education Muslim fanatics engaged security agents in bloody battle, a
situation that led to more than 1,000 deaths.
The unprofessional handling of the situation by the Nigeria Police raised a doubt
about ability to manage crime and overall internal security of the country. If the
excesses of the Boko Haram sect had not been checked by the law enforcement agents
(especially the Army), the group may later have decided to engage Nigerian state in
Jihad (holywar) as a way of challenging its secularity. In this unit, we shall be
studying war as a threat to security. Owing to the danger that war poses not only to the
people but also the environment, it is germane to put in place relevant security
strategies and policy actions that can assist in mitigating the threat of war.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define the term war;
Describe the features of war; and
Explain the categories of warfare.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Definition of War
117
The term war is often given some interpretative connotations ‘whose meanings, rarely
examined’ (Smith, 1989:23). The conceptualisation of war has remained problematic
in international relations. It has been greatly flexible and dynamic. War may be
described as open armed conflict between nations or states or between parties in the
same states, facilitated by force of arms for various purposes. Thus, there exist
specific parameters to define the concept of war. According to Professor Tunde
Adeniran, war involves:
…….. common agreement, that is distinct from peace, and it is characterized by

military activity, high social and political tension, and the breakdown of normal
relations. War could result from a deliberate and carefully calculated decision… It
could also be a choice among alternative courses of action and could be only course
one is left it. It is a phenomenon which affects everybody and all nations, irrespective
of ideologies, and irrespective of the level of economic and political development
(Adeniran, 1982: 123).
War can also be defined as protracted state of violent, large-scale conflict involving
two or more parties. War is aggression and counter-aggression whose chief property is
large scale destruction both in human and material terms within the context of time
and space. According to Carl Von Clausewitz, “It is of course well known that the
only source of war is politics .....war is simply a continuation of political intercourse,
with the addition of other means” (Clausewitz, 1982: 119).
War has remained a regular feature in human civilization. It often spices the
relationship between parties, and in spite of its virulence and danger to continued
existence of man, war has remained recalcitrant in human history. War spices every
century, race, continent, nation, society and culture, which makes it pretty impossible
to study human history without taking a look at the activities and actions of man,
which have aroused a violent conflict behaviour as well as the role played by upsurge
of the war situation in shaping the relationship among various state and non-state
actors. Thus, considering the foregoing, one tends to agree with Clemenceau as quoted
by Andreas Osiander (1994):
From the most remote ages onward, the peoples have perpetually assailed one
another for the satisfaction of their appetites and their egoistical interests [and their
fears (Osiander, 1994:265)
Nonetheless, wars vary in intensity. We have high intensity warfare and low
intensity warfare. High intensity warfare is between two superpowers or powerful
countries fighting for political goals. Low intensity warfare involves
counterinsurgency, guerrilla warfare and specialized types of troops fighting
revolutionaries.
How do you describe the term war?
118
3.2 Features of War as a Security Threat
The experiences of the 20th century have shown that the century recorded more war
with incomparable human casualty than previous centuries put together. According to
Gray (1999), the century produced two world wars, a handful of international wars,
cold war, anti-colonial insurgence, ethnic violence among others. The century also
marked the beginning of sophisticated and lethal technology in weaponry and
prosecution of war. The emergent war technology has presented the world as unsafe
not only to man but also the general ecosystem. The underlying threat that war poses
to security of lives and property of any people is very high, as captioned by Braden
and Shelley:
War has been as analogous to disease in its spread and effect. It has been likened to
natural disasters in its impact on society’s structures (Braden & Shelley, 2000:69)
Similarly, the view of Braden & Shelley (2000) was further illuminated by Osisioma
Nwolise who argued that:
War destroys life, and property, principles and values, and wakes up beastly elements
in man. War leads to environmental pollution and degradation. It kills human beings
in their millions depending on the magnitude.....and forces people to leave their homes
and become refugees in their country or outside. War diverts the developmental
resources of a state to defence and war-making. It retards the rate of development of a
people and a state, at least in the short-run. It spreads pestilence, destitution, hunger
and starvation. It creates gross insecurity and traumatises people (Nwolise, 2004: 8).
Clausewitz in his axiom argues that the relationship between means and objectives of
war involves a situation where the latter remains paramount throughout the war.
Clausewitz also describes the war environment in his ‘climate of war’ as having four
features, which include danger, exertion, uncertainty and chance, concluding that
war is both deadly and a gamble. To stimulate our better understanding of the subject
matter, it is quite imperative to examine the above mentioned features of war as
presented by Clausewitz.
Danger of War
On danger of war, no one will disprove the damaging and destructive implication of
war not only on human beings and material resources but also on the entire
ecosystem. The tendency for mutual destruction is high. The danger of war is not
limited to the combatants but also extends its virulence and social venom to parties not
directly involved in the conflict or not involved at all.
A good example was the Sierra Leone Civil War, which began in 1991 where several
thousands of innocent civilians lost their lives as more than 2 million people (well
over one-third of the population) were displaced. Neighbouring countries became
119
hosts to a significant number of these displaced persons as refugees while trying to

escape the civil war.
The civil war was initiated by the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) led by Foday
Sankoh. The rebel group (RUF) launched its first bloody campaign into eastern
Kailahun of Sierra Leone from Liberia on March 23, 1991. In less than five months,
the crisis had generated about 107,000 refugees who fled the conflict into Guinea
(Adebajo, 2002:90). Foday Sankoh was the head of the military wing of the RUF that
included in its ranks Burkinabes and members of the National Patriotic Front of
Liberia (NPFL) under the tutelage of Mr. Charles Taylor.
The civil war in Sierra Leone featured conscription of Children by the RUF rebel
group in the recruitment of its army, sexual slavery, murder of non-combatants among
other war crimes. Nevertheless, such acts were tantamount to the contravening various
international conventions and protocols guiding the conduct of war.
However, it is not surprising that the chief co-conspirator in such shameful and
dastardly act, Charles Taylor is now facing trial at the Hague over alleged war crime
offence, and if he is found guilty he may spend the rest of his life in prison. It is
important to note that not all the leaders of the RUF particularly the intellectuals
among them supported the rebel strategy adopted by Sankoh. Many of them berated
and condemned forced recruitment of children although a lot of these disentting voices
were brutally murdered by Foday Sankoh. The war led to the collapse of all state
structures with attendant socio-political disorder and structural cataclysm.
A numbers of scholars have blamed the upsurge of the crisis basically on the irrational
desire of the political gladiators to exclusively enjoy the control of Sierra Leone's
diamond industry (Hirsch, 2000: 15). The endemic poverty, which reigned supreme
among the mass public also contributed. Thus, the majority of people were subjected
to marginal survival as chronic penury remained second nature.
The 1999 Lomé Agreement failed to restore any peace in the country due to the
strategic advantage it gave the RUF rebels as Foday Sankoh was put in charge of the
mineral resources of the country, meaning that the diamond trade was largely under
the control of the rebels. The attempt made by the United Nations (UN) to reduce the
rebels’ control of the diamond fields was greeted with resurgence of the civil war. The
situation of insecurity became deepened. The RUF resorted to carrying out an
offensive campaign against the UN troops. It took the intervention of the British
troops to save the country from persistent bestiality in the hands of the rebels. The
British military intervention in that war-torn country is commendable owing to the
success it recorded in the restoration of peace and security in Sierra Leone.
The rebel leader was captured and the British left a training team to rebuild the armed
forces of Sierra Leone as effective institution for sustainable post conflict state
security. British actions were instrumental to eventual American intervention in
Liberian war. It is a fact that the termination of armed hostility in Liberia has really
120
helped in providing stability on Sierra Leone's borders and restoring normal market
forces to the diamond trade.
The danger of war in West Africa could be observed in the volume of refugee
generation in the region, which has increased trans-border crime, armed robbery and
wide circulation of small arms and light weapons among the civilian population
making the prevailing atmosphere of peace a fragile one. The number of small arms in
Nigeria has increased tremendously since the outbreak of war in Liberia in the early
1990s.
The inherent danger in the outbreak of war in any country is instructive to the
activities of the neighbouring countries in making sure that peace is restored in the
warring state because of the potentials of such war, in spreading to the neighbouring
countries. Great Lake region is a good example where war has become an infectious
disease plaguing the countries in the region, which makes the region the highest
generator of refugee flow on the African continent. The region has had the lion share
in the flows of refugees in Africa. The countries that we find in this region include
Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo), Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda
and Uganda. All these countries at one time or the other have contributed to the
production of refugees in the region except Tanzania (see Afolayan, 2003; Evans,
1998; UNHCR, 1991).
Exertion
Exertion is the act of putting some power or faculty into vigorous action. War saps
energy as it involves both mental and physical strength. Soldiers are disciplined and
drilled for the task they will face in the theatre of war. It is no question that anybody
recruited into the military must be physically fit and be emotionally stable. War is not
a joke, it is serious business!
There are some light weapons that an average man cannot carry. Not every adult can
withstand operating an AK-47 riffle because of the pressure it exerts. Apart from the
physical strength that is required in any anticipated successful military campaign, the
troops or belligerents must also have an advantage in the area of tactical support
capabilities, which puts the mental ability at work.
Also, war consumes a lot of socio-economic resources. In Iraq war, the US and its
allies must have spent nothing less than $30 trillion apart from human casualty being
recorded almost weekly, if not daily, on the side of their (the US and its allies) troops.
The war has really sapped the economy of the US to the extent that the country is said
to be on the verge of economic recess.
Uncertainty
The power relation between the armed gladiators is viewed to often determine the
outcome of a violent hostility. In a case whereby there is assymetric relation in the
121
power equilibrium of the disputing parties, on average person will believe that the
outcome of such conflict will always be in favour of the stronger party. It is often
believed that in a situation of armed conflict between a great and weak nation,
considering the military capability, mobility, and strategic superiority enjoyed by the
former over the latter, the former (great power) would be the victor.
Carl Von Clausewitz disagreed with the above notion, arguing that war is not only
risky business but is also coloured by uncertainty. The fiasco suffered by the US in the
Vietnam war as well as the failure of the US and its allies to conclude the war in Iraq
have given credence to the argument articulated by Clausewitz.
Despite the asymmetric power relation between Iraq and the US led allied forces, the
war in Iraq has remained more prolonged than expected. This explains why a number
of scholars in the fields of politics and conflict studies fondly say that the US and its
allies have only succeeded in winning the war but not the battle. This is because the
war has moved from conventional to unconventional violence. The number of the US
troops being injured or killed on weekly bases by the local militants through guerrilla
war strategy is considerably high.
Another example of uncertainty in the outcome of war is the Sino-Japanese War. The
Sino-Japanese war was the first major international war involving China after 1860.
The war was between China and Japan. The relationship between the duo had never
been cordial even before the outbreak of the war. The cause of their armed hostility
was the control of Korea. Korea had been a tributary of China for a long time. China
was displeased with the bilateral diplomacy entered into between the Seoul
government and Japan, an age-long rival.
The bilateral diplomacy became further cemented in the following years. Then
emerged a clash of influence between China and Japan, when the former wanted to
continue maintaining its traditional influence in Korea, the government of the latter
was all out to consolidate the diplomatic relation between her and the Seoul
government.
The gladiatorial posture was maintained by the duo of China and Japan until the
emergence of full blown war between them in 1894. The war lasted for one year. Due
to the size of the Chinese army and its naval superiority in the region, one would have
thought that China would win the war convincingly but to the surprise of the entire
world, Japan won the war. By 1895 a treaty was entered into the Treaty of
Shimonoseki which held that:
China had to recognize the independence of Korea and had to cede to Japan the
Island of Formosa, Pescadores Islands, and the Liaotung Peninsula (Strayer et al.,
1961: 318).
The world experience has shown that uncertainty is not limited to the outcome of war
but it also curries every aspect of war policy. A good example is the Fashoda Crisis.
122
England and Egypt were in control of Sudan, and due to the local revolt led by
“Madhi” Muhammed Ahmed, Britain decided to withdraw its administration of the
State (Sudan). The Madhi’s followers then took over the political administration of
Sudan. Britain quickly rescinded its decision to leave Sudan, when she noticed that the
French and Belgian colonizers were extending their imperial expedition towards
Sudan, knowing fully well that its interest was likely to be jeopardised for no more
reason than the headwaters of the Nile being controlled by the Sudan. By 1896, the
British and Egyptian forces under the tutelage of Lord Kitchener began to reintroduce
imperial administration in the Sudan. In 1898 Kitchener’s imperial exploration
approached the fort of Fashoda on the Nile, and discovered that French forces had
already annexed the Sudan to France. Then, there emerged a tension between the
British and French forces for the control of the Sudan.
The French rethought the war option because it considered its non-readiness to engage
the British forces in naval war. Therefore, the French had no other option than to leave
the Sudan. By 1899, the Britain and Egypt had established joint control of what later
became the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The French conceded to England, not because of
the fear to enter into war with England per se but the uncertainty that underlies war
articulation.
Chance
Chance can be referred to as unknown or undefined cause of events not subject to

calculation. According to Clausewitz (1982), war is a game of probability, or simply
put, a game of luck. War Weariness Hypothesis makes us to understand that a
country at war will definitely get tired and such country may lose the enthusiasm or
zeal which is likely to restore an atmosphere of peace. If we take a critical look at this
argument, we may support Clausewitz from the perspective that party A may decide
to engage Party B in war while Party B had just experienced a protracted war
situation with another party, and entering any prolonged war with Party A may be
considered by it (Party B) as uncalled for, if it can make concessions that may not
largely affect her interest for restoration of peace.
An example of this, is the anti-colonial armed struggle between the imperial forces of
portugal and the Mozambican liberation movement-Frente de Libertacao de
Mocambique (FRELIMO). FRELIMO was formed in 1962 and began its guerrilla
operations in 1964. Their mission was basically to wrestle political power from the
portuguese colonialists for the independence of Mozambique. At the time the anti-
colonial struggle was going on in Mozambique against the Portuguese colonial force,
Guinea Bissau’s Partido Africano de Independencia Guiné e Cabo Verde (PAIGI),
Guinea Bissau’s armed liberation movement was also waging war against Portuguese
colonialists in its home country. The two anti-colonial insurgent movements,
FRELIMO and PAIGI took the risk of waging war against the Portuguese forces
knowing that war weariness may set in, coupled with the political challenge Portugal
was facing at home. It was believed that those two reasons might have forced the
123
Portuguese to accept their fate in the battle for supremacy. Eventually, Portugal had to
abandon the countries.
Sometimes, the above-mentioned calculation may not work, considering that the
activities of Germany after the First World War Germany was sanctioned and faced a
great penalty for war-mongering. Although, the country still undertook a very risky
adventure by going into another war in the realisation of the Nazist lebensraum project
as well as other variables, nonetheless, it took the whole of Europe by surprise that
despite the defeat Germany suffered in the World War I and its consequences on her,
the country still embarked on offensive mission, which snowballed into World War II.
Adolf Hitler took the risk to launch the German race into racial eminence and
superiority but he, his Nazist Gestapo and the entire Germany became the victims of
their own (war) policy.
Explain the features of war as posited by Clausewitz.
3.3 Categories of Warfare.
There are two major categories of warfare. These include conventional warfare and
unconventional warfare. For conventional warfare, it involves well-identified, armed
confrontation between parties. A good example is the Iraq war, i.e. the early part of
the war when the allied forces led by the US and Britain engaged the Iraqi regular
soldiers and irregular forces in an open military campaign. This kind of open armed
confrontation is supposed to be devoid of application of weapons of mass destruction
as mandated by the laws of war and several other conventions.
Unconventional warfare refers to any armed conflict that does not involve the parties
engaging in an open confrontation. This category of warfare is often adopted mostly in
a situation whereby the combatants have asymmetric power relation. After the defeat
of the Iraqi forces in an open armed hostility, many of the Iraq soldiers that survived
the military onslaught by the allied forces went underground.
Many of the old Iraqi guards are responsible for the guerrilla offensive being carried
out against the allied forces as well as the local people. The reign of terror pervades
the entire post-Saddam political landscape in Iraq. This category of warfare usually
involves tactics like raiding, terrorism, insurgency, guerrilla, even as well as nuclear,
chemical or biological warfare.
What are the categories of war?
4.0 CONCLUSION
124
War remains a great threat to the security of any country. May be because of its
devastating effect, it has continued to attract growing attention among scholars,
policy-makers and militarists. It has become worrisome that since the beginning of
the Cold War era, nationalist struggle and rebellion have been phenomenal in
developing countries, especially of Africa leading to a series of civil wars and
insurgencies as experienced in Nigeria, Sierra-Leone, Angola, to mention a few. The
incident of genocide mounted by the inter-ethnic violence in Rwanda continues to be a
nightmare. The capacity of the security sector to maintain law and order has
persistently been undermined by local insurgents and rebel forces. This situation has
posed a great challenge to security management in Africa.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we discussed the meaning of war and showed how it constitutes a threat to
security of any people or state in our conceptual definition. Thereafter, we explained
various features of war with credence to the intellectual contributions to the study of
war by Clausewitz (1982). The third and last area of discourse about the subject was
to explain the basic categories of warfare: conventional and unconventional. Thank
you for your patience and the zeal you have demonstrated since the beginning of this
unit to acquire knowledge.
Define the term war and explain the features of wars as articulated by Clausewitz.
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READING
Adebajo, A. (2002). Liberia's Civil War: Nigeria, ECOMOG, and Regional Security
in West Africa. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Adeniran, T. (1982). Introduction to International Relations, Lagos: Macmillan

Nigeria Publishers Limited.
Afolayan, A. A. (2003). Dynamics of Refugee Flows and Forced Repatriation in

Africa. African Journal of Peace and Conflict Studies. 1(1): 66-90.
Braden, K. E. & Shelley, F.M. (2000). Engaging Geo-Politics. Harlow:Prentice

Hallsee.
Clausewitz, C. V. (1982). On War. London: Penguin Books.
Evans, G. (1998). Responding to Crisis in the African Great Lakes. Forced Migration
Review, 1: 32-33.
Gray, C (1999), Modern Strategy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
125
Hirsch, J. L. (2000). Sierra Leone: Diamonds and the Struggle for Democracy.
Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. (December 1).
Nwolise, O.B.C. (2004). The Nigerian Police in International Peace-Keeping in a

Changing World. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Osiander, A. (1994). (quoting Georges Clemenceau December 29, 1918), The States
System of Europe, 1640–1990. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
Smith, R.S. (1989). Warfare and Diplomacy in Pre-Colonial West Africa (2nd
Edition). London: James Currey Ltd.
Strayer, J.R., Gatzke, H.W. & Harbison, E.H. (1961). The Course of Civilization
(Volume Two). NewYork: Harcourt, Brace and World Inc.
UNHCR (1991), Refugee Survey Quarterly, Geneva.
MODULE 3
Unit 1: Safety Measures to Management of Natural Threats

Unit 2: Safety Measures to the Management of Manmade Threats I
Unit 3: Safety Measures to the Management of Manmade Threats II
Unit 4: Civil Security: Meaning and Approaches I
Unit 5: Civil Security: Meaning and Approaches II
UNIT 1
SAFETY MEASURES TO THE MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL THREATS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
126
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Safety Measures against Earthquake
3.2 Safety Measures against Flood
3.3 Safety Measures against Hurricane
3.4 Safety Measures against Drought
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0. INTRODUCTION
In the last five units our attention has been drawn to some major security threats. Our
studies covered crucial aspects of these security threats. Apart from those threats
considered to be manmade and natural, we also discussed some other kinds of threats,
like information warfare. In this unit however we shall attempt to provide some safety
tips in the management of natural security threats or hazards. The rationale behind our
decision to explain some of the ways to manage these natural threats or hazards is to
advance the knowledge on safety ideas and practices that can help us to mitigate the
effect of any major natural threat. Let us quickly go through various tasks that we
need to undertake in this unit in the objectives of the study.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain safety measures in the management of earthquake;
Discuss safety tips useful in managing flood;

Describe the essential safety steps to managing hurricane; and
Elucidate on safety instructions in preparing against and responding to drought.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Safety Measures against Earthquake
Earthquake is an unexpected and hazardous vibration resulting from the sudden shake
of the Earth's crust. It is usually caused by rupture of geological faults but nuclear
experiments, landslides, mine blasts as well as volcanic activity can also provoke the
earth to quake. One important feature of earthquake is that there is no technology or
electronic device that can adequately predict any occurrence of earthquake but some
parts of the world are more prone to this hazardous situation than others. It is therefore
imperative to present some of the safety tips that we can observe for hazard mitigation
as follows:
127
Before the occurrence of earthquake
a) One of the safety tips to the management of earthquake before it occurs, is to

always ensure that you equip your homes with drinking water, adequate food
(particularly the non-perishable food items like rice), transistor or any mobile
radio with ordinary or rechargeable batteries, torch with batteries, as well as
first-aid kits.
b) It is imperative to educate the public on how to manage their home appliances

and build in themselves the culture of safety like switching off electricity
or/and gas cooker or/and electrical appliances when these are not in use. Apart
from safety, such culture helps families to save money, which would have gone
into settling of huge energy bills as well as conservation of energy.
c) It is also important to prepare yourself towards mitigating the effect that

earthquake may have on your household by identifying places in your house
that can be used as cover in the event of occurence of earthquake
( ://kashmirdivision.nic.in/Disaster_ Management/dm_center.htm).
d) You are also expected to always have your phone charged and you should
endeavour to keep the backup copy of the list of contacts on your phone in a
separate place most preferably a book. So, when your phone is misplaced or
stolen or destroyed, you can still have a backup through which you can access
your list of contacts. By having the contacts, you can easily contact any other
relative(s) or friends to alert him/her of the situation of earthquake. By doing
this, you will enable others to reach you to monitor the state of safety of the
affected person(s). Apart from that, you will be able to alert others who may be
coming to the place of the prevailing hazardous circumstance with the aim of
reducing casualty. Here, one will be expected to call relative(s) or friend(s) that
are far away from the site where the hazard is taking place.
e) If you are relocating to a location prone to earthquake, you should ensure that
the house is retrofitted with earthquake safety measures. One of the ways to do
this, is by “reinforcing the foundation and frame” (Error! Hyperlink reference
not valid.). These measures can help to make the house resistant to quivering. It
is therefore advisable to always contract qualified building and structural
engineers before you do your construction.
During the incident of earthquake
As we may already have been aware, earthquake is one natural hazard that cannot be
predicted by any modern technology. Often times, when an earthquake is about to
occur, there is a loud sound indicating its arrival. One is only left with very little or no
time to prepare against the hazard and any important steps that you take at this
material time will go a long way to determine how much you will be able to mitigate
128
or reduce the losses that such a hazard may attract. During the hazard, it is expected of
you to know some important steps to take so that the hazardous situation will not have
too negative or destructive an impact on you and those around you. Steps to take
should include:
a) You should take cover by looking for a very safe place where you can veil
yourself against any falling objects like walls, ceiling fans, etc. It is advisable
to lie under a table or well-built furniture, and be smart enough to move when it
moves. You should also make sure that furniture are well positioned to prevent
them from stumbling;
b) You should also avoid standing in doorways because of the possibility of

having violent motion slamming the door against you. Avoiding this will also
guard you against being hit by any flying objects, some of which may be very
deadly;
c) Endeavour as much as you can to move away from windows, mirrors, book
shelves, or any place where heavy objects can fall on you. As we have said
earlier, the major destruction does not emanate from earthquake itself but by
the conditions that occasion it. One of the conditions is vibration that can fall
heavy objects as well as walls of the buildings and the buildings themselves.
For instance, if someone has some giant lightening equipment hung on the
ceiling, and earthquake occurs, there is the possibility that such heavy
lightening decorator will fall off the ceiling, which can lead to the injuries or
even death if it fall on a person. This shows that we need to consider the
geophysical conditions of a place before we decide on the decorations that we
can use to beautify our houses;
d) If you find yourself in a tall building, avoid using the lift to get out of that
building. It is advisable rather that you negotiate your escape from such
building going through the stairs. The emergency nature of this hazard
(earthquake) does not usually give much time for evacuation. Therefore, you
can stay where you are or better-still proceed to the uppermost floor of the
building if the task will not be strenuous. This will afford you an opportunity to
be reached by an emergency if there is a case of collapse of the building. The
rescue teams usually reach the victims on the uppermost segment of the rubble;
e) If you are outside, ensure that you are in a open place where no buildings or
electric wires and poles or trees or street lights or telephone facilities or any
other heavy objects can fall on you or get you electrocuted;
f) In a situation whereby a home damage is experienced, you are advised to leave

the premises and make sure that you have drinking water, food, medicines as
well as essential documents with you as you leave. The reason is not far-
fetched, there is likelihood that the vibration might have weakened the
foundation of the house, and the collapse of the house is not unlikely. It is
129
therefore important to vacate such a house until after the hazard when the
services of building experts will be required. The building experts and
engineers will investigate if the foundation of the building has been (badly)
affected by the quake. If it is affected, it is advisable to pull down the structure
to avoid further casualty. This is one of the challenges being faced in post-
hazard environments. It is incumbent on the government to assist the victims
with alternative housing, and there should be emergency funds to assist the
victims in the reconstruction of their homes;
g) It is also important to distance oneself from any electric wires and avoid
touching any metals especially those in contact with electric cables. The reason
is that there may be electric current in those wires and metals, capable of
getting anybody that touches any of such objects electrocuted;
h) Another safety measure bothers on being on transit probably in a vehicle. Here,

you are expected to disembark from the vehicle or soon as you find somewhere
safe to park. The place should be far away from buildings, trees, streetlights,
electric poles, or other objects that may considered to have potentials to harm
you; and
i) Similarly, you should avoid using bridges whenever you are aware that a
situation of earthquake has occurred in a place. This is because there is
likelihood that the base of the bridges may have been affected or badly
damaged by the quake.
After the incident of earthquake
a) Due to the presence of debris in the aftermath of earthquake, you are advised to
wear cover shoes to avoid your feet being exposed to any dangerous particles
or sharp objects that may get you injured or infected;
b) It is important to also note that after initial tremor from the earthquake, in the
coming days, week or even months, aftershocks can make weakened structures
to collapse. So, if one hears a tremor emanating from the sound of collapsing
structures, one should not get traumatised, and should expect such to happen in
the aftermath of an earthquake;
c) As a result of the foregoing, it is pertinent to vacate all the buildings affected

by the quake until their conditions are ascertained by the relevant building
engineers. If one’s house is found to be structurally damaged, it is expected that
the person and his/her co-occupants should immediately vacate the building to
prevent avoidable deaths or injuries;
130
d) The use of battery-operated radio and torch can come in handy because the
effect of the tremor may also include damage of electric facilities, leaving the
affected areas in blackout. However, you can use your touch to see and the
radio will serve a significant purpose of allowing you to monitor events right
from where you are. The interviews and comments by emergency experts
invited on a radio will definitely go a long way to influence your actions
towards making effective decisions in mitigating the effect of the hazard on
you and other people who are with you;
e) If you are still stable health-wise, it is incumbent on you to render some

voluntary humanitarian assistance and support to other victims that are trapped
or injured and urgently need help and medical care. You are expected to take
some roles to complement the activities of the emergency workers, and always
adhere to experts’ instructions in the evacuation exercise, so that you will not
complicate the health conditions of any injured victim;
f) If you notice any electric spark, urgently reach out to the authorities concerned
to intimate them of the incident. The rationale behind this is to notify the power
authorities of the danger that continued supply of power to the affected area
can pose to the victims of the earthquake. It is very essential on the part of the
power authorities to cut-off supply of electricity to the affected area to avoid
electrocution of any victim(s) of earthquake; and
g) Post hazard reconstruction should be carried-out by government and other

humanitarian organisations like Red Cross, and all necessary cooperation be
extended to them by the affected community.
What are safety measures to earthquake?
3.2 Safety Measures against Flood
Flood is another type of natural threat. It usually involves submerging of land by

overflowing water. The following are of the safety measures to manage it:
Before flooding
a) If you know that you are staying in a flood-prone location especially those
locations that are very close to the sea or river or big dam, it is germane to
discuss with members of your household on how best they can act in the event
of flood, so that they can be prepared ahead of such occurrence. This will
definitely afford them the opportunity to act appropriately, timely and
effectively in reducing the losses that a flood hazard may bear;
131
b) Sometimes, the incident of flood appears without notice, it is therefore

important to identify the safest route to escape the ravaging flood;
c) It is always advisable to have protective equipment at home. For instance

someone who knows that he/she lives very close to a river and considers the
likelihood of flooding that may be occasioned by overflow from the river
especially in a situation of continued heavy rainfall, should know that it is
important to have protective equipment (like life jacket, first-aid kits, etc) at
home;
d) Again, if you are staying in an area prone to flood, you should ensure that the
drainage is well constructed and the materials used in the construction should
be of very good standard such that they can withstand the threat emanating
from the hazardous incident (flood). The use of mud walls should be
discouraged due to their vulnerability to floods;
e) The culture of dumping wastes into canals should be absolutely discouraged,

and erring members of the community must be reported to the law enforcement
agents; and
f) Always promote the habits of switching off your electrical appliances when not
in use. Whenever you are leaving home/office, make sure that you switch-off
all gadgets and electrical appliances, or even turn off the power source (switch
box).
During floods
a) Due to the overflow of water, there is tendency that some sewer systems will
be badly damaged, which is capable of causing widespread diseases like
cholera. It is therefore important to always cover your food and avoid taking
untreated water;
b) If a case of diarrhoea is reported, you can use rice-water or raw tea or even
tender coconut water to arrest the situation and immediately consult the health
workers or emergency health practitioners you can find around for further
assistance ( ://kashmirdivision.nic.in/Disaster_Management/dm_center.ht m);
c) You should always apply disinfectant solutions like Izal to clean your
surroundings. The use of lime and bleaching powder can also be useful in the
cleaning;
d) Ensure that you and other people in your household wear covered shoes to
avoid infections;
132
e) Remove all valuable items including your electronic gadgets from the floor to a
safe platform like bed to avoid getting them damaged by the water;
f) You are expected to provide necessary assistance to relief workers especially in

the distribution of relief materials to other flood victims;
g) If you consider that it is risky to continue staying at the flood location, you can
quickly and carefully embark on evacuation. If you have a car and you are sure
that it can safely go through the water, you and your family can therefore leave
but make sure you pack some of your important belongings like school
results/certificates, warm clothing, emergency kit and other valuables in
waterproof bags;
h) Ensure that you switch-on your radio to monitor the flood situation as you
leave the flood location and turn-off the power in your house before you leave;
and
i) Avoid getting into water that you cannot ascertain the level of its depth and
current to prevent drowning or being taking away by water.
After flood
a) Avoid going about in flood water and be careful when it is mandatory for you
to go out. Make sure that you have a long stick with you to protect yourself
against snake bites. The reason is that if a place with large population of snakes
is flooded, the incidence of snake bites becomes very imminent;
b) Discourage children from playing in the flood water because of the possibility
of getting infection or even catch cold in the process or in the aftermath;
c) Avoid using any electrical appliances enmeshed in water until technicians have
instructed that they can be powered and used;
d) Always stay glued to your radio to get updates on the incident of flood;
e) Monitor the children when they are eating so that they will not eat any food
that has fallen into the water to avoid cholera;
f) The use of protective shoes is also very essential to avoid infections like rashes;
and
g) You should always boil your water and avoid taking any untreated water.
Discuss the safety tips to flood.
133
3.3 Safety Measures against Hurricane
Hurricanes produce destructive surface winds and storm surges. High winds often
bring about huge structural and environmental damage, as the storms are usually the
most destructive component of a hurricane. The safety measures to the management
of hurricane or mitigating its effect may include the following:
Before the Hurricane
a) It is expected for you as a security practitioner to be inquisitive especially

striving to know everything around you. If you find yourself in a place, you
should seek awareness on the hurricane risks peculiar to that area. You should
also seek information on the storm surge history and elevation of the area;
b) You should seek information about the location of official shelters in time of
hazardous incident before-hand;
c) You should ensure that there are necessary emergency kits and protective
equipments available in your home and office, so that in time of hazard or
hurricane threat, you will be able to respond more effectively;
d) If your area is vulnerable to hurricane attack, ensure that your home has a very
solid foundation to withstand any pressure coming from the hurricane;
e) You must always trim down the various trees you have in your premises to
avoid a situation whereby trees will damage the building as result of the effect
of hurricane;
f) You should also equip yourself with transistor or battery radio, so that when
there is incident of hurricane or any other threat, you will be able to monitor the
event and get advice from experts featuring on the radio, speaking on the
hazardous situation. Following experts’ advice may be useful in mitigating the
effect of the hazard;
g) Unlike earthquake, hurricane can be predicted and it is imperative on the part

of government and other stakeholders to initiate moves to purchase necessary
gadgets and equipment, which can monitor and predict the occurrence of
hurricane. In most developed countries such facilities are existent, but contrary
is the case in most African countries. Meanwhile, through globalisation of
media and communication, through the internet, one can get the forecast if
there is likelihood that hurricane will occur in a place;
h) If the news of any potential hurricane incident is made public, it is important to

act promptly but also call two or more people to ascertain the authenticity of
the information. Yet, if you are not sure, you can still reach the emergency
134
agency in your country or neighbourhood or tune your radio to the stations

where you can verify the information;
i) When you have confirmed that hurricane is about to occur, make sure that you
seek information on the intensity of the hurricane before you make a final
decision on the action(s) to take in responding to the hazardous event. If the
hurricane is going to be very intense, it will be advisable to relocate
temporarily from the hurricane site without wasting time;
j) If it is predicted that the hurricane will be less intense or constitutes very little
threat to the lives of dwellers in the affected place, you can stay but be in-door
to avoid being hit by a flying object that can harm you;
k) If you are staying at home, ensure that you have sufficient food and drinking
water that can last beyond the time predicted of the hurricane. It is also
important to keep listening to radio to monitor the hazardous event; and
l) Always switch off all electrical appliances not in use, or better still switch off
the electric circuit completely when the hurricane finally approaches;
During hurricane
a) You are advised not to stay at the affected place, if you are instructed as such
by the authorities;
b) Due to possibility of strong winds can prove deadly by blowing and knocking
one against dangerous flying objects, it is always advisable to stay in-door and
close all windows and doors to the house;
c) Before the final arrival of the hurricane, if you are not sure of the strength of
the building you are staying, it is more appropriate to look for another house
where you can stay temporarily till the hurricane subsides;
d) If you are leaving your house, make sure that you have sufficient food, drugs
and drinking water with you so that you will not become a burden to your host;
e) It is appropriate to turn off all electrical appliances not in use and make sure
that you have battery-operated torch or/and lamp by your side, so that you can
have something to lighten your apartment in the event of power-cut resulting
from either damage occasioned by the hurricane or deliberate decision by the
power authorities to avoid any situation of electrocution among the victims of
hurricane;
f) You should move away from the windows and doors to avoid them slamming
against you, thereby preventing avoidable injury or death;
135
g) For safety, you can also lie on the floor or under a sturdy object like table or
bed if possible till the hurricane lasts. But, in a situation whereby the hazardous
incident takes very long time, you can move to interior rooms (Error!
Hyperlink reference not valid.); and
h) Due to possible damage of the sewer facilities, you are advised to avoid
drinking water directly from the tap to avoid cholera and waterborne diseases.
It is however very important to keep some water before the emergence of the
hurricane, so that when damage of sewer facilities is noticed, you can drink
only from the water you have already kept. And when you notice sewer
damage, make sure to inform the relevant authorities, so that they can transmit
the information to the rest of the public. This is one of the ways one can
prevent an outbreak of waterborne diseases like cholera.
After the Hurricane
a) You should endeavour to stay put where you have sought for temporary shelter,
or if you have stayed at your own house during the hurricane, you should
remain there until you are informed by relevant authorities that it is safe to
come out;
b) Always make sure that your radio or/and television is on, to monitor the
situation and get necessary advice on which steps to take to help yourself and
others in recovery from the hazardous incident;
c) Endeavour to keep other relatives and friends informed about the conditions
under which you are, so that they will be aware of your safety;
d) Avoid taking water directly from the tap without being informed by the
relevant authorities that it is safe to take the water. You should also treat or boil
your water to avoid waterborne diseases;
e) If you wish to drive after the hurricane, make sure that you put on your radio in
order to be updated of situation reports about the incident by relevant
authorities. Avoid as much possible, the use bridges except when you are sure
that they are not structurally weakened by the hurricane or flooding produced
by the hurricane;
f) You should avoid touching or stepping on fallen electric cables/wires, or any

metals in contact with electric cables to prevent electrocution; and
g) Do not use kerosene lanterns and candle until an expert certifies that there are
no leakages in your gas, in order to prevent fire-outbreak.
136
What are safety tips to hurricane mitigation?
3.4 Safety Measures against Drought
The incidence of drought does not only affect individuals, it is a problem that affects
the whole community because of the possibility of the affected community to develop
some features that portray “Tragedy of the Commons” (see Walker et al., 1991). This
situation exacerbates the self interest of some individual who use the communal
property maximally for their own benefits alone. Hence the adverse effect produced
by such activities end up affecting not a few but the entire community. For instance,
there are those individuals or corporate bodies that engage in activities that promote
trapping of the atmosphere with greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water vapour (H2O), which usually emits heat in the atmosphere, thereby causing
climate change.
Recent and continuous change in climate has also provoked heat and severe drought
conditions as experienced in most parts of Africa. The truth of the matter is that
corporate bodies like oil companies emit the greenhouse gases that provoke climate
change in their activities and exploration of crude oil. On the other hand, some
individuals also involve in the cutting of trees (deforestation) as a business by selling
the trees as woods for furniture or even firewood for cooking, creating a situation of
environmental degradation thereby exposing top soil moisture to evaporation.
The bottom line is that it is usually few individuals that engage in activities that mount
severe drought conditions but it is the whole community that suffers the consequences
of drought especially shortage in water supply. Notwithstanding, drought is a normal
phenomenon but it becomes a source of worry when it appears severe. It is against this
background that it is imperative on all stakeholders to engage in actions and policies
that mitigate drought and these may include the following:
a) As a result of the difficulty in knowing when droughts begin and how long it
will last, a number of drought indicators will be required before we can finally
make a decision on the ways through we can effectively implement our water-
management plan;
b) After knowing the relevant indicators, water users can then develop necessary
contingency plans through which decisions can be made on future economic
investments (Hrezo et al. 1986: 47). Some of these indicators may include the
Palmer Index (a drought severity index), historical data on the present water
consumption and expected amount of water that may be needed in the nearest
future especially where there is significant population growth like sub-Saharan
Africa. We can also use as indicators stream flow as well as the level of
subsidence or salt-water intrusion;
c) Local emergency unit and the water ministry should work collaboratively in
developing viable policy framework and planning on effective management of
137
water. It is germane on the part of the government to educate the masses on the
need to conserve water and avoid waste of water resources;
d) It is also incumbent on government to alert the public if the incident of drought

becomes noticeable. This will afford both individuals and corporate bodies to
develop their own contingency plans towards addressing the water shortage
that may be produced by the drought. With the aim of maintain sufficient
agricultural production, construction of irrigation (known as fadama in
northern Nigeria) can be useful. But, the prevailing pollution of water by
several individuals and industries in Nigeria has also undermined the relevance
of irrigation as an alternative source of water for plantation;
e) In various homes and offices, the culture of water management should be

promoted. The use of toilets for urinating should be avoided. We should
encourage the use of urinals instead of toilets, which will need to be flushed
from time to time, leading to waste of water;
f) For optimal agricultural production, it is advisable to adopt crop rotation,

which can assist in minimising the problem of erosion and enable farmers to
cultivate other crops that demand less water during drier seasons that may be
occasioned by the drought;
g) There must be promotion of the culture of recycling water by the authorities.

The water used in homes and offices will pass through various drainages and
move straight into the central drainage system where the water will undergo
treatment and become purified and then be resupplied to the consumers. This
process will help in no small measure to conserve water with the aim of
preventing shortage of water presently and in future.
h) Adopting cloud seeding can also be beneficial in the mitigation of drought.

Cloud seeding can be described as a method of weather modification. It is
usually an “attempt to change the amount or type of precipitation that falls
from clouds, by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud
condensation or ice nuclei, which alter the microphysical processes within the
cloud” ( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought) (see figure 1.1). The rationale
behind this method is to enhance precipitation (rain or snow). Also, the hail and
fog suppression often practiced in airports can also be useful.
Figure 1.1. Cloud Seeding
138
Cloud seeding can be done by ground generators or by plane

Source: ://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cloud_ Seeding
.svg/500px-Cloud_Seeding.svg.png.
What are the safety measures in the management of drought?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In as much that it is impossible to absolutely prevent the incidence of natural threats

or hazards, it is therefore imperative to educate the masses on the ways and
approaches through which the effect of any natural hazard can be reduced or
mitigated. The problem of desertification being experienced in most parts of northern
Nigeria and elsewhere in Africa especially those countries on the Sahel belt could
have been addressed to a large extent if the stakeholders had not failed in their
responsibilities. The responsibility of educating the public on the management of
natural hazard, manmade or any other type of threat cannot be entirely entrusted to
government. The security practitioners and other stakeholders including community
associations, religious institutions, corporate organisations, non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) among others also have some roles to play in hazard mitigation
education and coordination.
It is therefore very germane to educate the masses on various safety measures to

improve their preparedness towards reducing the losses that the hazard can produce.
Also, by educating the masses, various habits and actions they usually engage in,
which are capable of increasing the incidence of any natural hazard can be checked by
making them know the risks that such habits and actions pose to the community at
large. This will definitely create an avenue for prevention of hazardous situations as
much as possible.
5.0 SUMMARY
139
In this unit, we have discussed some of the various safety measures through which we
can manage any major natural threat. We began our study by looking at those safety
tips to mitigate the incidence of earthquake. Thereafter, we explained a variety of
safety tips or measures to prevent or/and check such other major hazards like
hurricane, flood and drought. It is my belief that this has been found to be
intellectually stimulating. Thank you for your zeal and patience.
Briefly discuss any five safety measures each to any two of the following natural
threats: Earthquake, hurricane, flood and drought.
Hrezo, M.S., Bridgeman, P.G., & Walker, W.R. (1986). Managing Droughts through
Triggering Mechanisms. American Water Works Association Journal. 46-51.
Walker, W.R., Hrezo, M.S., & Haley, C.J. (1991). Management of Water Resources
for Drought Conditions. In: Paulson, R.W., Chase, E.B., Roberts, R.S., and Moody,
D.W. Compilers, National Water Summary 1988-89--Hydrologic Events and Floods
and Droughts: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply. Paper 2375. 147-156.
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://kashmirdivision.nic.in/Disaster_ Management/dm_center.htm). Retrieved on 28

August, 2009.
://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cloud_ Seeding .svg/500px-

Cloud_Seeding.svg.png. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
140
UNIT 2
SAFETY MEASURES IN THE MANAGEMENT OF MANMADE SECURITY

THREATS I
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Safety Measures against Robbery
3.2 Safety Measures against Car-Snatching or Carjacking
3.3 Security Measures against Theft
3.4 Safety Measures against Arson
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
141

1.0. INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, our searchlight was beamed on the various security measures to
mitigate major natural threats discussed in this course or at least to reduce the losses,
which their impact may have on the lives and property of the people. In this unit, we
shall continue our study on the variety of safety tips to managing security threats but
our focus shall shift to manmade threats. Before we go into the nitty-gritty of the
study, let us quickly look at various objectives we shall strive to accomplish in this
unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain safety measures against robbery;
Discuss measures to protect your vehicle from being snatched or hijacked;
Describe tips to the management of risks associated with theft; and
Clarify on which measures that can be taken to mitigate the acts of arson.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Safety Measures against Robbery
Robbery often involves the use of instruments of intimidation and coercion by a

party(ies) against another party(ies) with the aim of compelling the victim party to
concede his/her property in question to the offender party. Such violent instruments
like gun, knife, sword, cutlass, grenade, or any other dangerous objects as the case
may be, are usually used by robbers to force the victims to yield to their (robbers’)
demand. The danger inherent in the incidence of armed robbery often necessitates the
need by every individual to be educated on the ways to reduce the effect that such
hazard may have on him/her or his/her family or property. Some of the safety tips
include the following:
Before the Robbery
142
a) Ensure that your home and office are designed in a way that passers-by or
security agents can easily notice from a distance that you are experiencing
robbery attack. Sadly, most banks in Nigeria often make their doors and
windows either tinted or decorated with materials that make it impossible for
passers-by to notice if any incident of robbery is taking place.
It is very unfortunate that when initiating the structural design of most banks in
Nigeria, little or no credence is given to security. The point we are making here
is that it is rather absurd to have a structure covered with glass and the glass is
tinted such that nobody can see through it to know the situation of things in the
banking hall. Then, question is that if they don’t wish the passers-by to see
what is going-on in the banking hall, why the choice of glass rather than
complete concrete blocks?
b) You should always avoid keeping large volumes of money at home or even in
the office if your organisation is not a financial institution. It is also advisable
that if one is a trader, one should always lodge his/her money from sales in the
bank as soon as he/she makes sales worth certain amount to be determined by
him/her. As security experts, we can always advise our clients in that respect as
a safety tip against robbery. As you may know, if robbers know that the
probability that they will not meet substantial amount of money with you is
high, definitely, you will always appear to them as bad business. And thus, they
will be discouraged from any attempt to rob you;
c) Installation of surveillance cameras and Closed Circuit Televisions (CCTVs)

are also very useful in curbing the incidence of robbery. These security
gadgets can assist us to detect the presence of robbers and alert the law
enforcement agents immediately for intervention. We can also use the gadgets
to monitor the movement and activities of people in and around our premises
and promptly seek the intervention of the police if we suspect any persons to be
potential threats to our lives and property. If we are members of the security
community, we can initiate the arrest of the suspected persons for interrogation.
And in the course of investigation, we find the suspects culpable, it is
paramount that we step-up the investigation with the aim of arresting their co-
conspirators. Thereafter, the process of prosecution should be facilitated by
taking all the suspects to court;
d) Intelligence-gathering is also vital in preventing the incidence of robbery.

Through intelligence, robbery attempt by criminal minds can be foiled and the
suspects arrested;
e) As much as possible discourage the culture of using many entrance in your

home or office. This is because the attacker or robber may sneak-in through
one of the many doors unnoticed and before you know what is happening you
have become entirely vulnerable to robbery attack. It is, therefore important to
conduct routine check of the doors leading to your home or office as well as the
143
inner rooms, closets, kitchen cabinets, toilets, bathrooms and other places that
an enemy can hide with the intent to strike and attack you now or later.
No doubt, there have been incidents where some members of robbery gangs
pretended as if they wanted to use the toilet but only aimed to have some
weapons passed to them through the toilet window for robbery operation. They
might have adopted that strategy because they might have foreseen that it
would be difficult to smuggle in their rifles through the security door. It is
therefore advisable to seal up the windows of toilets in banks but equip these
toilets with air-conditioners and rechargeable lamps (that can remain on for at
least one hour if there is power-cut or change in the source of power supply);
f) The use of other security instruments like metal detector, security door, x-ray
machines among others are also crucial to prevention of robbery. They can
detect and raise alarm of the potential threat that any identified robbery gang
can pose to the organisation;
g) Always install security lights so that you can easily see anybody gaining entry
into the premises and alert the security agents immediately you suspect the
presence of any attacker or robber in your compound.
During Robbery
a) When a robbery is going on, make sure that you are calm because any
unexpected movement can make the robber(s) infuriated. This is because such
movement may be mistaken by the robber(s) for aggressive challenge from you
and the robber(s) may decide to harm you in the process;
b) Carefully activate the alarm immediately you sense the presence of the robbers
for police intervention;
c) If you don’t have an alarm, you can secretly call some of your neighbours or
relatives for assistance like helping you to alert the public if they are staying on
the same street with you, or better-still call the police and demand their prompt
response;
d) You can also shorten the stay of the robber(s) by saying that a visitor is about
to arrive or the community association meeting will be held in your place and it
will start soon. This may make the robber(s) to hasten up and flee ( ://www.co-
asn-rob.org/CrimeInfo/RobberyTips/during.htm);
e) It is also important to note the mannerism, speeches, dialect(s) etc of the

robber(s), and watch carefully when the robber(s) is/are leaving to know the
direction he/she (they) is/are taking. These information can help the police to
nab the robber(s);
144
f) Avoid looking at the robber(s) on the face to avoid the issue of threat of
personal recognition the robber(s). This is because the robber(s) will feel that
by sparing your life, you can assist the police in his/her (their) arrest especially
if the robbery is a very violent one;
g) You should try as much as you can to cooperate with the robber(s) and avoid
acting as a hero because you may get killed in doing so;
h) If you are a security agent, act promptly to dispose of your identification card
to a location the robber(s) can hardly find it. This is to hide your identity in
order to avoid being killed by the robber(s). It is, therefore, advisable to always
hide your ID card in the car or leave it at the office, and put it on when you are
in the office or on special assignment; and
i) It is extremely unwise if you are unarmed to be aggressive towards armed

robber(s). It is very advisable to lie down to avoid being hit by bullet(s) and
fold your arms over your head.
After the Robbery
a) When robbery has taken place, you should call the police as soon as you notice
that the robbers have left but ensure that you discretely study or take note of the
discussions, attitude, mannerism, dresses and physical features of the robbers.
Taking note of these features may help the police to carry out their
investigation and arrest of the robbery suspects;
b) You should also make sure that you lock up the place robbed (whether home or
office) with the aim of assisting the police investigators in carrying-out their
work ( ://www.co-asn-rob.org/CrimeInfo/RobberyTips/after.htm);
c) You should also avoid discussing any issue concerning the robbery incident in
public because you may not know who might be a member of the gang. On the
other hand, if it is known to the robbers that you can really help the police to
nab them, the gang may begin to hunt you with the intention of killing you in
order to stall the investigation;
d) It is also important to cajole some of the people present when the robbery took
place to serve as witnesses and be interviewed by the police. In the course of
interviewing them, the police may get clues through which they can nab the
robbers. However, you should note that it is wrong to coerce witnesses into
making statements. In doing so, you are engaging in an action that may
considered tantamount to infringement of their fundamental rights, which can
rubbish the whole process of investigation; and
145
e) If you are approached by the media to comment on the robbery incident, you
should always refer them to the police, and remain quiet and calm too.
Discuss safety measures to mitigate the effect of robbery.
3.2 Safety Measures against Car-Snatching or Carjacking
Car-snatching or carjacking can be described as the act of seizing and forcefully

taking possession of the victim’s vehicle by the crime offender through the use of
dangerous weapons especially gun. Some of the safety tips to this security threat
Before the Carjacking
a) It is very important to install anti-hijack system, which is an electronic system

that is usually fixed in motor vehicles to prevent car-snatchers or thieves from
stealing your vehicle. The revolution in technology has also made it possible to
fit an electronic monitoring device on your vehicle. These are some types of
this device that can deactivate or stop the car from working;
b) Another safety tip is to have a comprehensive insurance for your vehicle. So, in
the event of loss of the vehicle through carjacking or any hazard, you can easily
run to your vehicle insurer for assistance according to the terms and conditions
of the insurance policy. The insurer can help to get another vehicle for you;
c) Always lock the doors to your vehicle to prevent illegal entry into your vehicle
by unsuspected criminals or car-snatchers;
d) Avoid making too loud the sound system in your vehicle to avoid attracting the
attention of car-snatchers. This is because more often than not, the car-
snatchers don't usually have a particular target in mind before setting-out for
their shady business. So, don't make yourself a victim;
e) Always alight whenever the vehicle is parked, even if you are waiting for
someone. It is advisable to alight to avoid being close-marked by car-snatchers;
and
f) Ensure that your vehicle is parked where you can have a close watch on it,
most preferably in the compound.
During Car-snatching
a) If you know that you can escape the car-snatchers, surrender the car to avoid
being harmed by the criminals. As you may be aware that most car-snatchers
146
are armed with dangerous weapons, so, it is unwise for one to allow himself get
killed by car-snatchers; and
b) Be calm and if the car-snatchers ask you about the security of the car, you can
tell them that there was security gadget on the vehicle before but it has been
deactivated due to the stress it often put the owner into especially the way it
used to cut-off ignition and the vehicle would be stationed where the problem
was developed until the owner got the security company that installed it to fix
the problem. You should avoid telling the car-snatchers that you are the
original owner of the vehicle. By doing this, the car-snatchers may allow you to
go and drive the vehicle away. By the time the security gadget will be
activated, the car-snatchers will have no choice but to abandon the vehicle;
After the Car-snatching
a) You should seek medical care if you or any other persons in the vehicle are
harmed;
b) Quickly inform the police about the incident and provide necessary information
and details of the vehicle registration number, etc from prompt police
intervention to recover the vehicle;
c) You should cooperate with the police and respond to their interrogation very
effectively. Showing cooperation can be helpful in nabbing the car-snatchers
by the law enforcement agents; and
d) If the vehicle is insured, you will be expected to inform the insurer to start the
Claim process.
Explain the safety tips in managing the risks emanating from carjacking.
3.3 Security Measures against Theft
Theft can be described as a form of manmade security threat that usually involves
such criminal acts that relate to illegal acquisition of another person’s property or acts
of stealing like burglary, larceny, looting, fraud and embezzlement, to mention a few.
Some of the safety measures to guard against the incidence of theft include the
following:
Before theft
a) Putting in place security doors that are equipped with alarm in an attempt by
malicious person(s) to gain entry into a facility;
147
b) The use of surveillance cameras and Closed Circuit Televisions (CCTVs) can
also be useful in the protection of property against theft;
c) Avoid putting large sum of money at home because it can attract the attention
of thieves within and outside;
d) Monitor the behaviours of the people around at home or in the office. Always
suspect any secret discussions among people or abrupt end of discussion on
phone when your presence is noticed by an internal person;
e) At the office, unnecessary loitering or notice of strange faces should be

challenged by questioning them about their mission in your office or shop;
f) Contracting the services of security guards (whether private or public) can

safeguard one's property against theft;
g) Search should be conducted on all staff irrespective of their positions or status

as they come in and go out;
h) You should promote the habit of rewarding any of your people at home or in
the office who makes that report a fellow involved in theft;
i) There should be severe penalty for those found guilty of theft;
j) You should also install security lights and gates to check any malicious entry
into your compound; and
k) Regularly change the door locks to your home and/or office; etc.
During the incident of Theft
a) If you catch someone in the act of theft may be directly or through the use of
surveillance camera or through informant, you should call the attention of few
other people who can serve as witnesses;
b) If you see the act of theft going on from a distance and you notice that the
culprit is about to abscond, alert the people around or the public and seek for
their intervention to effect the arrest of the thief;
c) If the thief is arrested, you should ask him/her a number of questions to know if
it was his/her first time of stealing your property or goods, if the offender has
the support of any insider in perpetrating the act, and every other information
148
that can assist to identify areas of vulnerability in the security of your property
or goods; and
d) In case of a car theft attempt, you should alert the public and call the police
immediately for intervention. You should avoid moving close to the thief
because he/she may not be alone and/or may be armed with dangerous
weapons;
After the Incident of Theft
a) If the culprit is arrested, avoid engaging yourself in carrying out jungle justice
because the law sees such act as criminal and punishable offence. It is therefore
advisable to hand over the thief to the police for further investigation and
prosecution, if the suspect is culpable of the offence (theft);
b) Ensure that you give all necessary support and information to the police to aid
their investigation for the eventual prosecution of the offender; and
c) Avoid discussing the proceedings of the investigation in public;
d) Avoid exaggerating the amount of money, goods or property lost to theft;
e) Fortify your security systems and infrastructure to avoid similar incident of

theft in the nearest future.
What are the safety tips against theft?
3.4 Safety Measures against Arson
Arson can be described to mean a deliberate act of destructively setting another

person’s or oneself’s property on fire for specific motives. Some of the safety tips to
second party arson include the following:
Before the Arson
a) In as much as the event of arson remains an unexpected hazard, it is imperative

for government to have relevant agencies including Fire brigades and the police
to always monitor and act in mitigation of any incident of arson;
149
b) Enough efforts should be made to engender anger management as part of the

educational curricula among various levels of learning in Nigeria. By doing
this, the problem of arson will be minimal. People will learn creative ways of
addressing conflict issues rather than engaging in destructive approaches to
conflict management, one of these being arson. A good example is the setting
on fire of the INEC office in Iddo Ekiti, resulting from alleged electoral
malpractices levelled against the Electoral body by irate youths.
There are many instances as well where students go on rampage and burn down
some structures in the premises of their institutions for no other reason than
resisting increase in school fees. Most times, apart from compelling them to
pay the new fees, the students are also levied for the property destroyed. The
question is who are the losers? Your answer to the question is the same as
mine. The truth is that both the school authorities and the students are the
losers. It is an indictment on the entire school system for lacking culture of
dialogue and conflict transformation in the resolution of their issues of conflict.
It is unfortunate that in Nigeria, most times, we wait for the upsurge of violence
and destruction before we come to terms with the need to appreciate our mutual
need for peaceful resolution of conflict;
c) You should educate people in your home and office on how to respond
effectively when there is fire outbreak resulting from arson or any other cause.
It is pertinent to identify exit routes in the event of an emergency like arson;
d) It is also advisable to install fireproof cabinets in your home and office where
you can keep very vital documents and guarantee their protection in the event
of fire-outbreak; and
e) It is important to install fire fighting equipment at home and office, so that

when there is fire, you can fight it until the arrival of the fire brigades. This
measure is helpful to mitigate the effect of arson on the structure or reduce the
losses that may accompany it;
During the Incident of Arson
a) You should be calm and not let anxiety disorganise you or undermine your
capacity to act reasonably to mitigate the effect of the hazard;
b) You should alert the police or any other law enforcement agent to come to the
rescue;
c) You should also promptly call for the intervention of fire fighters with the aim
of reducing the losses that the hazard may effect;
150
d) Carefully use the fire-fighting equipment available to reduce the intensity of

the fire before the arrival of the fire brigades; and
e) You should locate the most secure route to exit the building as well as avoid
falling into the hands of the arsonists because it may be dangerous to do so;
After the Incident of Arson
a) Assist the law enforcement with provision of vital information that will aid
investigation on the cause and offenders of the crime (arson);
b) After the incident, you should begin the process of providing a report on the
cause(s), suspected arsonists, dynamics of threat assessment, losses (in human
and material terms) recorded as a result of the incident (incident assessment),
recovery analysis and recommendations to forestall similar incident in the
nearest future;
c) You are also expected to begin the reconstruction by considering vulnerabilities

identified as a result of the incident and efforts should be initiated to alleviate
the vulnerabilities and increase preparedness level to mitigate or prevent the
reoccurrence of such incident (arson);
d) You and other victims should also undergo trauma counselling and therapeutic
session to address any psychological effect that such incident may have on you;
and
e) All necessary cooperation and resources should be given to the law

enforcement agents in the prosecution of the offenders.
Explain safety measures against arson.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Appreciating the ways through which we can prevent or respond to the incidents of
manmade threats is the first step towards advancing effective security management.
Through proper education on safety measures to various threats to security of life and
property, stakeholders can be able to improve on their preparedness and building their
capacity to respond very creatively in the experience of any threats. By providing the
public and our clients with safety education, we will be able to fulfill the overall
objectives of our various organisations as security practitioners. The beauty of safety
education also involves the opportunity of the public to act independently in reducing
the impact that any threats can have on them as they will rely on us to play
151
complementary roles in protecting their lives and property, and this will make our
work easier and less stressful too.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we explored various safety tips that can be adopted to manage a number
of manmade threats. We examined various steps to protect ourselves and property
against the threat of robbery. Thereafter, we explained the tips to mitigate carjacking
and how to reduce the losses that may be recorded as a result of its occurrence. We
completed our task in the unit by highlighting the safety measures that we can
appreciate to manage security risks associated with theft and arson.
Discuss any five pre-incident safety tips of any two among the following threats:
Robbery, carjacking, arson and theft.
://www.co-asn-rob.org/CrimeInfo/RobberyTips/after.htm. Retrieved on 2 Sept., 2009.
://www.co-asn-rob.org/CrimeInfo/RobberyTips/during.htm. Retrieved on 2 Sept.,

2009.
UNIT 3
SAFETY MEASURES IN THE MANAGEMENT OF MANMADE SECURITY

THREATS II
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Safety Measures against Kidnapping
3.2 Safety Measures against Badger Game
152
3.3 Safety Measures against Extortion

3.4 Safety Measures against Insurgency
3.5 Safety Measures against Terrorism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Due to the limited space and time we had in the previous unit, we were not unable to
complete the overall task of discussing all the various safety measures to all the
manmade threats discussed. In this unit, we shall however be focusing on safety
measures to prevent or mitigate the effect of such manmade threats, which shall be our
objects of study. Manmade threats are usually experienced by every society, and it is
germane to develop strategies or ways through which we can reduce the losses that
such threats bring about. In the next segment of this unit, we shall be exploring the
objectives of this study.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Describe safety measures to undertake in the management of kidnapping;
Clarify on the relevant safety tips that can be adopted in mitigating badger game;
Identify various safety measures against extortion;
Discuss the safety measures in the management of insurgency; and
Explain measures that can be taken to ensure safety of individuals from terrorist
attack.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Safety Measures against Kidnapping
Kidnapping is a security threat and criminal offence that usually involves “...the
taking away or asportation of a person against the person's will, usually to hold the
person in false imprisonment, a confinement without legal authority” (Error!
Hyperlink reference not valid.). There are various ways through which we can
effectively check or manage this form of security threat and some of these safety tips
may include the following:
Before Kidnapping
153
a) To avoid being kidnapped, you are advised to reduce the things or social activities
that can attract the attention of kidnappers towards you. One should not display
his/her assets, nationality or institutional affiliation anyhow. For instance, a set of
kidnappers may be targeting employees of a very rich company to kidnap for a
ransom, if one is the type that is lousy and allows everybody to know that he/she is
working in such a big organisation for the purpose of earning the respect of his/her
neighbours may be la victim. The reason is that he/she can easily be a prey in the
hands of kidnappers who place ransom on him/her before he/she can be released.
As you may be aware, the security policy of some organisations absolutely does
not allow the management to pay any ransom to secure the release of any staff
seized by kidnappers. The rationale behind such resolution is understandable. The
idea is to discourage the kidnappers from seeing the staff of the company as
objects for brisk business. If ransoms are not paid, the kidnapping gang will have
no choice other than to look for another work to do because kidnapping will be
considered not profit-making;
b) Another safety tip that is very useful in preventing kidnapping is to make sure that
you limit your movements as much as you can to avoid yourself becoming an easy
prey in the hand of kidnappers. One should also avoid taking particular routes on
regular basis. This is because taking particular routes regularly may afford the
kidnappers ample opportunity to know where they can seize you. But, if you don’t
actually have any particular routes you take all the time, it will be difficult for
kidnappers to decide on a particular route to carry out their dastardly act against
you;
c) If the routes from your home to office are not many, you should avoid going with
the same car all the time if you have your own car. You can once in a while move
around in public transport. This is because more often than not most kidnappers
don’t know the actual identity of their target but use other attachments like car and
house;
d) When you arrive at home, always make sure that you don’t leave your door open,
and always conduct simulation in your home to identify parts of the house that can
make your home vulnerable to external attack, so you can fortify your security
infrastructure;
e) If you have the resources, you can install security surveillance devices like Closed
Circuit Television (CCTV) at home or in the office (as an employer) to detect
or/and monitor any acts of threat from enemies like kidnappers; and
f) Always get yourself and your household educated on risks generally especially as
they concern lifestyles, occupation and relationships with other people. For
instance, as a security practitioner, you should always enlighten your family and
154
friends on the inherent danger associated with your job to improve their
preparedness against any malicious attack.
One of the instructions you should give them is if there is a call from any stranger
on issue pertaining to you, they should get in touch with you for confirmation.
Your family members should not open the door for strangers without alerting you.
As you may know, some criminals may decide to kidnap one of your family
members to forcefully influence your decision especially when you are the officer
investigating a case of crime;
During Kidnapping
a) For one’s safety, it is important to show cooperation with the kidnappers to

avoid being harmed, as you know, most times, kidnappers equip themselves
with dangerous weapons like guns and if you struggle with them, they can get
you injured or killed in the process. But, there may be some opportunity for
resistance only when you feel it is safe to do so.
For instance, you may have suspected that kidnappers are trailing you, and see
them surrounding your car, as they are armed with cutlasses and knives while
you are lucky to armed be with gun. Then, you can use the gun to negotiate
your escape but after the escape you may find it difficult to deduce the motive
of the assailants. Therefore, you need to tighten your security and make your
security infrastructure more fortified;
b) If you have been overwhelmed by the attack from the kidnappers, avoid
engaging them in hot argument but rather you should be calm. You should
avoid noticeable eye contact with the kidnappers because they can mistake it
for aggression;
c) If you have already been seized by the kidnappers, don’t allow fear and shock
that characterise the attack to weigh you down. You should, therefore, make
yourself active by tasking your security intellect in devising ways through
which you can be on top of the situation like plotting relevant tactics for
escape. You are strongly advised to facilitate your own escape only when you
find the option necessary and safe too;
d) The kidnappers will intimidate you but you should remain calm and never
believe most things they tell you. Sometimes, kidnappers engage in discussion
basically with the aim of making you sympathetic and supportive to their
cause, you should ensure that you don’t develop Stockholm syndrome in the
process. Stockholm syndrome involves developing sympathy for the
kidnappers and their objectives;
e) You should also study the attitudes, discussions, dressing, motives, mannerisms
etc of the kidnappers through your mind and avoid writing down anything on
155
paper as memoir. This is because if you are caught in the act of writing notes,
the kidnappers may get infuriated and decide to injure or even kill you;
f) You should also agree with the kidnappers if you are asked to talk on phone,
video, or even radio, and absolutely restrict yourself to what you are asked to
say;
g) Avoid sharing clothes with the kidnappers, so that you will not be mistaken for
the kidnappers in the event of rescue attempt. As you may be aware, the rescue
team would have done some underground work like seeking to know the cloth
you wore on the day you were kidnapped so that they would not mistake you
for any kidnapper. May be in the course of rescuing you, the kidnappers may
engage the rescue team in a gun battle, and if you share cloths with the
kidnappers, you may be mistaken as one of them; and
h) Similarly, if you see that there is a gun battle between the kidnappers and the
rescue team, you are advised to lie on the floor and put your hands on your
head to avoid being hit by bullet(s). The reason, you are advised to put your
hands on your head, is to show that you are not armed and not constituting any
threat, so that you will not mistakenly be shot by the rescue team some of
whom may not know you personally;
After Kidnapping
a) If your release is secured through the payment of ransom by your relatives or

the management of your organisation or through the use of force or escape, you
are expected to assist the law enforcement authorities to nab the culprits so as
to reduce the incidence of kidnapping. It is, therefore, important to cooperate
by giving enough details about the incident to aid investigation; and
b) You should also appreciate the offer of post trauma counselling.
What measures can you proffer for safety against kidnapping?

3.2 Safety Measures against Badger Game
Badger Game is a form of security threat can involve using tricks or simply to set up
somebody with the aim of influencing his/her decision in the discharge of his/her
duties with the instrument of blackmail. Owing to the risk that this threat portends to
the capacity of any individuals to carry out their official duties without fear and
favour, it is imperative to provide some of the measures that can help one to safeguard
the ethics of practice without succumbing to cheap blackmail aimed at making one to
work against his/her conscience. The safety tips include the following:
Before the incident of Badger Game
156
a) You should ensure that you are very careful in the selection of those with
whom you will have relationship or friendship and classify such relationship
according to the trust you have for each individual;
b) Avoid regular night-outing;
c) Educate your family on the risks involved in your chosen profession in order to
enlighten them against actions that can jeopardise your career;
d) Avoid engaging in any acts that you will not like to come to the knowledge of
the public; and
e) Always operate open door policy and discourage habits of divide and rule or
malicious talks among your colleagues.
During the Incident of Badger Game
a) Be calm in order to be on top of the situation;
b) Seek adequate information as regards the objectives of the enemies or

blackmailers and the identities of virtually all parties involved;
c) Promise them of cooperation with the aim of deceiving them, so that you will
have an opportunity of paying them back in their own coin;
d) The use of portable tape and secret cameras can also be useful in recording
your conversations and meetings with them; and
e) As the case may be, look for reliable top executive in the Press or any other
media outfits, to cover the meetings and conversations between you and the
culprits secretly and ensure that the event is circulated by the Press. This will
also allow the public to know that the entire event was a set-up to put your
reputation in disrepute and to influence your decision and force you to act
against your conscience in the discharge of your duties.
After the Incident of Badger Game
a) If you know that the action you have engaged in can undermine the credibility
of your office, it is appropriate to resign your appointment;
b) Report the case officially to the management and narrate the incident from
beginning to the end, and apologise for falling into the trap of the enemy(ies).
You should also give the names of all the personalities behind the drama (the
names of the culprits you can identify); and
157
c) If the case involves police intervention, try as much as possible to cooperate

with the police and get yourself a lawyer who will guide you legally in the
course of trial.
What are safety measures in the management of badger game?
3.3 Safety Measures against Extortions
Extortion can be described as a criminal act or security threat, which involves

“.....making illicit funds from organized crime such as illegal gaming, prostitution
rings, money laundering, smuggling etc...and obstruction of justice (when it pertains
to mafia figures) is usually threatening someone not to testify or attempting to buy
judges or jurors or key witnesses thus impeding the process of the justice system”
( ://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090909052116AAdrVS9). There are
several measures through which you can safeguard yourself and property against
extortion, and these include:
Before the Incident of Extortion
a) Avoid carrying large expensive jewellery, too many credit cards or ATMs or
any other important valuables about. It is better to such things at home;
b) You should avoid accepting ride from strangers;
c) Avoid travelling alone in a private vehicle;
d) Ensure that all your vehicle particulars are with you;
e) Avoid carrying any goods that you cannot provide receipts for;
f) If you are travelling to an unfamiliar place with your car, make efforts to seek
information about traffic rules, culture and risks peculiar to the place;
g) You should avoid making known your socio-economic status in an unfamiliar

land or place;
h) Do not accept bags or other items from a stranger;
i) Do not give your bags to a stranger to carry for you;
j) Avoid night-outing in a strange land;
k) Ensure that you obey traffic rules and regulation;
158
l) Avoid doing business with anybody who you don't know much about his/her
business activities or dealings; and
m) Always be security-conscious and avoid getting intoxicated from excessive

intake of alcohol; etc.
During the Incident of Extortion
a) Feel composed and calm. Do not fidget because the extortionists may take
advantage of the situation;
b) If the extortionist is a law enforcement agent, note his/her name, badge

number, patrol vehicle number and the time the crime (extortion) is being
perpetrated against you;
c) If they threaten you with arrest, do not resist the arrest and demand for where
their station is located;
d) Tell them that you will like to inform your relatives and friends so that they
will know where to find you; and
e) You can secretly send a short message to a friend and a relative about your
plight intimating them about the location, time, and details of the law
enforcement agent(s) wishing to extort you for prompt action;
After the Incident of Extortion
a) Report the case to the law enforcement agents if the extortionists are civilians;
b) Where the extortionists are law enforcement agents, report the case to their
superior officers for disciplinary actions to be taken against them; and
c) In a situation where you feel that nothing is being done by the law enforcement
authorities to punish the offenders, you can approach the court for redress; etc
What safety measures can you can take against extortion?
3.4 Safety Measures against Insurgency
Insurgency usually involves an armed struggle or rebellion aimed to challenge the

sovereign power of a constituted authority. There are several safety measures in the
management of insurgency, some of which include the following:
Before the Insurgency
159
a) The culture of cultural relativism should be promoted while attitude of

ethnocentrism should be discouraged in order to foster peace among people
across various cultural boundaries;
b) People should be educated on intercultural dialogue and communication to

subdue any negative emotions, which can provoke a situation of intercultural
hatred and enmity;
c) We should always admonish the government on the need to advance good

governance and nation-building;
d) We should always participate in the democratic process by regularly voting for

candidates of our choice and law enforcement agents should endeavour to be
absolutely neutral and unbiased in the maintenance of law and order during the
election;
e) The security sector should realise that it derives its authority from the people
and will need to avoid being used by the political elite to repress or oppress the
people;
f) All stakeholders should ensure that the independence of judiciary is always

safeguarded;
g) The use of violence to actualise political objectives or any other objectives

should be entirely discouraged while peaceful resolution of conflict should be
encouraged at all levels of human relations;
h) The issue of official corruption and other forms of corruption should attract
very grave penalty like long jail terms without any option of fine;
i) There should be effective intelligence system that encourages active

participation of the public in intelligence-gathering activities;
j) Any gathering of people, which one feels can pose a security threat to the
society at large should be promptly reported to the law enforcement agents; and
k) There must be rule of law and respect to the fundamental rights of the people
must be guaranteed; etc
During Insurgency
a) You should inform the government of the presence of any insurgents in your
neighbourhood. In doing this, you should avoid making your identity known;
160
b) If you notice that the insurgents are on an offensive mission, you are advised to
run for cover;
c) And if you feel that it is unsafe to continue staying in your present location,
you can decide to evacuate yourself, family and important property including
vital documents and relocate to another place where your security can be
guaranteed;
d) If you are found among the victims held hostage by the insurgents, be calm and
avoid acting like a hero to avoid being killed by the insurgents. You are
therefore advised to cooperate with them and pretend as if you support their
cause;
e) If the insurgency is based on inter-ethnic aggression, it is better you undertake

evacuation without wasting time to other places where security can be
guaranteed;
f) You can seek alternative shelter in the military barracks or other relation’s
house where there is less or no absence of the insurgents;
g) Always create escape routes at home and in the office where you can easily
negotiate your escape in the time of emergency that may be occasioned by
attack from the insurgent;
h) You should join the movement of anti-war activists and enjoin others to join as
well, with the aim of articulating for peaceful approaches to the resolution of
conflict rather than the use of violence. One revelation is that, some military
men and officers now identify themselves with peace movement especially
owing to the fact that virtually all wars are finally laid to rest on the conference
table rather than the battle fields; and
i) Try as much as possible to cooperate with government forces to expose the

hiding places of the insurgents you know; etc.
After the Insurgency
a) The insurgents should be disarmed, demobilised and integrated into normal life
while the civilians forcefully conscripted by the insurgents should be
rehabilitated and reinstalled to civilian life;
b) There should be post conflict-reconstruction like rebuilding of social

infrastructure destroyed as a result of war or violence, etc;
161
c) There should be post conflict peace-building through which wounds of war or

violence can be healed for genuine reconciliation and actualisation of positive
peace; and
d) A truth and reconciliation commission should be set up to provide avenue for

the victims and offenders of war crimes to express their minds and experiences
and the challenges they face in their individual lives. In the course of doing
this, the offenders will be made to feel sober and accountable for the atrocities
perpetrated against victims while the victims derive ultimate joy in finding
space in their hearts to forgive the offenders. The ability of the victims to
forgive their offenders remains a subject of debate among peace and conflict
theorists.
What are the safety measures to managing insurgency?
3.5 Safety Measures against Terrorism
Terrorism can be defined as a systematic and ferocious use of violence, a form of

guerrilla alternative to conventional warfare by state or non-state actors, with the
strategic creation of psychic fear and (or) tactical production and reproduction of
wanton destruction in epochal dimension purposely in realizing political objectives or
ordinary public attention or both variables. Some of the safety measures to terrorism
Before a Terrorist Attack
a) It is important to be alert and take a good watch of the surrounding area and
quickly respond when you see some suspicious people that you consider pose a
threat by immediately informing the law enforcement agents;
b) Whenever you are embarking on a journey avoid picking strangers on the road;
c) Anytime you receive a threat call, always try to be calm and record the
conversation with the suspected terrorist calling provided that your phone has
the function to record voice calls. You should quickly inform the law
enforcement agents about the threat you have received from the caller. If you
recorded the conversation, copy it in a tape and give it to the police or private
investigator(s) for further action;
d) Also when travelling locally or internationally, always avoid accepting

packages that you are not sure of their contents from people especially
strangers, not for any amount. The reason is that the cost of damage that you
may suffer for accepting such packages may be far higher than what you are
paid. Therefore, it is necessary to be careful in dealing with people;
162
e) At home or in the office, you should ensure that emergency routes are created,
which can facilitate smoother evacuation in the time of emergency situations
that may be occasioned by terrorist attack; and
f) Installation of surveillance camera and Closed Circuit Televisions can also be

useful to prevent the incidence of terrorist attack(s). Through monitoring and
surveillance, any gang of terrorists can be rounded-up by the law enforcement
agents during the time they are planning to carry out their dastardly act;
During a Terrorist Attack
a) In the event of a terrorist attack, you should be calm and avoid anxiety because
anxiety can deprive you the opportunity to respond creatively and effectively to
mitigate the impact of the hazard on you;
b) Quickly inform the law enforcement agents of the terrorist attack and notify
them of the emergency response that the situation requires. You should give
details of the location and other relevant information that can help in
facilitating a prompt and effective intervention. The challenge that people face
in this part of the world is that the response of law enforcement agents to
terrorist events is rather too lackadaisical and not timely too. Some of the
factors responsible may include poor preparedness, lack of adequate working
tools, operational deficiency, lack of hazard mitigation practices, official
incompetency, among others;
c) Carefully locate the emergency routes through which you can negotiate your
escape from the building under a terrorist attack;
d) If you are in a high-rise building, it is advisable to avoid using the lift because
it is possible that the terrorists would have anticipated that many of the
occupants will rush to the lift to escape from the building. In this case, it is very
likely that the terrorists would plant an explosive or dangerous gas in the lift by
which many people will lose their lives. It is therefore wise to carefully use the
stairs and don’t panic to avoid stampeding;
e) As you are escaping from the building you need to exercise caution. As you are
approaching the door, you are advised to feel the lower, middle and upper parts
of the door with your palm or forearm to know if the door is hot or not. In a
situation where you find the door to be hot, please seek alternative route
because of the inherent danger in opening such a door. But, if the door is not
hot, then you can slowly open it to negotiate your escape;
f) In a situation where the terrorists are shooting sporadically, you should lie on
the floor and crawl as you locate the escape routes;
163
g) If the terrorists are everywhere and there are many already being shot dead by
the terrorists, you can put one of the dead bodies on top of yourself in a way
that will not be suspicious to the terrorists and pretend as if you are dead and
study the movement, conversations and dresses (if possible) of the terrorists.
You should maintain your position as the terrorist event lasts.
After a Terrorist Attack
a) Rescue efforts should commence immediately wasting to rescue the victims of

the terrorist attack,
b) If a victim is covered by debris, he/she should use an handkerchief or clothing

to cover his/her mouth;
c) If a victim is trapped and it is noticed that rescue efforts are on, he/she should
knock on a pipe or wall to alert the rescuers that he/she is there. You can also
shout so that the rescuers will know that you are there;
d) There is the need to use masks by the rescuers to avoid any form of chemical or
biological attack from the hazard;
e) Due to the fact that biological agents are not usually detected immediately, it is
incumbent on government to find out through its intelligence network and crop
of scientists if there was any use of biological weapons by the terrorists. And if
it is detected that biological weapons were used, efforts should be made to
quarantine the location and take all the victims to the hospital for diagnosis and
comprehensive treatment;
f) The victims should also undergo a post trauma counselling;
g) Structural engineers and other building engineers should also examine the
affected building to know if its foundation has been weakened as result of the
terrorist attack; and
h) Where the foundation of the affected building is confirmed weakened by the

building expert, the building should be pulled down to prevent avoidable deaths
that the eventual collapse of the building may cause; etc.
Write a brief note on the ways through which we can advance our safety against
terrorist attacks.
4.0 CONCLUSION
164
Educating people and members of the security sector on security tips in the
management of manmade threats is very crucial in the effective management of
security in any given society. As security experts, it is paramount to cultivate the habit
of popularising among people or our clients as security expert on ways through which
they can safeguard their lives and property against any manmade threat. In doing this,
we are on the pedestal of building the capacity of the public or our clients towards
acting proactively in the event of threat to reduce the effect that such threat can have
on their general wellbeing.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have succeeded in identifying and explaining various safety measures
that can be applied and adopted to managing some manmade security threats. We
began our study of the variety of safety tips by looking at those measures that can be
used to mitigate kidnapping, and thereafter we explained the safety guidelines to other
threats including badger game, extortion, insurgency and finally terrorism. I have no
doubt that you have found this unit thought-provoking and interesting. Thank you for
your patience and quest for knowledge. If you have any question regarding any aspect
of this unit, you are advised to get in touch with your instructional and tutorial
facilitator or the course coordinator as the case may be. Good luck.
Discuss any five safety measures to any two threats among the following manmade
threats: Kidnapping, badger game, extortion, insurgency and terrorism
://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090909052116AAdrVS9. Retrieved on
31 August, 2009.
Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.. 31 August, 2009.
UNIT 4
CIVIL SECURITY: MEANING AND APPROACHES I
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Definition of Civil Security
3.2 Approaches to Civil Security: Introduction
165
3.3 Risk Education

3.31 Elements of Risk Education
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The issue of security has been very germane to the peaceful cohabitation of people in
any given community or state. Security involves several activities that are
interconnected to the overall maintenance of law and order in any given society. The
ultimate goal of security is to protect the lives and property of the people, and this
corroborates the need to co-opt the public in the security activities and planning (see
://portalnano.ru/files/20). Therefore, it is a truism to extend the participation and
decision-making processes to the people in order to achieve the overall objectives of
securitisation.
As a matter of fact civil security appears to be the ultimate solution to security

problems that may pervade any society. This is because with the desire to protect the
lives and property of the people against any natural and man-made attacks or threats,
it is more pertinent to build the capacity of the public to respond very appropriately
and effectively too, to hazardous events and security attacks such as organised crime,
terrorism among others, by engaging in actions that can reduce losses from such
hazard or security threats.
In this unit, we shall be discussing the meaning of civil security as well as other areas
of discourse pertaining to it. Due to limited space in this unit, we shall focus only on
risk education and its elements in examining the various approaches to civil security,
and we shall employ the task of explaining other approaches in the subsequent unit.
Meanwhile, in the next segment of this unit, we shall browse through the various tasks
we shall undertake on the subject in the objectives of the unit. I have no doubt that you
will find this unit very interesting and intellectually stimulating.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

Define civil security;
Outline various approaches to civil security; and
Explain risk education as an approach to civil security and its elements.
3.0 MAIN BODY
166
3.1 Meaning of Civil Security
The experience of the world in recent time has shown that security has evolved to a
new stage where the importance of the civil population to security management cannot
be underestimated. There has been a shift in security threat discourse where major
attacks and threats come from non-state actors (see ://www.bmbf.de/en/6293.php). In
this case a handful of criminals may form a group to terrorise a whole nation thereby
posing greater threat to the general security atmosphere even beyond national
boundary. For instance, a group like the Al-Qaeda network poses a greater security
risk to the most powerful nation on earth (the US) than any of its rival states like
China and Russia. If security involves initiatives, which must also “focus on the
impact of natural disasters or major accidents and the restriction of damage”
( ://www.bmbf.de/en/6293.php), it is therefore imperative to adopt civil security
framework, which will enhance the capacity of the public to act on their own in times
of emergency and hazardous events.
How do you describe civil security? Civil security can be described as any conscious
measure taken by stakeholders aimed at reducing vulnerability to the security of the
public by enhancing the capacity of individuals to mitigate danger and security
threats, as well as recovering from any form of security attacks whether they be
natural (like hurricane, tornadoes, earth quake, tsunami etc), or considered to be man-
made (arson, robbery, blackmail, etc). Civil security is so crucial because it “provides
an outlet for individual participation in and contribution to homeland security” (Dory,
2003b). The growing relevance of involving civil population in security practice has is
very evident in the contemporary world. This view was supported by President John
F. Kennedy several decades ago, at the height of the nuclear threat episode between
the East led by the defunct Soviet Union and the West bloc led by the United States.
According to him:
To recognize the possibilities of nuclear war in the missile age, without our citizens
knowing what they should do and where they should go if bombs begin to fall, would
be a failure of responsibility (Kennedy, 1961).
Considering the foregoing, you may agree with me that the essence of civil security is
to redefine the traditional security system and present a new paradigm in security
discourse such that attention is now geared towards building the capacity of the
civilians in responding to hazards and security threats. The need to educate the masses
on various aspects of security cannot be over-emphasized because the goal of security
will be defeated if the main stakeholders (the people) remain vulnerable to attacks and
are helpless in taking care of themselves in the event of security threat.
Shalamanov et al. (2005) present different perspectives to the definition of civil

security and according to them civil security can form the following:
(a) Better interdepartmental coordination. If properly implemented, the broad

interpretation of the Law on Crisis Management will lead to the establishment
167
of a civil security system that is legally described as National System for Crisis
Response. In this respect, the role of the National Crisis Management Center is
crucial.
(b) Active civil society participation in the provision of security. The active civil
participation is the connecting link between “traditional” civil protection and
civil security. Nowadays security cannot be provided by the state itself. The
engagement of civil society becomes indispensable. Civil society structures,
NGOs, voluntary local formations as well as business organizations and the
scientific community are the potential resource for the establishment of a third
pillar of the security sector;
(c) Good governance and effective democratic civil control over the security
sector. Participation is the best opportunity for proactive control;
(d) New strategic culture of civil society. The establishment of a civil security
element of the security sector is a challenge to the maturity of civil society. The
ability of civil society to fill in the vacuum left by the diminishing traditional
state fast before organized crime is vital.
How would you describe the concept of civil security?
3.2 Approaches to Civil Security:
In this segment, we shall simply list the four basic approaches to civil security to make
judicious use of space. These approaches shall be extensively discussed subsequently.
They include the following:
a) Risk education;
b) Preparedness;
c) (Public) Warning; and
d) Protective Actions
Civil security involves a network of activities which demands connecting various
approaches that are brought to bear at different levels of security management. In
security planning and management, we are often familiar with two environments: pre-
incident (pre-hazard or attack) and throughout incident (post hazard and attack). The
through incident environment features various activities of intervention during the
incident of security threat and its aftermath, please see figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Integrated Civil Security Approaches
168
Source: Dory, A.J. (2003a). Civil Security: Americans and the Challenges of
Homeland Security. Washington DC: CSIS.
Civil security involves drawing a framework that presents us with diverse strategic
initiatives and activities that enable the public to have adequate knowledge of
incidence of risk through the process of risk education in the pre incident stage. The
security sector mostly performs this function by communicating (risk communication)
with the public through several forums and platforms like the web, television, radio,
newsletter, among others.
Having being educated on the risks that underlie potential security threats or attacks,
people can then be prepared against such threats. In a situation whereby a security
threat occurs, the security sector communicates with the public and issue warnings by
alerting or notifying them of the occurrence of a hazard, and the steps they should take
to forestall disaster that may result in huge loss of lives and property, as part of
protective actions.
Also, in a situation whereby a hazard or attack occurs, the security sector

communicates with the public, warning them through alert and notification about the
security threat happening or about to occur. Thereafter, the public needs to be given
additional (professional) advice on steps to take to reduce losses and or be assisted
with further necessary protective actions, to reduce the effect of the attack or hazard
on the wellbeing of the public. For instance, if there is an outbreak of bird flu infection
in a community, the government may reasonably decide to quarantine or restrict
everybody coming from such community to another community until essential
medical tests have been performed on the affected people to know their health status
before allowing them into another community. This protective action is taken to
reduce the spread of the disease, which is considered capable of undermining the
169
health security of the public. In the next unit, we shall begin our analytical task of the
various approaches to civil security by discussing risk education and its elements.
List various approaches to civil security.
3.3 Risk education
From time immemorial, risk has been part of human life. Risk that pervaded the
Hobessian state of nature resulting from insecurity embedded in that situation where
no Sovereign power existed to regulate the affairs of men, mandated the people to
surrender their individual sovereign rights to a central Sovereign authority
(government). Meanwhile, that contractual agreement brought unto people another
risk- the possibility of the emergent Sovereign power to fail in meeting the
expectations of the people or its failure to perform well its functions or involve in
oppressive and repressive actions against the people as argued by J.J. Rousseau.
The foregoing is illuminated by Holton (2004) who argues that there are two issues
that determine the existence of risk. The first is uncertainty about the potential
outcomes from an experiment. The second issue focuses on how material the
outcomes in providing utility are. Thomas Hobbes contended that people resolved to
take the risk of surrendering their sovereign power to a central Sovereign entity
because of the brutish and nasty nature of Hobessian state. Though, uncertain of
whether their lots would be better or not under the new arrangement, but due to
perpetual absence of security of lives and property that existed prior to convocation of
sovereign political authority a state, they still found it a good idea to concede their
individual sovereignty to a central authority, which they believed could provide them
safety and guarantee their wellbeing.
Here, despite the uncertainty, people still believed that it was better to take a risk in
the convocation of a new Sovereign power than perpetuating themselves in the risk
that triggered the lawlessness and disorder that characterised the state of nature as
presented by Hobbes. The anticipation of the people was that the potential outcomes
would provide utility. This can be said to mean that people hoped that their action
would help them to have a new situation through which their safety and security of
their lives and properties could be safeguarded by the Sovereign authority.
At this point, it is pertinent to look at some of the existing definitions of the term risk
for our better appreciation of the subject. Well, according to Niklas Luhmann, risk can
be defined as:
….the threat or probability that an action or event will adversely or beneficially affect
an organisation's ability to achieve its objectives (Luhmann, 1996).
Some of the other definitions of risk may include the following:
170
Risk is the probability that a hazard will turn into a disaster. Vulnerability and
hazards are not dangerous, taken separately. But if they come together, they become a
risk or, in other words, the probability that a disaster will happen
( ://www.unisdr.org/eng/public_aware/world_camp/2004/booklet-eng /Pagina 9ing
.pdf).
Risk is a concept that denotes the precise probability of specific eventualities.

Technically, the notion of risk is independent from the notion of value and, as such,
eventualities may have both beneficial and adverse consequences. However, in
general usage the convention is to focus only on potential negative impact to some
characteristic of value that may arise from a future event (Error! Hyperlink reference
not valid..).
From the above definitions, one thing that comes to our mind is that risk may be
summarised as uncertainty in the outcomes of events or actions. Risk colours every
aspect of human activities and relations because of the possibility that the outcomes
may be partially or absolutely in variance with our expectations. A good example is a
case of a retiree, who due to the unpredictable economic climate of Nigeria and not
wanting to risk investing in just any business, decides to use his/her gratuity to build a
house with the aim of letting out it to make money. His/her desire is to use the money
from the property to take care of his/her needs and for the security of life after service,
so that he/she can still have something to fall back on, even when pension is not
(promptly) paid.
Here, we may see ingenuity in this retiree’s idea considering the plights of pensioners
in Nigeria who are always maltreated by successive governments, but such a plan is
not also devoid of risk. Let us put it this way, after the retiree in question has let out
the house, one of the tenants through his/her carelessness left a lit candle on the table
and in the twinkle of an eye, the house was engulfed in flames. Then, the question that
would likely come to our minds is- how can the retiree get back his lost fortunes?
Nonetheless, this scenario underscores the importance of getting sufficient risk

education in carrying out specific activities and undertaking a particular project or the
other. Mandating the careless tenant to build another house for the poor retiree may be
a fruitless effort especially when he/she does not have financial capacity to do such.
Even if taken to court, little can be done to prevail on the careless tenant except he/she
the means to provide the landlord-retiree with another house. Above all, the action of
the tenant may not be considered as arson because the damage was not intentional but
he/she may be penalised for being careless.
In the worse-case scenario, if the offender (the careless tenant) dies in the inferno,
what will be the fate of the landlord-retiree? Your answer is the same as mine- total
loss on the part of the landlord. Meanwhile, if there was adequate risk education on
the part of the landlord-retiree he/she would have taken steps to avoid such loss and
the steps may include insuring the property and equipping the house with fire-fighting
171
facilities like fire extinguisher. Availability of fire-fighting equipments will help in

mitigating or reducing the losses resulting from incident of inferno. There is no doubt
that educating people on risk is very essential in providing them opportunities for
safety in their businesses, activities, and the overall security of their lives and
property.
Risk education and communication is a fundamental element of civil security. It is the

foundation of civil security (Dory, 2003a: vi). As you may be aware, risk adorns every
aspect of the life of man. A man and woman go into a relationship but only hope that
things will work out fine for them. In some situations, courtship may lead to marriage
while among some lovers the relationships will fail due to one reason or the other.
Even where the relationship leads to marriage, some unexpected circumstances may
come up, which can have adverse effects on the marriage.
For instance, in the beginning, a couple may love each other very dearly but if the
marriage is not blessed with babies, the couple may decide to search for solutions, and
in the process, the security of the marriage may begin to be threatened if no legitimate
solutions seem to work in their favour. Thereafter, arguments and counter-arguments
as well as accusations and counter-accusations may ensue that may lead to the
eventual collapse of the marriage. This, in no doubt, shows the existence of risk in the
relationship not only between man and woman but among people in general.
According to Weyman and Shearn (2004: 6), the objectives of risk education can be
summarised into three, which include the following:
(a) Awareness raising - strategies designed to disseminate knowledge and

understanding of sources of harm;
(b) Transferable skills - progressive approaches that aim to develop transferable

life skills (relating to the risk assessment and control); and
(c) Behaviour modification - approaches that aim to reduce risk taking behaviour.
We do certain things sometimes without having absolute control over their outcomes,
yet we still take the risk in undertaking them. Even, where we have absolute control
over the events, it is possible for some things to crop-up to change the course of the
events, which may make the outcomes of such events short of our expectations.
How do you describe risk education as an approach to civil security?
3.31 Elements of Risk Education
a) Development of unclassified national intelligence: There is the need for

government to create mechanisms aimed at developing unclassified national
intelligence estimate on various threats to security i.e banditry, all forms of
172
terrorism, ethno-religious violence, to mention a few. It is very ridiculous that

various intelligence agencies have continued to play down the inherent risk
involved in the way the political leadership in Nigeria continually plunders the
resources of the nation with impunity. If the political office holders are
educated on the risks such as political turbulence, increasing criminality,
violence, and other negativities, the nation is exposed to, due to the growing
incidence of corruption that pervades Nigeria, many of these government
officials may have a rethink to continue to steal public funds.
The fact is that they themselves as culprits will also be victims of their own
undoing. A good example is the problem of incessant political assassination
where some political elites contract some of those (masses) they oppress to kill
their fellow political actors for one political objective or the other. This
development corroborates the adage of the Yoruba people of south-west
Nigeria, which says that ‘a bird perches on the rope, the rope is unsteady while
the bird itself that is on the rope is uneasy’.
It is important for intelligence agencies to educate political actors on the

implications of their policies especially the risk such policies may pose to the
overall security of the nation. For instance, in the Niger Delta, many of the
political elites in and outside the region have been accused of using the
vulnerable youths as party thugs armed with weapons like guns, cutlasses
among others, to win elections and in the aftermath of elections, these youths
are abandoned by their former patrons with no efforts by these politicians to
retrieve the weapons from their thugs.
Unfortunately, these youths, after being abandoned by their former masters

became frustrated, and begin to devise means for themselves to survive
especially when they have understood the dynamics of economics of violence.
So, many of them become armed robbers, kidnappers, saboteurs, to mention a
few. The elites and their relations now become the main targets of kidnappers,
a situation, which speaks volumes of the risk inherent in attitudes of
maladministration and corruption;
b) Scenario-building in risk education: Enough efforts should be made in building

scenarios to educate the public on risk, so that they can understand the nature
and degree of possible security threats. It is very unfortunate, in Nigeria,
despite the existence of various regulatory, security and intelligence agencies,
that the citizens are continually exposed to different avoidable threats. For
instance, the damage done by ‘wonder banks’ could have been prevented if the
Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) lived to its responsibility not only by
preventing such clandestine institutions from operating but also providing
adequate education to the public on the risk involved in transacting business
with such fraudulent institutions.
173
Sadly, it took the CBN more than two years of the existence of such financial
institutions before it could advise the public on the inherent danger in
transacting business with those institutions. It is more pathetic that those
institutions were registered by the government without considering the risks
underlying their operations. The public intelligence officials that are supposed
to provide guidance to government and public on how the activities of these
wonder banks posed a great risk to the security of the public failed in
discharging their duties in this respect, while it is laughable that many of them
were also found patronizing those clandestine financial institutions due to their
thirst for making quick money;
c) Interactiveness in risk education: It is imperative to make risk education

interactive, so that the process will be participatory. In this case, the
government should provide various forums through which individuals and
respective security agencies can meet to discuss and brain storm as well as
enlighten one another on different threats while appreciating the risks such
threats pose to the security management of their communities. These forums
may include town hall meetings, radio or television programmes and web casts,
to mention a few. The importance of creating interactive platforms in risk
education cannot be over-emphasized. For instance Nigeria Police has adopted
the strategy of shortening the distance between her and the public through its
community relations;
Gladly, police officers now have meetings with the people in communities,
especially to educate the masses on the risks involved in their attitudes to
security and to assist them in understanding possible threats to security of the
community at large. For instance, in many communities, people are ignorant of
the risk of mounting high fences around their houses for security reason. For
instance, if someone is being robbed, how can passers-by know that he/she is in
distress? Whereas, if it is a low fence, some of the neighbours may detect and
call the Police for rescue. The same ignorance applies to the neighbourhoods
blanketed by fortified gates, which denies security rescue teams i.e. Police to
gain easy access in situation(s) of distress;
d) Massification of Risk education: Much emphasis should be placed on educating

the general public on security risks. Risk education should be incorporated into
the school curriculum from primary level to tertiary level. It should be taught in
places of worship, community associations, work places, professional
organizations among others; and
e) Active Participation of individuals in risk education: individuals should

endeavour to participate actively in the process of risk education such as
attending police-community meetings, seeking for information from relevant
security agencies whenever the need arises, and exploring other interactive
forums like asking questions on any aspect of security that desire to have
knowledge of by participating on security talk show especially when relevant
174
security experts are invited on the radio or television. But, it is worthy to note
that, not every security information can be shared with the public.
It is, therefore incumbent on the concerned security officers either public or

private to enlighten the public on the importance of keeping such information
secret. Take for instance, if a Police chief is on a radio programme, and a caller
seeks to inquire from him/her on the number of ammunitions each Police
man/officer on patrol can have, it will be highly unethical for such a Police
chief to disclose such information because of its capability to undermine the
overall operation of the Police in security management.
However, an experienced security officer will educate the caller and general
public on the risk in disclosing such information not only to the security of the
Police personnel but also the general public. Responding creatively to
questions by security officers will allow security agencies to enjoy increasing
confidence from the public, which will aid the active participation of the public
in security management.
What is Risk Education?

Explain any four elements of risk education?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Civil security can be described as any conscious measure, taken by stakeholders with
the aim of reducing and addressing vulnerability to their security. It helps to educate
people on risks pertaining to any potential security threats or hazards and enhance
their capacity to prepare against any potential threats. This will afford them the
opportunity to respond effectively on their own without waiting for intervention from
emergency or law-enforcement agents, as a way to reduce losses or the impact of the
attack or hazard on their lives or/and property.
There is no doubt that modern securitisation departs gradually from the traditional
approach of security that entirely alienated the civil society or civilians to play active
roles in security planning and management. This instructs the concept of community
policing that has been articulated by the police authorities in the country but in
practice, Nigeria still has a long way to go compared to European countries. One of
the reasons is poor implementation of the programme, and another factor responsible
for the poor credential of community policing in the country can be blamed on the
negative perception people still have towards the police resulting from the nefarious
activities of most of its personnel and lack of regard for the public. Against this
background, Nigeria police needs to undergo serious reforms to show to the world that
it is not only effective but also independent in discharging its functions. This law-
enforcement agency has continued to be accused of being an instrument in the hands
of some politicians to rig elections and repress the public it is supposed to serve.
175
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we began our academic journey by examining the meaning of civil
security looking at some of the existing definitions of the concept. Though, the
concept is new in security studies and practice but more scholars are gradually
attracted to conduct research on this new concept of basic security. We continued our
study by highlighting various approaches to civil security. Thereafter, we shed light on
the meaning of risk education as one of the basic approaches to civil security, and we
completed our task in this unit by discussing various elements of risk education. I
hope you have found this lesson very interesting and thought-provoking too. In the
following unit, we shall be discussing three other approaches to civil security. Please,
never hesitate to consult your tutorial facilitator, if any aspect of this study is not clear
to you or reach your course coordinator to link you up with the writer of this
instructional material if it is very necessary. Good luck.
6.0 TUTORED MARKED ASSINGMENT
a) What do you understand by the term civil security?

b) Write a short note on the meaning of risk education, and any three of its
elements.
Dory, A.J. (2003a). Civil Security: Americans and the Challenges of Homeland
Dory, A.J (2003b). American Security: the US Public and Homeland Security. The
Washington Quarterly, 27(1): 37-52.
Holton, G.A. (2004). Defining Risk. Financial Analysts Journal. 60 (6): 19-25.
Kennedy, J.F. (1961). Radio and Television Report to the American People on the
Berlin Crisis. Washington, D.C. (July 25). Also available on .cs.umb.edu/jfk
library/jfk_berlin_crisis_speech.html. Retrieved on 2 October, 2003.
Luhmann, N. (1996). Modern Society Shocked by its Risks. University of Hong-kong:

Department of Sociology (Occasional Papers 17).
Shalamanov, V., Hadjitodorov, S., Tagarev, T., Avramov, S., Stoyanov, V.,
Geneshky, P., & Pavlov, N. (2005). In: Civil Security: Architectural Approach in
Emergency Management Transformation. Sofia: ProCon Ltd/ Information & Security:
An International Journal, 17: 75-101.
Weyman, A. & Shearn, P. (2004). Teaching Practice in Risk Education for 5-16 Years
olds. Sheffield: Health and Safety Laboratory: Report Number HSL/2005/23.
176
://portalnano.ru/files/20. Retrieved on 10 August 2009.
://www.bmbf.de/en/6293.php. Retrieved on 19 August 2009.
://www.unisdr.org/eng/public_aware/world_camp/2004/booklet-eng /Pagina 9ing

.pdf. Retrieved on 19 August 2009.
UNIT 5
CIVIL SECURITY: MEANING AND APPROACHES II
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Preparedness
177
3.2 Public Warning

3.3 Protective Actions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we began our task on the meaning and aspects of civil security. The
rationale behind invocation of the concept of civil security underscores the need to
have the public playing complementary roles not only in security planning but also in
the management of security. In as much as the public forms the nucleus of the
stakeholding in the business of security, they should be involved in security activities
so that they can care for themselves in the event of security attack. In this unit, we
shall complete our task on the subject- civil security and its aspects. We have
previously treated the meaning and one of the aspects (risk education) of civil
security. Now, we shall be discussing the remaining three aspects not earlier
discussed.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

Explain other three aspects of civil security not treated in the last unit;
Discuss the meaning and elements of preparedness;
Examine the meaning and elements of public warnings; and
Describe protective actions and its elements.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Preparedness
Preparedness is another key element or component of civil security. Sometimes, one

may be sceptical to support the view that states that for any community to prevent
violence (war), it is incumbent on it to always prepare for violence (war). Here, the
term violence or war is used to denote any (potential) threats or attacks from enemies
such as armed robbers, kidnappers, saboteurs, terrorists, election riggers, computer
hackers, assassins, militants, fraudsters, fire outbreak and accidents, among others.
It is always important to prepare oneself against the unexpected because it will

enhance one’s capacity to prevent such security threat from occuring, and in the
situation of its occurrence, the rate of damage will be minimal. For instance, Nigeria’s
Federal Road Safety Corps usually campaigns for compulsory use of seat belt in order
to reduce the fatality of accidents on our roads.
178
Again, some new automobiles now come with air bags to provide safety for the
occupants of the vehicle in a situation of serious accident but the vehicles equipped
with air bags still have seat belts because the manufacturers feel that the air bag
system may fail to activate, and the seat belts can therefore provide a security back-up
for the occupants of the vehicle when a serious accident occurs. The foregoing
scenario demonstrates how important it is, to always prepare oneself against any
hazardous situation. Now, what is preparedness? According to Amanda Dory,
preparedness can be described as:
.....a method by which awareness and understanding (supported by risk education)

can be translated into action........, and it can include a range of activities: developing
contingency plans (e.g. communications, evacuation, shelter-in-place0, practicing
contingency plans, participating in education and awareness activities, and
stockpiling emergency supplies (Dory, 2003: 35).
Preparedness can also be described as:
.......a comprehensive plan (that) provides a range of scenarios with clearly defined,
detailed processes and responsibilities. A critical component of a business continuity
plan is a secure access plan to ensure remote or isolated emergency workers can
continue working during and after a disaster ( ://www.juniper.net/us/en/solutions/
public-sector/state-local-government/emergency-preparedness).
Conducting a surgical analysis on the foregoing definition, you may agree with me
that preparedness is very fundamental to safety and security management. We cannot
but agree with Boys Scout in their motto, which says ‘always be prepared’. Thus,
preparedness enables the public to take active roles in risk management and effective
participation in the process of security management. Preparedness helps security
agencies and the public, if not to absolutely prevent attacks but at least to reduce the
fear and anxiety associated with security threats. It can assist in reducing the fatality
rate in the consequences of any security threat in physical, psychological and
economic terms (see Dory, 2003: 35).
In addition, preparedness enables individuals to respond creatively to any situation of

security attack, even without seeking for external intervention. Here, prepared
individuals engage in activities to protect themselves and react very effectively to
security threats by taking good control of the situation. This will limit the burden of
security intervention by relevant government agencies. For instance, in some
communities, people watch the activities of one another very closely and whenever
any member is suspected to constituting a security threat to the whole people, the
people act swiftly by asking the fellow to vacate the place or be handed-over to the
police.
In the situation of attack of armed robbery, the people jointly put-up a strong
resistance against the attackers whether or not the intention of the attackers aim a
179
particular target. One of the ways to achieve this, is to adorn the community with
street lights, and where or when there is no electricity supply from the energy agency
(PHCN), some of the people can volunteer to use their generating sets to power those
street lights unilaterally or on rotational basis.
Also, when the presence of strangers is noticed, people need to humbly accost them to
know their mission. But caution should be exercised in doing this, they should make
sure the strangers are not equipped with dangerous weapons before approaching them.
In a situation where they are not sure, they should alert the Police promptly. In
furtherance of our understanding of this subject, let us discuss various elements of
preparedness. Before we do that let us have a five minute break. Break over!
Elements of Preparedness
a) Adoption of ‘dual use’ approach: The state and local governments due to
nearness or proximity to the people should endeavour to build the capacity of
the security sector and public not only in the areas that concern man-made
attacks (i.e. terrorism, armed robbery, computer virus attack, computing system
hacking, sabotage, corruption, spills, accidents etc) but also those that relate to
threats that are natural such as hurricane, flooding, tornadoes, drought,
earthquake among others.
It is very unfortunate that in Nigeria, the security sector let alone the civil
public is not adequately trained to respond promptly and effectively to the
incidence of terrorism within and without. One of the factors to this strategic
deficiency can be traced to the lackadaisical and inept nature of various
intelligence agencies. The moribund nature of our security infrastructure is
another factor. Most countries in Europe have closed circuit Televisions
(CCTVs) and surveillance cameras installed in every nook and cranny of their
homelands not only to detect (perpetrators of) crime but also to prevent and/or
reduce criminal activities. Even, if CCTVs are to be installed everywhere in
Nigeria, the regular power outages will render these security materials less
functional.
On reacting to natural disasters, the public can be said to have no adequate

knowledge on how to manage the situation when natural disaster occurs. Even,
experience has shown that the Emergency Management agencies in the country
both at federal and state levels have appeared to be very incompetent and
impotent in disaster management. For instance the way the Ikeja Bomb blast
episode was handled rubbished the efficacy or simply the preparedness of the
security sector in Nigeria and Emergency Management Authorities in disaster
management.
This incident occurred on January 27, 2002 in Lagos where “several bombs
exploded at the Ikeja Military Cantonment during which scores of thousands of
people died during the stampede that followed the explosion particularly
180
children that drowned in a chemically contaminated canal called Oke-Afa

Canal in Isolo, Ejigbo Local Government Area (LGA)”(Error! Hyperlink
reference not valid.). Ridiculously, it took the intervention of foreign bomb
experts to detonate other bombs scattered all over the neighbourhoods;
b) Development of emergency preparedness materials: The government in

collaboration with public and private sector(s) should establish local offices
throughout the nation where people can easily access emergency materials like
swimming jackets in case of flood, vaccines and medicals in situations like
disease outbreaks or epidemics, among others;
c) Development and maintenance of sophisticated emergency response

procedures, training and working tools for emergency workers. For instance, in
ensuring quick response of the Police to any distress call, the communication
systems and vehicles must be in good order. Also, it is paramount to provide
security personnel with bullet-proof vests and other equipment that will make
their job an easy one.
Thus, compared to police personnel in developed countries, men and officers of

Nigeria Police are poorly equipped. This is instrumental to their poor state of
their preparedness activities. It is most disturbing the way police stations are
being attacked in recent times. This situation shows lack of preparedness by the
police against any attack. If the police fails to protect itself, then, how can it
protect the public? This leads to the following point or condition;
d) Regular conduct of simulation: Simulation is very essential to preparedness. It

assists to present to the security personnel, the true reflection or state of their
preparedness to various security threats. There is no doubt that regular conduct
of simulation will enhance the capacity of security personnel to identify their
areas of vulnerability, through which they can fathom ways to address it and
improve their preparedness; and
e) Educating the Public: Educating the public on security issues is a key element
to risk education, which will increase their awareness of possible security
threats, so that they can prepare themselves against the occurrence of security
attacks. And when a security attack happens, they can easily be on top of the
situation by refusing to be overwhelmed by fear and anxiety. For example, had
it been there had been public enlightenment on security threats and disaster
management, the casualty rate resulting from the Ikeja Cantonment bomb blast
episode, would have been minimal. The fact is that people would have had
enough awareness to avoid panic in situations like that. Therefore, many of the
victims would not have jumped into the Canal out of confusion.
How do you define preparedness?
181
Explain the elements of preparedness.
3.2 Public Warning
The importance of prompt and effective public warnings in responding to natural

and/or man-made disasters or security threats cannot be over-emphasized. The truth of
the matter is that public warnings assist the public to take actions that can save lives,
reduce fatality and enhance their recovery capacity. According to the Partnership for
Public Warning in its report titled “Developing a Unified All-Hazard Public Warning
System”, , warning can be described as a ‘process’ that:
.....consists of people with information communicating with people at risk, and others
such as emergency responders, in advance of or during a hazardous event, with the
intent that those at risk will take appropriate action to reduce casualties and losses.
The goal of warning is to prevent hazards from becoming disasters. The success of a
warning is measured by what actions people take (Partnership for Public Warning
(2002: 3).
Warning can also be described as:
a communication and acknowledgment of dangers implicit in a wide spectrum of

activities by potential opponents ranging from routine defense measures to substantial
increases in readiness and force preparedness and to acts of terrorism or political,
economic, or military provocation ( Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms
2005.).
....something that serves to warn, give notice, or caution (Error! Hyperlink reference
not valid.).
.....admonition, notice, or pointing out an existing or potential danger, specially to one

who would otherwise would not be aware of it (Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.).
Public warnings involve activities designed to alert the public on the impending
danger. The foreign ministries of several countries take it as a matter of priority to
alert their citizens of the inherent danger of travelling to some countries through the
media and internet. Even, if some of the citizens will still wish to travel to those
countries considered as unsafe, the alert will assist them to prepare themselves, and
plot ways to mitigate the effect of fear and anxiety and building their capacity to
responding to security attacks or threats. This can at least help them reduce losses in
the event of experiencing attack.
During a hazardous event, people can be notified with the aim of alleviating or
forestalling further losses. This is done to enable people to proffer actions to mitigate
the risk that underlies a security threat. For instance, in a situation of fire-outbreak in a
business building, the people in the building are to be notified of the incident, and they
should be advised not to panic. Thereafter, they should be guided on how to exit the
182
building. The basis of public warnings is to prevent hazards from leading to disasters.
Disasters involve huge loss of lives and property, which should be avoided as much as
possible. What determine the success of any warning initiative are promptness of the
intervention and appropriate actions. If any public warning lacks any of these two
elements, it will be difficult for such warning to attain the desired goals.
Elements of Public Warning
a) Data collection, analysis, and decision-making to issue a warning: Evidence of

a hazard must be developed through data collection, and the collected data
analysed. After the analysis, we can thereafter make a decision in issuing a
warning. The procedure is very necessary to observe in order to avoid raising
an unnecessary and false alarm that may affect the people’ response to future
warnings. For instance, if the farmers in a particular settlement are warned of
the impending drought in a particular year, many of these farmers may relocate
to another area for cultivation or not to engage in farming activities at all
during that period.
And if it is found at the end of the day that the situation of drought never
occurs against the earlier public warning, it will be difficult to convince the
affected people of an impending security threat in future warnings. In a
situation like this, people will disregard the warnings until they begin to
experience the hazards, and if no appropriate measures of intervention are
taken, such hazards like earthquake may lead to disasters resulting in huge loss
of lives and property, where the effect of the hazards could have been
minimized if there had been adequate preparedness by the victims in the first
instance (see Mileti & Sorensen, 1990).
b) Framing a warning: it is also important to identify the right words and digitally
coded warning message that involve the application of standards for
terminology also putting into consideration the most effective ways to
communicate warnings to the target audience. If a warning is meant to be
communicated to civilians, it is appropriate to avoid using codes but rather to
communicate in the language format that they will understand.
This may be difficult in a multi-lingual society like Nigeria where there are
several ethnic groups with different languages. It is more problematic because
it is not everybody that understands the official language (English), and it is
necessary to translate the warnings into the local languages of the target
population. And where some the people can neither understand English nor any
of the translated languages, it will be up to the people who understand to pass
the information to the affected people;
c) Use of Secure Sources: Getting inputs from dependable and authorised sources
is very germane to public warning apparatus. These authorised sources help
not only in the collection of objects of warning but also assist in delivering
warning to various targets;
183
d) Transmission of warnings: Transmission of warnings should be handled very

professionally, and it demands the use of a wide variety of distribution systems
such as telephone, internet and public address system, to mention a few. The
arrival of GSM in Nigeria has been helpful in providing warnings to the public
in case of any security threat or hazard. For instance, if an incident of bank
robbery is taking place in a particular location, one can easily be alerted
through a voice call or short messages (SMS) of the risk of being in that
location at that particular time because of the possibility of being hit by bullet.
Meanwhile, one great obstacle to the use of most of the warning facilities is the
erratic nature of power supply in Nigeria; and
e) Human Attitude to warnings: it is one thing to issue warnings to people against

a security threat or hazard but it is another for the people to whom the warnings
are made, to respond appropriately and timely to the warnings. Undoubtedly,
warning has no relevance or importance if people fail to ‘hear and respond’
(Dory, 2003: 55). For instance, in many urban centres in Nigeria, people often
turn deaf ears to government warnings to vacate buildings considered to be a
threat to the security of the occupants because of the risk involved in staying
there. The reason may be due to high cost of securing another accommodation.
Therefore, it is important on the part of government to provide cheaper
accommodation for the people through development of low cost housing
scheme as well as drastic reduction in the cost of building materials.
Briefly describe public warning and its elements.
2.3 Protective Actions
Protective actions are the most critical component as well as the climax of the civil
security agenda. It involves the steps which the public can take to alleviate or reduce
the adverse effects that any natural or/and man-made security threats or hazards can
have on them. This component of civil security comes after exploring three other
elements of civil security including risk education and communication, preparedness
and public warning. In order to have a greater knowledge of the subject matter, it is
pertinent at this juncture to explain its fundamental elements.
Elements of Protective Actions
a) Evacuation: This is usually a popular practice in protective action. Apart from

natural and man-made threats that are premeditated such as assassination, arson
among others, there are other man-made threats that are accidental. Accidents
occur almost on daily basis. On the roads, accidents do occur may be through
carelessness or recklessness as the case may be or human error. For instance,
some people are in the habit of over-speeding when driving despite the regular
184
campaign by the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC), calling on road users to
avoid reckless driving and over-speeding. In industries, accidents do occur
ranging from fire-outbreak, suffocation, spilling of harmful chemicals, to
mention a few. Many industrial workers have had their hands amputated by
machines resulting from human error or fatigue.
The industrial inferno episode that occurred in a factory located at Ikorodu,

Lagos state still linger in the memory of many Nigerians especially the
families, friends and close relations of the victims of the fire-outbreak which
claimed the lives of the workers working in the factory. The death toll would
have been reduced if there was prompt or timely evacuation response, and it
was most pathetic that the victims were unable to escape because the
management allegedly locked them up in the factory, meaning there was no
exit point for safety.
Sadly, that phenomenon speaks volumes of the state of enslavement that most
Nigerian employees are subjected to by their ‘masters’. In order to forestall the
repeat of such an incident, it is important for the government to criminalise all
dehumanising policies of employers or managements against their staff or
employees, and adequate punishment should be meted on the erring employers
including life imprisonment.
Again, the issue of terrorism should be given priority attention by Nigerian

government. If the incidence of terrorism is less evident or not existing at all in
the country now does not depict that Nigeria is immune to terrorist attacks
considering the presence of anarchist ethno-religious groups in the country. No
one could believe that Kenya and Tanzania could become targets of attack by
terrorists until it happened. The terrorists planted bombs at the US embassies in
those two countries, which later exploded killing and injuring hundreds of
people, most of whom were Africans. Resulting from those bombing incidents,
one cannot say that since Nigeria is not a party to the Middle-ease crisis, it
cannot be a target of Arab insurgents. Therefore, it is very important for the
security sector to develop a framework through which they can respond
promptly and adequately with appropriate evacuation actions in the event of a
terrorist attack;
b) Sheltering or Shelter-in-Place: This element of protective action can be

described as “practice of remaining indoors in an office, home, school or other
structure; or if outside, taking refuge in a nearby building in order to minimize
the effect of a hazard” (Dory, 2003: 68). Sheltering is a crucial protective
action that involves a variety of withdrawal actions.
It is easier to facilitate sheltering than evacuation because it does not take much
time to undertake, as few studies have shown that individuals would need “five
to ten minutes to take shelter after they receive the alert or notification to do
so” (Dory, 2003: 69). But, if the findings of Rogers et al. are anything to go by,
185
any expedient sheltering actions like sealing of windows, doors as well as other
opening should take between three and thirty-nine minutes but seventeen
minutes on the average to undertake (Rogers et al. cited in Dory, 2003: 70);
c) Quarantine and Shielding: Let us begin our conceptual illumination of the two
terms by defining quarantine. Quarantine can be simply defined as officially
imposed isolation or a way of separating an infected person from the rest of the
people with the aim of curbing the possibility of the spread of the disease due
to the efficacy of such ailment to pose a great security threat to public health.
For instance, it is incumbent on the government to quarantine a member of the
community infected with laser fever because of the virulent and infectious
nature of the disease;
d) Medical Counter Measures (MCM): These are also crucial elements of

protective actions. They usually involve a wide spectrum of medical
interventions and treatments that can be applied in the event of a hazard or
security attack. This element of protective actions is so vital because it provides
an opportunity to counter or mitigate the adverse effect that any security attack
may have on the people especially through availability of drugs and medical
treatment. For instance, in some homes in Nigeria, families have first-aid
equipment because they are aware that accident can happen anytime at home,
so that they can give first-aid treatment to person in medical need before taking
him/her to the hospital for further treatment. This can help to reduce the
damage from any incident of security threat or hazard.
As a matter of protective engagement, government is expected to develop

Strategic National Stockpiles (SNS) for medical countermeasures. The SNS
should be stocked with vaccines, antivirals, anti-toxins, anti-snake venom
(particularly there is regular incidence of snake bites, notable in northern
Nigeria), anti-malaria drugs, among others. SNS should have centres in all the
local governments in the country for easy access by the public especially in the
event of epidemics like cholera, small-pox and polio; and
e) Individual Protective Equipment: As discussed above, some individuals

appreciate the need to pay priority attention to issue concerning their safety and
security. For instance, in Nigeria, many people have died when the boats they
were travelling with capsized in the middle of the river or sea. Meanwhile,
many of the victim-passengers would have survived, if they had life-saving
jackets, which could still make them float on water till rescue would come to
them. Nevertheless, security and personal safety demands that it is important to
purchase necessary protective equipment for private use. It is very funny that
most of the road users in Nigeria drive their vehicles without having fire-
extinguisher. Some do not even have extra tyre(s).
186
Define protective actions, and write short note on any four of its elements.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In as much as it is popularly believed that the end product of every security activity is
supposed to be towards meeting the security needs of the people, it is pertinent to
engage the public in active roles in the security of their communities, not by carrying
out jungle justice against any crime suspect(s) but by providing useful assistance to
the law enforcement agents and emergency workers. More importantly, through active
participation, people should learn ways to take care of themselves in order to reduce
losses in the occurrence of hazards or security attacks. People who are familiar with
all the aspects of civil security will always have capacity to handle any emergency or
hazards more creatively and effectively too, than persons who lack knowledge of civil
security activities. The good news is that there has been increasing participation of the
public in security decision-making process, as security is not more seen as the
exclusive function of the government. People now take more active roles in security
planning and management, and the springing-up of private security players is very
evident as well.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we studied various other approaches to civil security that we were unable
to treat in the last unit. We began our task by describing preparedness as an approach
to civil security. Thereafter, we examined the meaning of two other approaches
including public warning and protective actions as well as their different elements.
Write short notes on any of the following:

1) Preparedness and any four of its elements
2) Public warning and any four of its elements.
3) Protective actions and any four of its components.
Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (2005). US Department of Defense.
Dory, A.J. (2003). Civil Security: Americans and the Challenges of Homeland
Mileti, D. & Sorensen, J. (1990). Communication of Emergency Public Warnings.

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL).
Partnership for Public Warning (2002). Developing a Unified All-Hazard Public

Warning System.
187
://allafrica.com/stories/200801280937.html. Retrieved on 18 August, 2009.
://dictionary.reference.com/browse/warning. Retrieved on 20 August 2009.
://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/warning.html. Retrieved on 20 August

2009.
://www.juniper.net/us/en/solutions/public-sector/state-local-government /emergency-
preparedness. Retrieved on 19 August 2009.
MODULE 4
Unit 1: Meaning of Intelligence

Unit 2: Intelligence Collection and Disciplines
Unit 3: Intelligence Analysis and Evaluation
Unit 4: Counter Intelligence
Unit 5: Data Mining and Automated Data Analysis
UNIT 1
MEANING OF INTELLIGENCE
188
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Defining Intelligence
3.2 Dimensions of Intelligence
3.3 Categories of Intelligence
3.4 Sources of Intelligence
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The experience of the world since World War II has shown that security management
is a very serious business. It is not surprising that the security sectors both nationally
and internationally have undergone a number of reforms aimed at addressing security
challenges and threats that bedevil the world population. There is no doubt that one of
main areas of attention in security is intelligence. Intelligence has become one of the
key elements of security sector reform. This explains why state and non – state actors
currently invest huge amount of resources both in human and material terms on
intelligence. It is against this background that we find it important or germane to use a
number of units in this course to conceptualize intelligence and to look at its practical
application, dimensions, categories, collection, analysis, evaluation among others. In
this unit, we shall be focussing on the definition of intelligence and some of its uses.
Let’s quickly take a look at the objectives of this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define the term intelligence;
Discuss the dimensions of intelligence;
Explain the categories, of intelligence; and
List the source of intelligence.
3.0 MAIN BODY
189
3.1 Defining Intelligence
The term intelligence is often mistaken for information or data. This is because most
people (or simply the laymen) usually describe it to mean information. However,
intelligence is different from (ordinary) information although it is a form of
information, which has been ingrained with added value through analytical and
evaluative instrumentation. Intelligence is a refined, analysed and evaluated
information or data gathered through either overt (open) or clandestine (secret) means
or both.
The conceptual differentiation between information and intelligence can be described

“….. along a continuum, with data at the far left and intelligence at the far right, as
one moves from left to right additional value and context is added to discrete or
posited facts to provide enhanced meaning to an ultimate consumer” (Error!
Hyperlink reference not valid.). As discussed in the introductory segment of this unit,
intelligence has attracted growing interest among scholars and security corporations.
Thus, various intellectual efforts and articulations by these groups of people have
yielded fruits in academic discourse and one of such is conceptualization of the term
(intelligence). Therefore, several definitions have emerged among which include the
following:
Intelligence...is not only about spies and satellites. Intelligence is about the thousands
and thousands of routing everyday observations and activities. Surveillance,
interactions – each of which may be taken in isolation as not a particular meaningful
piece of information, but when fused together, gives us a sense of the pattern and the
flow....(.Fas.org/sgp/crs/Intell/RL 33616.pdf).
Intelligence ……… is the product resulting from the collection, evaluation, analysis,
integration, and interpretation of all available information which concerns one or
more aspect of foreign nations or areas of operation which immediately or potentially
significant for planning (the Dictionary of United States Military Terms Joint
Usage).
Intelligence is a special kind of knowledge, a specialized subset of information that
has been put through a systematic analytical process in order to support a state’s
decision and policy makers. It exists because some states or actors seek to hide
information from other states or actors who in turn seek to discover hidden
information by secret or covert means (Hannah et al, 2005, iii).
Intelligence can also be described as what a “state must possess regarding other states
in order to assure itself that its cause will not suffer nor its undertakings fail because
its statemen and solders plan and act in ignorance” (Kent, 1966:3). It usually involves
the gathering, sorting and ranking various data collated according their respective
degree of importance to relevant security issues or problems under scrutiny and
(scientifically) analysing those information to identify ones that can assist us or policy
makers in decision-making process. Intelligence In recent times, intelligence has not
190
only become a key element of security management but also the heartbeat of security
in modern time. This is because its impact on security cannot be under-estimated. In
the next segment of this unit we shall be looking at the various dimension of
intelligence.
How do you define intelligence?
3.2 Dimensions of Intelligence
As preceding discussions will have demonstrated, intelligence, conceptually,

interpretes itself in various forms, according to how each individual or state perceives
it. The British intelligence officials are used to saying that “intelligence is about
secrets, not mysteries” (see Davies, 2002). By and large, intelligence involves
analyzing and evaluating information collected through open and secret means. In
intelligence community, interpretation of gathered information for intelligence
purposes usually exhibit itself in three dimensions which include:
a) Intelligence as a process: Here, intelligence is described as a process through

which information is collected or gathered. After information has been
collected and collated, such information will then be subjected to systematic
analysis and evaluation. Intelligence process is very important, as it allows us
after collecting the raw data, to separate the information that are useful from
those that are not useful.
During this process, values are added to information which make it

(information) refined “into a usable form for decision makers” (Hannah et al.,
2005: IV). There is no doubt that, it is often said that “the relationship between
processes and structure … determines the successful outcome of the
intelligence activity” (Ibid);
b) Intelligence a structure: This is all about the agency or agencies and

institution(s) charged with the responsibility of intelligence sourcing for
consumer i.e. the government. The institutions (often referred to as intelligence
services), in carrying out their intelligence activities, they are influenced by a
number of factors. According to Hannah et al, 2005: iv), these factors may
include:
i. The roles and mandates adopted by one or more services (i.e. are there
different agencies for both the domestic and foreign role?) – as well as
understanding overlaps between intelligence agencies and other players
(such as law enforcement) in the security community;
ii. The shape of any central analysis and / or assessments mechanism to

process collected intelligence;
191
iii. The need to ensure central control and coordination of and

accountability for, the intelligence community; and
iv. The need to ensure pubic oversight of the intelligence community.
There are several overlapping aspects, or rather types of intelligence such as

security intelligence, domestic intelligence, military intelligence, to mention a
few, which according to each nation, maybe separated by delegating different
agencies with different categories of intelligence. In this case, each intelligence
agency will be tasked with a category of intelligence. In Nigeria, the
intelligence unit of the Nigeria Police is mandated by the law to carryout
home–security intelligence while the Directorate of Military Intelligence (DMI)
performs the task of providing military and strategic intelligence.
By and large, countries decide on the (possible) framework to adopt in

intelligence activity. Some countries divide various intelligence roles to be
played by different intelligence services that operate independent of one
another but within the approach of complementing functionality. In other
words, despite being independent of one another, the intelligence services or
institutions must act to complement one another’s roles for system
maintenance.
On the other hand, there are countries where there exists only one intelligence
agency, which performs all intelligence activities ranging from domestic to
foreign, at the same time. A good example was KGB in the defunct Soviet
Union. A caution has to be exercised here, and this is because having one
intelligence service or agency performing all intelligence functions does not
always mean that there exists only one intelligence service. The number of
available intelligence services varies from country to country.
Sometimes, there may be plurality of intelligence agencies in a state, and

among them, there may be a single agency that can perform all intelligence
activities. For instance, in the United States, in practical terms, there are
several intelligence outfits or agencies that perform various intelligence
functions but the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) performs all functions
ranging from domestic, paramilitary to foreign intelligence.
However, the art of separating various forms of intelligence functions

(domestic, military foreign etc) demands that there should be proper
coordination of such tasks among various agencies particularly as it concerns
the cross border security threats such Cyber war, terrorism and others. In
some cases, intelligence services, though separate from one another, may be
mandated to perform all intelligence activities and functions. Thus there will
be a body that will coordinate, collate and synthesize various intelligence
reports coming from all the intelligence services through (scientific) analysis
192
and evaluation of the information collected. On the question of accountability,

in some countries, the intelligence services are answerable to the legislature
while in some political systems like Nigeria, the executive controls the
intelligence service;
c) Intelligence as a product: The intelligence services undergo the process of

collecting information, which will be analysed and evaluated. After analysis
and evaluation, the information gathered will become refined, and ready to be
used by the consumer to meet its short and long-term goals. It is worth-nothing
that, in contemporary time, intelligence consumers are not only governments.
This is because corporate individuals and organizations can also seek for the
services of intelligence agencies in the provision of some specific intelligence,
which may be strategic to their decision–making and security.
As discussed, the outcome of any intelligence activity is determined by the

relationship between the process and structure. Here, the outcome is the
product of the intelligence. According Hannah (2005) intelligence–product is
aimed at assisting the consumer(s) to address ‘foreign or external threats’,
threats to national security’, as well as providing ‘advice on policy and
decision–making’.
SELF ASSESMENT EXERCISE
Discuss the dimensions of intelligence
3.3 Categories of Intelligence
There are several categories of intelligence and these include the following:
a) Security Intelligence: This form of intelligence, according to Kent (1965:209-

210) can be described as:
...the intelligence behind the police function...the knowledge and the activity
which...defensive police forces must have before they take specific action
against the individual ill-wisher or ill doer.
Security intelligence usually involves collecting, collating, analyzing,

evaluating and disseminating information that can protect a nation against
internal threats;
b) Criminal Intelligence: This is a kind of intelligence activity or function carried

out by the relevant service or intelligence agency to provide evidence in
support of prosecution of any criminal suspects. Take for instance, before a
suspect can be arranged in court by the police, it is expected that enough
information must have collected, analysed and evaluated, which will help the
court (as the consumer) to make a decision on the suspects.
193
Infact, it can be argued that lack of adequate criminal intelligence has been a
great challenge to the prosecution of criminal (suspects) in Nigeria. It is really
disappointing that Nigeria police and State Security Service (SSS) have failed
to bring any of the perpetrators of political assassination which the country has
recorded in the last eight years to book (see Onyeozili, 2005). Several suspects
have been prosecuted in court(s) but nobody has been indicted, since there is no
sufficient criminal intelligence to indict nail the accused;
c) Home security or National Intelligence: It is that intelligence, which involves

gathering, collating, analyzing and evaluating as well as disseminating
information within a given state for the effective management of national
security. The national intelligence is reinforced by integrating intelligence
within wide spectrum of nation al strategy mechanisms that go beyond
unilateral competences or needs of a single department’ (Hannah, 2005:2);
d) Foreign Intelligence: This is a traditional form of intelligence in which the

intelligence activity takes place outside the home country. The importance of
this intelligence to the strategic intelligence of any nation cannot be over-
emphasized. This explains why Ambassador John Negropontes, in his speech
before the United States Chamber of Commerce (cacophonically) submitted
that “what happens abroad can kill us at home”.
Negropontes’ submission is apt, considering the emergent ‘villagelization’ of

the world system where globalization has broken the (traditional) barrier
among nations not only in geographical terms, but also economically,
politically and socially. The world has become a global village. Foreign
intelligence allows a country to have strategic information about foreign
nations’ activities and how such activities constitute a threat to her security, as
well as what counter – measures can be adopted to such external threats;
e) Strategic Intelligence: This category of intelligence tends to focus basically on

gathering, analyzing and evaluating about the capabilities, vulnerabilities and
aims of foreign countries. In doing this, the country will have an opportunity to
identify its Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT Analysis)
in the time of peace and provides a platform. This will enable such a country to
develop a framework for strategic military operations in case there is war in the
nearest future.
It’s on the basis of the strategic intelligence outcome that the policy and
decision makers will on which programme(s) to adopt. Net assessment can be
adequately conducted by any country or party. Such strategic intelligence that
are developed will assist decision makers to take into account fundamental
uncertainties about the future. Net assessment involves developing an
analytical framework that takes into account the strategic goals, doctrines,
194
operational concepts and strategic military capabilities of competing countries,

alliances as well as several other international actors;
f) Tactical Intelligence: This involves devolution of responsibility among the

hierarchy of personnel in an intelligence service such that information are
collected, collated, analysed and evaluated for the use by the leadership or top
management for short term policy agenda; and
g) Counter-intelligence: This involves measures to counter any foreign

intelligence activities, capable of constituting a threat to national security
(Ramsokn, 1958). It also includes launching intelligence operations to arrest or
destroy the human intelligence capabilities of the enemy states (hostile
countries).
Discuss any five categories of intelligence.
3.4 Sources of Intelligence
As already discussed, intelligence actually involves collecting and refining

information with the aim of coming up with information that can be useful for
investigation or decision-making process. In the course of preparing intelligence, a
number of sources can be used in gathering information for the intelligence process,
and what are these sources? There are several sources for intelligence collection, and
they include the following:
i. Member(s) of the public;
ii. Foreign governments;
iii. Intelligence personnel;

iv. Communication technologies;
v. Open sources like newspapers, academic journals, unclassified government

documents, treaties etc;
vi. Internet; and
vii. Government institutions, etc.
Highlight any five sources of intelligence
4.0 CONCLUSION
195
Intelligence has remained crucial in security management. Since the end of World
War II, intelligence has assumed a new dimension, and it has formed the large part of
strategic planning and securitization agenda of the world powers particularly it related
to prevailing ideological polarism. Providing adequate (and effective) intelligence can
assist an organisation (or country) with a wide range of opportunities, including
assessing the risk and threats that can undermine the internal security of that
organisation or country. Due to the strategic importance of intelligence, it is quite
paramount for services to conduct regular intelligence reform to meet the challenges
of modern security sector.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we focused on the meaning of intelligence. We began the study by

defining the term intelligence. Also, we discussed the various dimensions of
intelligence. In the segments, our attention was drawn on explaining categories of
intelligence. The fourth subject of discourse was highlighting the sources of
intelligence. I strongly believe that you’ve found this unit very interesting. But, if you
have problem understanding any segment or whole of this unit, feel free to consult
your tutorial facilitator who will assist in the areas of difficulty, if there are any.
(i) What is Intelligence?

(ii) Discuss any four categories of intelligence.
Davies, Philip H. J. (2002), “Ideas of Intelligence: Divergent National Concepts and

Institution”, Intelligence, Vol. 24 (3), Fall. Also available on Error! Hyperlink
reference not valid.. Retrieved on 8 April, 2008.
Hannah, G., O'Brien, K. & Rathmell, A. (2005). Intelligence and Security Legislation
for Security Sector Reform. Cambridge, UK: RAND Europe.
Kent, S. (1965). Strategic Intelligence. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon, Books
Kent, S. (1966). Strategic Intelligence for American World Polity. New Jersey:
Princeton University Press.
Lowenthal, M. (2000). Intelligence from secrets to Policy. Washington DC: CQ Press.
Michael C. (2006). Remarks at the Bureau of Justice Assistance and SEARCH

symposium on “Justice and Public safety information sharing” on 14 March, 2006.
Also available on .fas.org/spg/crs/intel/RL 33616.pdf. Retrieved on 12 March, 2008.
196
Onyeozili, E. C. (2005). Obstacles to Effective Policing in Nigeria. African Journal of

Criminology and Justice Studies 1(1): 32-54.
Ramson, H. (1958). Central Intelligence and Nations Security. London: Oxford

University Press.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence. Retrieved on 6th March, 2008.
UNIT 2
INTELLIGENCE COLLECTION AND DISCIPLINES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Defining Intelligence Collection
3.2 Disciplines of Intelligence Collection
3.3 Means of Intelligence Collection
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
197
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Intelligence has several areas and one of them is information collection. Therefore,
there is division of labour among intelligence officers according to their areas of
competence in intelligence profession. The foundation of any intelligence work or
production is found in the collection of raw data which the (intelligence) analysts will
refine and turn out as intelligence product. In intelligence community (IC) efforts are
made (in an attempt to produce intelligence) towards looking for data useful for
intelligence production. The process of collecting information for intelligence
purposes is known as intelligence collection. In thus unit, we shall be focusing on
intelligence collection as well as a wide range of issues concerning intelligence
collection.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define intelligence collection;
Identify various disciplines of intelligence collection; and
Explain means of intelligence collection.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Defining Intelligence Collection
Information is very crucial to carrying out intelligence tasks. This means that the art of
collection of information must first be considered, in intelligence business. We can at
this point pose a question: what is intelligence collection? It can be defined as “the
procurement of information believed to be pertinent to a decision-maker (sometime
referred to as ‘raw’ intelligence data)” (Hannah et al, 2005:1). Intelligence collection
can also be described as a process of gathering and assembling information through
several methods for the purpose of producing intelligence.
3.2 Disciplines of Intelligence Collection
In the intelligence community, there are several intelligence-collection disciplines that

assist professionals in the collection of intelligence aimed at providing support for
policy makers in their choice of a particular policy direction or the other. Intelligence
collection disciplines can be divided into two: technical and non-technical means. The
technical forms of intelligence disciplines include Signals intelligence (SIGNIT),
Imager of Intelligence (IMINT), and measurement and signatures intelligence
(MASINT). On the other hand, non-technical intelligence disciplines include Human
198
Intelligence (HUMINT) and Open Source Intelligence (OSINT). Now let us explain
them one after the other.
Technical Intelligence Collection Disciplines
Signals Intelligence (SIGNIT): This involves gathering intelligence through

interception or seizing of electronic communications;
Imagery Intelligence (IMINT): This involves the use of satellite images for the
collection of intelligence. It is a method of collecting information through the use of
snapshots to provide security; and
Measurement and Signatures Intelligence (MASINT) is scientific and technical

intelligence. Here, information is gathered through “quantitative and qualitative
analysis of data (metric, angle, spatial, wavelength, time dependence, modulation,
plasma, and hydromagnetic) derived from specific technical sensors for the purpose of
identifying any distinctive features associated with the source, emitter, or sender and
to facilitate subsequent identification and/or measurement of the same” (see
.fas.org/irp/program/masint.htm). There are several forms of MASINT, and they
include:
Radar Intelligence (RADINT);
Acoustic Intelligence (ACOUSTINT);
Nuclear Intelligence (NUCINT);
Radio Frequency/Electromagnetic Pulse Intelligence (RF/EMPINT);
Electro-optical Intelligence (ELECTRO-OPTINT);
Laser Intelligence (LASINT);
Materials Intelligence;
Unintentional Radiation Intelligence (RINT);
Chemical and Biological Intelligence (CBINT);
Directed Energy Weapons Intelligence (DEWINT);
Effluent/Debris Collection; and
Spectroscopic Intelligence (see .fas.org/irp/program/masint.htm).
Non Technical Intelligence Collection Disciplines
199
Human Intelligence (HUMINT): This involves covert or secret collection of

intelligence through human sources. A good example is espionage; and
Open Source Intelligence (OSINT): It involves collection of intelligence through

public sources like archival resources, government documents, academic and
professional materials, media etc. This collection discipline gathers information
through non-secret sources, and it also plays a crucial role in the production of
intelligence.
Marl Lowenthal, in his work, Intelligence: from Secrets to policy, argued that
“Despite the fact that OSINT has always been used, it remains undervalued by
significant segments of the intelligence community”.
Explain the disciplines of intelligence collection.
3.3 Means of Intelligence Collection
a) Espionage: This usually involves the art of covertly or secretly collecting

information through the use of human sources. According to the United State
Department of Defense (DoD), espionage refers to “the act of obtaining,
delivering, transmitting, commenting or receiving information about the nation
defense with an intent, or reason to believe, that the information may be used to
the injury of the United State or to the advantage of any foreign nations” (US
Dept of Defense, 2007).
Spying or espionage is a traditional intelligence system in which some

individuals are appointed on full time or part time basis, to work for some
government(s) or intelligence agencies (either private or public) to steal
valuable or important information from enemy targets with the aim of having
strategic advantage over them. The set of people used for espionage include:
Agent: Agents are also known as assets. They are spies who gather
information. They are involved in all sorts of clandestine reporting,
sipping (or stealing), and illegitimately breaking into the information
(systems) of their target parties, i.e. nations, business organizations,
security agencies among others;
Case Officers: The business of spying is structured in a cell form. Spies

are grouped in small units, and spies can only know other spies in their
cell(s) or unit(s). It is the case officer who recruits his/her own spies.
He/she must demonstrate some level of competence, understanding and
professional maturity. He/she must also be a good team coach, having
200
mentoring potentials to be a role model to the spies or agents working

under him/her and
Courier: Couriers are support personnel who assist the spies in

managing their clandestine communication by securing them (the
communications) against enemy’s interceptions or detection;
b) Black bag operations: These are clandestine or secret) ways of making

(illegitimate) entry into the information facility(ies) of any target party for
intelligence purpose(s). The methods may include lockpicking, safecracking,
finger-printing, electronic surveillance, mail manipulation, forgery among
others;
c) Interrogation: This involves putting questions to person(s) with the aim of

getting information which can aid intelligence collection. There are various
ways through which person(s) can be interrogated. These methods of
interrogation include:
Suggestibility: This a kind of interrogation technique in which people or

person being interrogated are (is) subjected to sleep deprivation or
exposed to continual white sound etc.
Reid: This technique involve interrogators watching the body language

of the person(s) (or suspects) being interrogated. This method is
questionable because it is (very) difficulty to read the mind of man
through his/her face or so-called body language;
Deception: Here, the interrogator applies deceptive mechanism or lie to

confuse and make the suspect to vomit information that may assist in
producing criminal intelligence. The investigator may lie to the suspect
that he/she had been implicated by some other person(s) and there is
need for him/her (suspect) to assist, sometimes, the interrogator
promises the person being interrogated some incentive, just to deceive
the suspect in order to get information from him/her; and
Torture: This is a process of interrogating a person (suspect) and getting

information from him/her through infliction of extreme physical pain.
Law enforcement agencies often apply torture technique on suspects to
make confessions. Torture includes severe beating jaw breaking, head
breaking, face and/or body mutilation, rib-crushing among others. This
technique is obsolete and not effective because of the tendency of the
person being tortured to make false confessions (or give false
information) due to the extreme physical pain he/she suffers. Even if one
is innocent or does not have (the needed) information, in the face of
torture, the person may resolve to give false information as to escape
further torture.
201
d) Number Stations: These are (covert) short wave radio stations. The voices that
are heard on these stations are often created mechanically in various languages.
The voices on the radio can be generated to represent or look like those of
women or men as well as adult or children. Number stations are used in passing
instructions or messages to spies or used to deceive the public or the
government ( management) of the target countries (organizations);
e) A One-Way Voice Link (OWVL): This is another form of shortwave radio in

which transmission is targeted towards aiding communication flow between the
spies or agents (working on the field) and their respective intelligence agencies
(employers). This system allows the spies to transmit already recorded message
without having to stay on air for so long;
f) Steganography: The term steganography emanated from the Greek, meaning

“covered or hidden”. This technique involves sending information to the
recipient in a hidden way. The messages are concealed in such a way that they
are hardly noticed. Examples of steganography include invisible ink, chaffing
and winnowing etc;
g) Cryptography: This is the art and process of writing in secret characters. This
technique is different from steganography because the message is not hidden
but it is the meaning of the message that is coded while steganography
primarily deals with how we can write hidden messages;
h) Concealment Devices: These are devices that we can secretly hide information
or things (i.e paper) and they will look like ordinary object. Examples of these
devices may include (special) books (especially religious materials), candles,
coin etc;
i) Diversion Safe: This is a device which can be left open while concealing some
information materials in its hidden compartment that can be hardly noticed by
anybody;
j) Eavesdropping: This is a method which involves one secretly listening to a

private conversation or discussion. People often do this by pretending as if
they’re deeply asleep but listening to conversation between some other parties.
Eavesdropping occurs everywhere. Some people may deceive other people as if
they have left but only to hide in a corner with the aim of listening to the
conversions of other people secretly;
k) Surveillance: This is the act of watching people or objects. In contemporary

time, the art of surveillance has gone beyond observing or watching (closely)
the movement or behavior of people through human monitoring. It also
includes monitoring through electronic gadgets and (other) technological and
non-technological methods. Technological methods include telephone tapping,
202
closed-circuit television, reconnaissance aircraft, internet and computer

surveillance, GPS tracking, binoculars, postal interception, bugs (covert
listening devices), etc. There are several other types of surveillance and these
include:
Biometric Surveillance: It is the use of technologies to measure and

study the physical and behavioral features of person(s) for the purpose
of authentication, identification or screening. The physical features that
(some of) these technologies analyze include eye retinas and irises,
DNA fingerprints etc. The behavioral features may include signature,
voice, gait etc. It is important to note that biometric surveillance is still a
subject of further research; and
Natural Surveillance: Such models like crime Prevention through

Environmental Design (CPTEI) and Defensible Space. This technique
underscores the importance the character of society has in influencing
the behavior of anybody attempting to commit crime. It is popularly
believed that people are often skeptical of going into crime, if there is
high risk, and ‘natural surveillance occurs by designing the placement of
physical features, activities and people in such a way as to maximize
visibility and foster positive social interaction’
(see .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_surbveillance );
l) Pseudo Operations: These operations are often targeted towards collecting

strategic information for intelligence purposes. They are usually adopted by
states (nations) to locate and break into the insurgent areas by sponsoring a
number of state agents who will pretend to be sympathetic to the cause of the
insurgents. These state agents (defector) deceive the insurgents by fighting
along with them, the government forces (Cline, 2005).
Basically, the aims of carrying out pseudo operations may include collection of
vital information for long term or short term intelligence, or covert activities
like assassination of palpable foes or decimation of the enemy’s ranks etc. Law
enforcement agencies particularly the police usually apply this technique by
sponsoring defectors to enemy’s camp to pose as if they are also anti-
government;
m) Political Campaigning: This is another means through which intelligence can

be collected. In several societies like Nigeria, a number of people who are
supporting a candidate may decide to pose as some of the admirers of the
opponent candidate with the intention of getting information that can nail or
deny the opponent of the anticipated victory. All the decision secretly arrived at
in the opponent’s camp are revealed to their camp. The people who’re used to
carry out such intelligence task can be regarded to as “Straw men”.
203
I could remember in 2003 gubernatorial election in one of the states in Nigeria

when the leading opposition party was alleged of planning to kit some thugs
with police uniforms with the aim of snatching the ballot boxes and filling
them with unlawful ballot papers. The ruling party later intercepted a vehicle,
in the company of law enforcement agents, and after searching that vehicle,
saw thumb printed ballot papers, just few weeks to the election.
Also, a raid was conducted on a public school where police uniforms and ballot
papers already thumb-printed for the opposition party, as well as a lot of
dangerous weapons were found. It is important to note that it was possible that
the ruling party positioned some “straw men” (its agents) among the ranks of
the opponent, collecting intelligence which can be used to monitor or identify
the weakness of the opponent, or even implicate the opponent for the purpose
of having strategic advantage over the enemy party;
n) Sex and Honey pots: How will you feel, if you found a poster or in the media,
the picture of a deceased man whose family is announcing his demise, and in
the course of the public announcement, it is said that the man died after having
(marathon) sex? I know many people will burst into laughter considering the
novelty or strangeness in the content of that announcement. This is because
most families would rather put it as: ‘he died after a brief illness’.
For better, for worse sex has remained one of the effective means of
intelligence collection. Several kingdoms and empires have collapsed to the
evils that sex is capable of evoking. In intelligence collection, sex is a very
good tool of information sipping. The law enforcement agents use it to gather
information, which can assist them in arresting some criminal suspects.
Criminal suspects also apply it (sex) to get valuable information from security
chiefs by trapping them with women particularly those men considered as
‘women wrapper” (womanizers), to escape arrest by the law enforcement
agents.
There are two basic ways that this technique can be facilitated: Internal and
external. The external sources appear to be more effective than the internal.
The external may include commercial sex workers, specific female members of
the group (or agency, girl friends (or boy-friends) etc. The internal barriers may
include one’s spouse, and among those that commit incest, we may have
daughters, fe(male) cousins, parent, mother(in-law) or father (in-law) among
others.
The internal source(s) usually has (have) emotional attachment to the target
person(s) which can make it a great risk using the internal sources for
intelligence task. This is because, there is the tendency for such people to give
false information (due to the bond or blood ties they have with the target
persons, although there are some exceptions. The external sources appear to be
more productive in intelligence collection, due to the unscrupulous nature of
the relationship between the target persons and their sex partners. The basis for
204
such relationship may only be material concern or mere canal pleasure or

clandestine reporting etc; and
o) Walk-ins: Walk-ins also play great role(s) in intelligence collection. Walk-ins

are those that voluntarily give information to law enforcement agents. But, it is
quite important to know that the information must be subjected to scrutiny and
analysis to know if such information is aimed at assisting the security
operations in the combat of crime or meant to deceive security personnel.
Explain various means through which intelligence can be gathered.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Intelligence collection is that art and science of information gathering for intelligence
activities. In an attempt to carry out investigation, there is need for security personnel
to consider utmost means to gather information that will assist in crime detection, and
even prevention of act(s) that can constitute a threat to national security e.g. terrorism,
insurgency etc. Therefore, intelligence is not only collected to detect crime and
identify the offender, but also to prevent crime and insecurity. The intrusive nature of
intelligence collection has become a subject of (great) debate. This is because most
intelligence information is collected in methods that can undermine the right to
privacy of individual(s). Some of the means through which intelligence is collected
have also brought up the moral question. This is because they are capable of
undermining the fundamental rights of the people. It is therefore necessary to put in
place control measures in the collection of intelligence.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to cover a wide spectrum of issues in discussion of the
subject of intelligence collection. We began our academic journey into the subject (of
the day) by considering some of the available definitions of intelligence collections for
conceptual purpose(s). Thereafter, we focused on various disciplines of intelligence
collection. The third (and last) area of discourse was the means of intelligence
collection. I strongly believe that you have found this unit interesting.
i. What is intelligence collection?

ii. State any four intelligence collection disciplines.
iii. List any four means of intelligence collection
205
Cline, L. E. (2005). Pseudo Operations and Counter Insurgency: Lessons from other
Countries. Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute.
Hannah, G., O’Brien, K.A & Rathmell, A. (2005). Intelligence and Security
legislation for Security Reform. Technical Report for the UK’s Security Sector
Development Advisory Team. Cambridge, UK: RAND Corporation.
Monahan, T. (ed.) (2006). Surveillance and Security: Technological Politics and

Power in Everyday life. New York: Routledge.
Silverstein, K. (2007). Sex and the CIA. Harpers Magazine. (April 17). Also available
on .harpers.or/archive/2007/04/sb-sex-and-the-cia. Retrieved on 1 January, 2008.
The US Dept of Defense (12 July, 2007). Joint Publication 1-02 Dept of Defense
Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms. Available on .cia.gov/library/ center-
for-the-stydy-of-intelligence/kent-csi/docs/vo8ila02p-0002.htm. Retrieved on 8
January, 2008.
.en.wikipedia.org.wiki/black-Black-Bag-Operations. Retrieved on 7 April, 2008.
.en.wikipedia.org/wili/intelligence-collection.Retrieved on 7 April, 2008.
://www.fas.org/irp/program/masint.htm. Retrieved on 6 March, 2008.
.militera.lib.ru/reseaech/suvorov8/16html. Retrieved on 4 April, 2008.
UNIT 3
INTELLIGENCE ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Defining Intelligence Analysis
3.2 Pillars of Intelligence Analysis
3.3. Steps in Intelligence Analysis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
206
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Collecting information for intelligence purpose(s) is not sufficient enough for it to

become intelligence product. This is because, it is not all information gathered that
will have equal importance in intelligence–planning. Some information may even be
totally discarded for lack of merit. Then, how do we identify information that are
important and those that are not? Well, in the intelligence community, the process of
identifying those information that are relevant for one intelligence initiative or the
other is effected by analysis. Therefore, the process of analyzing intelligence is very
crucial in determining the quality of intelligence products. Here, there is application of
knowledge in the evaluation of the collected information, which are refined and made
useful for (Security) intelligence. In furtherance of (our) discourse on intelligence, and
our attempt to show how it impacts on security practice and management it is
important in this unit to illuminate on how intelligence analysis is done.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define the concept, intelligence analysis;
Explain the pillars of intelligence analysis; and
Discuss steps in intelligence analysis.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Defining Intelligence Analysis
This is the process of determining out of available information, the ones that are
useful in producing intelligence. The truth is that it is not all information gathered for
intelligence will be useful, particularly as they relate to human nature analysis. It can
also be described as:
---the process of taking know information about situations and entities of strategic,
operationally or tactical importance, characterizing the known, and with appropriate
statements if probability, the future actions in those situation and by those entities.
The descriptions are drawn from what may only be available in the form of
deliberately deceptive information; the analyst must correlate the similarities among
207
deceptions and extract a common truth ( .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence

_Analysis).
---a way of reducing the ambiguity of highly ambiguous situations, with the ambiguity
often very deliberately created by highly intelligent people with mindsets very
different from the analysis ( .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_Analysis).
However the services of knowledgeable persons are often required for intelligence
analysis, considering the task of revealing the facts from available information, often
through systematic evaluation or assessment. As you are expected to know, dealing
with human-beings, one needs to be mentally alert. This is because man can be
sometimes mischievous and will try to hide the truth by giving false information.
As a security operative, you need to be very vigilant. There is no doubt, (effective)

intelligence analysis is generally missing in our security sector in Nigeria. May be,
that is one of the factors responsible for ineffective security management. This also
explains the problem of incapacitation of various security agencies to provide
substantial evidence (criminal intelligence) in the prosecution of suspects. One of the
examples of such inefficiency was displayed in the decision of the Lagos State High
Court to discharge and acquit former chief security Officer to the Late Head of State,
General Sanni Abacha, of the allegation of trying to overthrow the government of the
erstwhile president Olusegun Obasanjo (1999 to 2007), for lack of evidence to show
that the accused person committed the offence in actual fact.
Moreso, the Nigeria Police is also bedeviled, in its operations, with the problem of
ineffective intelligence analysis or intelligence misanalysis. The second problem is
very fatal, having security personnel acting on information without considering the
merit of the less professional men and officers of the police institution show that the
recruitment process(es) in the appointment and placement of people into its fold is
(are) questionable. Do you know how many innocent people have been killed, maimed
or wrongly prosecuted by the police in Nigeria?
I directly had a chat with one policeman, who told me that they shot some young men
to death at the back of their station. The policeman informed me that an elder brother
to one of the guys visited the police station, and reported that he suspected his younger
brother and his friends of being armed robber. He asked the police to swing into
action. Though, the action of the police to raid the target place was commendable but
later actions were unprofessional and criminal. They searched the whole place, and
found some incriminating objects like arms and ammunition. Thereafter, the young
man who was reported by his brother as well as other friends and visitors were taken
to the station. The suspects pled innocence of armed robbery to the police. In a regular
extra-judicial jingoism and killing by most security personnel in Nigeria, the boys
(suspects) were brutally murdered by the police personnel in question.
One fact which must be noted here is that the police agents failed to do their job
(investigation) as demanded by the law while in exchange of fire should be in self-
208
defense, and shooting to death any suspects (or convicts) can only be ordered by the
court (of competent jurisdiction). The concerned police staff that carried out that
dastardly act failed to subject the information given to them by an elder brother to one
of the slain victims (suspects), to critical analysis to determine if the information was
genuine or deceptive. Now, just imagine a situation where two brothers are fighting
each other over the property left by their late father (or mother), and the elder one
looking for a means to cheat his/her younger one while the younger one is resisting
his/her brother’s (or sister’s) attempts. Hence, in a situation of conflict between the
two, particularly when the elder one is greedy things may take any dimension. The
conflict may involve the use of thugs or supernatural attacks or even clandestine
tactics such as the use of hired killers, set-up etc.
What I have gathered from my inquiry is that the policemen failed to build any
scenarios about the information they were about to act on. Even, after arresting those
boys, one would expect them (the police) to take time in investigating the matter.
They only swung into the killing of the boys without ascertaining their guilt (or
innocence). What a barbaric way of security management! By and large, analysis is a
very vital element of intelligence planning and production. The technical nature of this
process demands that resourceful and intelligent people should be in charge of
intelligence analysis. Anybody can be mandated or employed to collect information
but the work of intelligence analysis is special and can only be managed by competent
people who have intuition and insight.
It is not surprising, due to the importance of intelligence analysis in security

management and crime detection and prevention, that a number of countries have
specifically created schools to teach and impact (on) the people the skills of
intelligence analysis. One of such schools is Mercy-Hurst College Institute for
Intelligence Studies. Even several intelligence agencies have training centres for
developing or improving among other things the skills of (a number of) their
intelligence officers in intelligence analysis. A good example is Directorate of
Intelligence (DI), a subsidiary of the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
SELF ASSESSMENT EXRCISE
Define the term intelligence analysis.
3.2 Pillars of Intelligence Analysis
As I have mentioned earlier (in the last segment of this unit), analyzing intelligence is
a very challenging task. This is because the analysts are confronted with a number of
issues that can affect the outcome of the analysis. One of such factors that mitigate or
undermine intelligence analysis is value. Value tends to create identity and imaging in
the mind(s) of (any) analysts. In sharply ethnically divided countries like Nigeria, the
probability of having distorted intelligence analyses will be high. This is because
ethnicity often creates the problem of identity and (enemy) imaging in the minds of
people. This problem covers all professions, segments and classes in Nigerian society,
209
including ruling elites and security personnel. “No be your brother dey for
government” (is it not your brother who is in government? has become a regular
phrase in Nigeria by which people express their opinion(s) about one regime or the
other based on ethnic identification. So, a situation like this gives ethnic legitimation
to political leadership. Thereby, the shortcomings of any political leader are ascribed
to his/her ethnic group.
However, it is pertinent for intelligence analysts to avoid those turning their back or
the pillars of intelligence analysis, which are the factors that can promote effective
intelligence analysis, and these include:
a) Boldness and Honesty: Honesty, they say, is the best policy. It is expected that
for effective discharge of his/her duties, an intelligence analyst must not only
be honest but must also show to be honest. Analyst should not allow some
extraneous variables or selfish motives affect his/her job. And in maintaining
honest posture and resilience against distortion of facts, analyst will need to be
bold, thus:
…believe in your own professional judgments. Always be willing to

listen to alternative conclusions or other points of view, but stand your
ground, if you really believe the intelligence supports a certain
conclusion. Just because some is your boss, is higher grade, or has been
around longer than you, does not mean he or she knows more about
your account than you do. You are the one who reads the traffic
everyday and who studies the issue --- It is better to be mistaken than
wrong (Watanabe, 1997).
Reflecting on the last statement “It is better to be mistaken than wrong” in the
above comment made by Watanabe, you may agree with me that the fear often
exhibited by policy makers, from being found wrong in the choice of policy
options, usually accounts for the ill-advice they get here and there. It is
unfortunate that these ill-advices, most times influence their policy direction(s).
Therefore, it is important for policy makers to have intelligence advisors and
there should be significant amount of trust in their relationship. Also, the
intelligence advisors are advised not to misinform the policy makers or the
executive whom they are working with for any reasons, and there must be
honesty;
b) Goal Setting: This is a crucial aspect of intelligence analysis. It is paramount to

the goals the intelligence consumer as well as needs of the consumer (like
government, corporate organization etc). And it is most important to
complement what the consumer has with the knowledge of intelligence being
analyzed. It is by doing this that you will be able to reconcile and synthesize
various information available to you, and bring out those which the consumer
does not have any previous knowledge of but can also meet his/her overall goal
agenda;
210
c) Appreciating the Consumer’s View and Expectations: It is important for

analysts to appreciate the views and expectations of the consumer(s).
Sometimes, you may prepare intelligence for a particular consumer or the
other, but are further requested to provide intelligence that is more detailed
than the one you brought. For instance, you may prepare intelligence based
information gathered by human sources (HUMINT) but your customer may ask
you to provide a more detailed one which may require considering other
sources like imagery intelligence (IMINT), signal Intelligence (SIGINT) etc.
As an analyst, you need to comply with your customer’s demand and make
sure that intelligence is produced in a very interactive and self explanatory
way, such that the customer will find it easy to understand. Therefore, you need
to consider the educational background of your customer, and simplify the
technical words to carry him/her (customer) along;
d) Organization of Information Available: Analysts get a lot of information from

various sources of intelligence collection. It is the job of an analyst to identify
the information that are important and those that are not, to the task before
him/her. He/she should also ensure that information that are true should be
separated from false ones. In some intelligence institutions, information are
sorted or arranged with the use of standard code according to the probable
worth of confidence of the information and its collection source.
The intelligence analysis (IA) professional is confronted each day with high
demands for rapid, yet accurate assessments that require discovery and
marshalling of evidence, integration and synthesis of data from disparate
sources, interpreting and evaluating data and information that are constantly
changing, and making recommendations or predictions in the face of
inconsistent and incomplete data (Greitzer, 2005: 1). In addition, after
organizing the information, the process of evaluation will take place to assess
the value of each of the information and the analyst will come up with some
hypotheses; and
e) Team playing: An analyst needs to demonstrate at least a minimum degree of

partnering with some other team players in the field. He/she should not see
them as rivals but should regard them as colleagues. It is only when this is done
that he/she can work with others conveniently. Therefore, analysts need to
adequately motivate the intelligence collectors who provide them with
information to carry out their work. As an analyst, you need to always
appreciate the work of the intelligence collectors and endeavour to feed them
back. This is because “if you are not frequently tasking collectors and giving
them feedback on their reporting you are failing to do an important part of your
job” (Watanabe, 1997).
211
Explain the pillars of intelligence Analysis
3.3. Steps in Intelligence Analysis
There are various steps, which analysts take in the discharge of their official duties–to
analyse intelligence. Though, there is no consensus on any particular process to be
adopted by analysts. They often adopt different approaches not only in the collection
but also in the analysing of intelligence. Nonetheless, various steps in the process of
intelligence analyses may include:
a) Definition of the Problem: analysts will need to seek and know the questions in
the minds of their customers which bother on their intelligence requests. If the
questions are unclear the analysts will need to demand for further clarification to
illuminate the thinking of the customer;
b) Developing Hypotheses: Hypotheses are statements, which are developed to

predict the relationship between two variables. For instance, if you have a
customer who is one of the major players in the banking industry of the country to
provide intelligence on how she can attract people to her loan facilities, you are
likely to come up with some statements (hypotheses) like these:
(i) The lesser the rate of a loan facility, the higher it becomes attractive to
people (customers and prospective customers);
(ii) The lesser the conditions attached to accessing a loan facility, the more
people will get attracted and seek for loan from the bank; and
(iii) It is better to concentrate more on low income earners than high income
earners considering their population. Etc.
Analysts generate hypothesis by tasking their brains to identify various

probable variables, which can have impact on addressing the problem of the
intelligence sought by the customer;
c) Data Collection: Analysts require information to do their work. In the case of

not having information already the analyst requests for the services of human
intelligence collectors like spies or agents. They also rely on other sources of
data collection like communication interception and satellites. But these tasks
(of intelligence collection) are carried out by intelligence collectors.
Sometimes, analysts rely on information gotten through newspapers, public
records or archive etc;
d) Evaluation of Information (sources): Analysts should have an assessment test

on the information available to him/her and the sources of such information.
This is because distortion of information or deception cannot be ruled out in
data collection. It is therefore important to evaluate how accurate each
212
information is, through which you identify those that are useful and those that
are not;
e) Evaluate (Test) Hypotheses: This is the most crucial stage of intelligence

analysis. Analysts should ensure that they carry out a comparative analysis
between the gathered evidence and their formulated hypotheses, with the
application (or use) of different analytical tools and methods like Analysis of
competing hypotheses etc. This process will enable us to identify the
hypotheses that are not useful or which are irrelevant, which may be thrown
out;
f) Production and Packaging: After evaluating the hypotheses, analyst will come
up with (intelligence) findings which he/she considers in packaging the
intelligence product. In the production of intelligence, three issues usually
come to bear, and these include:
Timeliness: Timeliness includes not only the amount of time required to

deliver the product, but also the usefulness of the product to the
customer at a given moment.
Scope: Scope involves the level of detail or comprehensiveness of the

material contained in the product; and
Periodicity: Periodicity describes the schedule of product initiation and

generation (Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.)
Intelligence product is packaged either by written presentation, oral or

electronic presentation (or both). In some organizations, request is made for
intelligence by demanding the analyst to present the product in written and oral
forms;
g) Peer Review: There is the general belief that two heads are better than one.
After the production of intelligence, it is advisable for analysts to seek for
comments from their colleagues in the intelligence community who may
identify area(s) of deficiency in the intelligence product. This view is also
shared by the United States Department of Defense (DoD):
Coordination with peers is necessary…..if you think you are right and
the coordinator disagrees, let the assessment reflect that difference of
opinion and use a footnote, called a reclama ( .dtic.mil/doctrine/jel /new
pubs/jp102.pdf).
Exchange of ideas is very essential in the production of intelligence. As an

analyst, there may be some flaws, which you may not identify, but bringing on
board some other colleagues of yours in the intelligence business, may alert
you about such flaws or errors. You must also be humble enough to entertain
criticisms and see how various comments made can be catalogued, ranked and
213
applied to improve your intelligence product. Also, as an analyst you should

always have it at the back of your mind, that no man is an island (of
knowledge). For this reason, it is important that one should choose among
his/her colleagues those to work with as a team. In this case good human
relation and trust-building are essential; and
h) Customer Feedback and Production Evaluation: After delivering the

intelligence product to your customer, you are also expected to always meet
your customer and ask question about the product. The questions may include:
Has the intelligence been effective enough or useful in meeting the customer’s
goals? Does the customer find the intelligence product easy to use? etc.
Analysts and their customers (policy makers, corporate organizations,
individuals, security agencies etc) must make regular contacts to discuss the
efficacy or ineffectiveness of the intelligence products with the aim of
fathoming ways to refine and put more life into them (intelligence products).
By doing these, it will be easy to meet the expectations of the customers.
How do you explain various steps to be undertaken in the production of intelligence?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Intelligence analysis is the process of putting information in the right perspective by

removing those information that are not useful as well those that are distorted or false
in intelligence planning and production. It is a very technical aspect of intelligence
work which demands that anyone who wants to undertake such task should
demonstrate high sense of intelligence and must be knowledgeable.
The analysts usually apply some specific methodologies in the conduct of intelligence
analysis and they’re often referred to as analytic tradecraft. In the business of
intelligence analysis, you are expected to understand the nature of the business by
professionally identifying the needs of the customer and the questions he/she want to
solve with the use of your intelligence product. Therefore your product must be
problem-solving by providing the customer with an array of options that he/she can
use to meet his/her goals.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to look at a wide range of issues concerning the subject
matter: intelligence analysis. We set out in our academic adventure by first explaining
the meaning of intelligence analysis. Thereafter, we highlighted the various pillars of
intelligence analysis. The last area of inquiry was the various steps of intelligence
analyses. Thank you for your attention.
214
(i) What is intelligence analysis?

(ii) Explain steps in intelligence analysis.
Central intelligence Agency, Directorate of intelligence (Feb, 1997), A Compendium

of Analytic Tradecraft Notes; .au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/cia/tradecraft_notes
/contents.htm. Retrieved on 23 of October 2007.
Davis, Jack (1995), “A policymaker’s Perspective on Intelligence Analysis”, Studies

in Intelligence, No 5. Also available on .cia.gov/library/centre-for-the-study-of-
intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Davis.htm. Retrieved on 23
October, 2007.
Greitzer, F.L. (March 2005), Methodology, Metrics and Measures for Testing and
Evaluation of Intelligence Analysis Tools, Pacific Northwest Division of Battelle
Memorial Institute.
Heuer, Richard J. Jr. (1999), Psychology of Intelligence Analysis Chapter 8: Analysis

of Competing Hypotheses, available on .au.af.mil./au/awc/awcgate/psych-
intel/art10.html. Retrieved on 23 October, 2007.
Johnston, R. (2003), “Developing A Taxonomy of Intelligence Analysis Variables”.

CIA: Studies in Intelligence, 47(3). Available on ://www.cia.gov/csi/studies/vol
47no3/article05.html. Retrieved on 24 October, 2007.
Krizan, Lisa (June 1999), Intelligence Essentials for Everyone. Washington D.C:
Joint Military Intelligence College. Also available on .scip.org/2_getintel /ess.php. 2
October, 2007.
US Department of Defense (12 July 2007), Joint Publication 1-02 Department of

Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms. Available on
.dtic.mil/dotrine/jel/new_pubs/jp1_02.pdf. Retrieved on 1 October, 2007.
Watanabe, F. (1997), “Fifteen Axioms for Intelligence Analysts: How to Succeed in

the DI {Directorate of Intelligence}”, Studies in Intelligence. Available on
.bss.sfsu.edu/fischer/IR%20360/Readings/15%20axioms.htm. Retrieved on 23
October, 2007.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_Analysis. Retrieved on 20 April, 2008.
215
UNIT 4
COUNTER-INTELLIGENCE
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Definition of Counter-Intelligence
3.2 Aspects of Counter-Intelligence
3.3 Protective Disciplines and Counter-Intelligence
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last three units our focus has been drawn to the meaning of intelligence,
intelligence collection and analysis. Every nation usually develops mechanisms and
216
establishes institutions that engage in intelligence activities while assisting her to have
strategic relevance in the world polity. In achieving the overall security agenda,
nations don’t only focus on how various intelligence activities can enhance their
internal security, but also consider very importantly creating measures and platforms
that can counter any intelligence (or security) threats emanating from both local and
external enemies which are capable of undermining their national security.
It is against this background that counter-intelligence has become a key element of

security planning and management. Counter-intelligence is part of intelligence cycle
and its coordination must also include the security issues that bother on protection of
intelligence personnel, their facilities as well as operation. These shall form the bases
of this unit. Now, let’s quickly browse through the objectives of this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define counter-intelligence;
Explain aspects of counter-intelligence; and
Discuss protective disciplines for counter-intelligence.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Definition of Counter-Intelligence
Counter-intelligence (CI) has become a rapidly growing intellectual area of inquiry in

security studies. It enables us to appreciate the need to look at intelligence from a
dual perspective: our strengths and vulnerabilities or weaknesses. It is only when we
can identify our weaknesses that we can fathom ways through which we can secure
our intelligence community and counter other security threats. On the definition of
counter intelligence, we can consider the following:
Information gathered and activities conducted to protect against espionage, other

intelligence activities, sabotage or assassinations conducted for by or on behalf of
foreign government or elements thereof, foreign organizations or foreign persons, or
international tourist activities (see .fas.org/sgp/crs/intel/RL33616.pdf).
Counterintelligence (CI) refers to efforts made by intelligence organizations to

prevent hostile or enemy intelligence organizations from successfully gathering and
collecting against them. Many governments organize counter-intelligence agencies
217
separate and distinct from their intelligence collection services for specialized
purposes (see .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/counter-intelligence).
According to the United States Army in its manual on counter-intelligence, our

conceptual definition of counter-intelligence cannot be complete, if we fail to consider
two basic tasks performed by counter intelligence in our conceptual clarification of the
term, CI. And these include:
 Developing, maintaining, and disseminating multi-discipline threat data and

intelligence files on organizations, locations, and individuals of CI interests.
These include insurgents and terrorist infrastructure and individuals who can
assist in the CI mission; and
 Educating personnel in all fields of security. A component of this is the

multidiscipline threat briefing. Briefings can and should be tailored, both in
scope and classification level. Briefings could then be used to familiarize
supported commands with the nature of the multidiscipline threat posed against
the command or activity (US Dept of the Army, 1995).
However, in several countries intelligence services are given separate mandates, and
therefore counter intelligence institutions operate independently of other intelligence
agencies. For instance, in Britain, there exists an independent security organization
known as “security service” or “MI-5, having no police powers but is mandated by the
law to have a good or collaborative working relation with the law enforcement agency
known as the “Special Branch”. MI-5 performs counter-intelligence functions and
through the special Branch, she can effect arrest or interrogate or facilitate a search
warrant (on) suspected enemies or intelligence threats.
In the United States, the Federal Bureau for Investigation (FBI) appears to be the
major counter-intelligence agency in the country. In Nigeria, there is no clear cut
separation of functions among the intelligence agencies in the country. What I mean
is that there is no actual intelligence organization that is basically mandated by the law
for counter-intelligence only.
3.2 Aspects of Counter-Intelligence
In this segment of the unit, we are going to look at various aspects of counter
intelligence, though, there may be more aspects than the ones we are providing in this
study due to the dynamics of counter-intelligence activities and studies. That
notwithstanding, we shall be focusing on four major aspects of counter intelligence.
These include:
a) Defensive counter intelligence: This aspect draws its attention from identifying
vulnerable areas in one’s intelligence organization(s) which can be explored by
foreign intelligence services (FIS). The term, FIS in (modern) counter-
intelligence goes beyond foreign countries or agents in its meaning. It simply
218
refers to ‘any opposition’ (in security terms not politics), either internal or
external.
Defensive counter intelligence activities should cover defending one’s nation

or organization against any threat that can undermine its security as well as
protecting the friendly nation against enemy’s attack, which may be as a result
of the diplomatic support your nation enjoys from the friendly nation, making
the enemy-party dissatisfied. In one of the broadcasts made by Osama bin
Laden, the leader of Al Queda network, he called on the members of his group
and his sympathizers (lovers) to carry out insurgent actions to destroy the
United States and its allies.
This explains some of the covert support being received by some local
insurgents in a number of countries from Al Queda network, to fight their
governments who are considered to be Pro-West by Al Queda and the like.
The Pro-American posture of the Iraqi government (majorly controlled by
Shiites) has attracted insurgent condemnation not only from the Sunni
dissidents but also violent threats from the Shiites militants.
The Shiites insurgency in Iraq has added a new twist to the post-war Iraq
discourse. This is because most people would think having a Shiite led
government, the majority Shiite population would welcome it and give her the
necessary support to succeed. But the case has turned out to be contrary,
resulting from the fact that more aggression comes from the Shiites rather than
the Sunnis.
Well, one important revelation is that the aggression is more likely to be

sponsored by Iran in evoking its defensive counter-intelligence, considering the
threat in the US sojourn in Iraq could constitute against its national security.
The covert support, Iran gives the Shiite insurgents in Iraq is overwhelming,
with the aim of forcing the US and allies to consider the option of leaving Iraq.
If this is achieved by Iran, the US will not have access to Iraq as its military
base through which it can launch a military invasion of Iran, in stopping her
(Iran) from further developing nuclear power or any others weapons of mass
destruction (WMD);
b) Offensive Counter intelligence Operations: These include all activities that are
targeted towards arresting the mischief of the enemy-parties. It is important to
put in place measures that will undermine the structure and personnel of hostile
intelligence organizations (Wisner, 1993). This aspect is also known as counter
espionage. Here, efforts are made towards identifying and arresting the agents
of a foreign intelligence services or enemy parties. If the hostile agents are
diplomats, the friendly nation or host country should declare them persona non
grata, and facilitate their immediate repatriation. The hostile agents who are
not diplomats are to be arrested by law enforcement agents, and be prosecuted.
In some countries, if a spy is caught within or outside their intelligence
219
domains working for foreign interests, he/she usually faces highest penalty
(death sentence) while some other countries only have them imprisoned.
Intelligence services can also subject the detained hostile spies to torture,
forcing them to reveal their planned clandestine actions for the purposes of
liquidating such plans and prevent similar threats from any other hostile spies
in the nearest future. Recently, the Nigerian government through its security
operatives arrested some people alleged to be foreign spies and their local co-
conspirators who were accused of espionage;
c) Counter-intelligence Protection of Intelligence Services: Intelligence services

don’t only guard the states) against external infiltrations and (internal) attacks
but also undertake some (defensive) counter-intelligence actions or measures to
protect against attacks or threats from the enemy or hostile party(ies).
Therefore, there is need for intelligence agencies to evaluate the source of,
methods and resources they use in intelligence activities. There is also the need
by intelligence services to conduct risk assessment on its operations with a
view to identify appropriate counter-intelligence measures to the risks in its
operations; and
d) Counterintelligence Force Protection Source Operations (CFSO): These

involve human source operations in which Clandestine activities “are
conducted abroad…..intended to fill the exiting gap in national coverage, as
well as the combatant commander’s intelligence requirements” (Error!
Hyperlink reference not valid.; and US Dept of the Army, 1995).
Discuss aspects of counterintelligence.
3.3 Protective Disciplines and Counter-Intelligence
These disciplines don’t actually have any direct relationship with intelligence
activities but only play some complementary roles. They assist to reinforce
counterintelligence measures to undermine enemy’s attacks on the intelligence
community and nation at large. They include the following:
a) Physical Security: It is the duty of intelligence services to ensure protection of

their physical infrastructure against attacks of enemies that operate within and
outside. Apart from that, efforts are made to secure the civilian and government
facilities against infiltrations and attacks from mischievous elements (or
foreign intelligence services). Infrastructures like building require measures
than can counter any threats the enemies can make use of tall buildings; after
220
gaining access to it, to monitor the movement of the occupants of another

building being targeted.
Consequently, after collecting intelligence, enemies might identify the

vulnerable areas, and strike. This can also explain the tactics adopted by the Al
Qaeda network in the planning and execution of the carnage (Sept 11 incident)
that visited the United States. The terrorists studied the US and its geography,
noticing that there had been tight security at its borders making it difficult to
smuggle in explosives into the country, so, they chose to hijack commercial
aircrafts and hit them against target building(s). The US intelligence
community failed to mount adequate surveillance on the Arab immigrants who
pretended to be students and enrolled to study piloting.
Physical security may also include fortifying infrastructures and building with
security gadgets and other measure like the use of window blind. The use of
window blinds will prevent activities in the room from being seen through the
windows. Intelligence facilities need to be protected by putting in place high
construction standards that are capable of mitigating enemy’s attacks and
‘might slow down, but certainly not stop, a determined entry attempt that used
explosives’ ( .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-intelligence);
b) Personnel Security: Sometimes foreign intelligence services use some of the

trusted people in an organisation or state to unleash their terror or attack. FIS
can decide to buy over some of the people working for your organization or
home government who have access to some secrets that may be useful to FIS.
In order to avoid a situation like this, intelligence services will need to put in
place security clearance system (or positive vetting) to ascertain if a person
within the organization, holding sensitive position can still be trusted or not.
The services will have to conduct periodic clearance on the people holding
sensitive or strategic positions. One of the ways to do this is secret monitoring
of their spending against his/her their income. If one spends far above his/her
legitimate earnings, such person needs to be scrutinized. There must be
electronic reviews of one’s financial records, and it is also important to
examine the lifestyle of each staff to identify the areas of vulnerability of each
of them, and apply measures that can limit or curb possible compromise among
(the) personnel;
c) Operations Security (OPSEC): This underscores the relevance of information,

which is very crucial to the future operations of any organization or country,
and, how ‘planning activities’ should be shaped to:
 Identifying those actions that can be observed by adversary intelligence

systems;
221
 Determining indicators that adversary intelligence systems might obtain

that could be interpreted or pieced together to derive critical information
in time to be useful to adversaries; and
 Designing and executing measures that eliminate or reduce to an

acceptable level the vulnerabilities of friendly actions to adversary
exploitation (see .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/intelligence-cycle-secur ity).
Operations security usually involves taking some measures like counter

imagery, cover, concealment and deception to identify the interests and needs
of the adversary in its (hostile) relation towards the friendly service (or
country) as well as discovering critical clues about the services, which the
enemy can collate, analyze and synthesize for (strategic) intelligence
viewpoints, which can be used to identify or detect the vulnerabilities of the
friendly service in its desires to carry out its threats. It is therefore, necessary
to develop measures that can mitigate the enemy’s threat by adequately
addressing the problem of vulnerabilities being encountered by the friendly
service; and
d) Communication Security (COMSEC): This is also germane to counter-

intelligence. In intelligence activities, communication plays a great role, and
that is why both the friendly service and enemy often extend their intelligence
aggression to communication (environment). Therefore, security of one’s
communications and interception of the enemy’s has become one of the
foremost principles in intelligence community (IC). Communications security
is geared towards:
…preventing an adversary to intercept sensitive information that is
transmitted, especially through free spaces, but also through wired
networks capable of being wiretapped. It includes several disciplines,
both including those for protecting the hostile acquisition of information
either from the patterns of flow of messages, or the content of messages..
(see .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/intelligence-cycle-security).
Communication security is a key element of counter-intelligence. That is why

it is essential for security organizations including the military, to provide secure
communications and guard against interception by the FIS (or enemies). Some
of the counter-measures against any specialized technical interception from the
enemy may include encryption, traffic flow security, steganography etc. The
intelligence services are also expected to shield their office buildings against
any electronic attack
Discuss the protective discipline for Counter-intelligence
4.0 CONCLUSION
222
Counter-intelligence activities have become widened in recent time due to emergent

(non-traditional) security threats that characterize national and international politics.
In the olden days, security threats emanated from another country but now local
dissidents constitute the greatest security threats, undermining national security, many
of whom are even working for foreign interests. Compromise (to enemy’s influence)
has become a major challenge in intelligence community in which intelligence
officers sell (or give) classified information or secrets of their services (employers) to
Foreign Intelligence Services (FIS).
The level of sophistication of modern communication technologies has also made

friendly intelligence service vulnerable to technical interception and attacks of the
enemies. These and other factors have necessitated the need to put in place measures
by intelligence community, to mitigate (reduce) or prevent threats from enemies.
Counter-intelligence activities should ensure not only to counter the attacks coming
from the enemies but also to protect intelligence personnel, facilities, resources as well
as operations. It is by doing all these that effective counter-intelligence can be
actualized.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to discuss a number of issues as regards counter-
intelligence. We began our intellectual discourse by looking at some of the available
definitions of the term, counter-intelligence, in the actualization of our task of
conceptualization. Thereafter, we explained various aspects of counter-intelligence.
The third and the last subject we treated was the list of major protective disciplines for
counter-intelligence.
What is counter-intelligence?
How do you explain various protective disciplines for counter-intelligence?
Archick, K. (2006). European Approaches to Homeland Security and

Counterterrorism. Congressional Research Service (CRS Report Number: RL33573).
(July 24). Also available on .fas.org/spg/crs/homesec/RL33573.pdf. Retrieved on 5
November, 2007.
Dulles, A. W. (1977). The Craft of Intelligence. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Imbus, Michael T. (April 2002), Identifying Threats: Improving Intelligence and

Counterintelligence Support to Force Protection. See .au.af.mil/au/awcgate/ acsc/02-
059.pdf. Retrieved on 3rd Nov. 2007.
223
US Department of the Army (3 October 1995), Field Manual 34-60:

Counterintelligence, available on .fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fm34-60. Retrieved on 5
November, 2007.
Van Cleave, Michelle K. (April 2007), Counterintelligence and National Strategy,

School for National Security Executive Education, National Defense University
(NDU).
Wisner, Frank G. (22 Sept. 1993), On “The Craft of Intelligence”, available on

.cia.gav/library/center-for-the-study-ofintelligence/Kent-CSI/doc/V081a07p-
0004.htm. Retrieved on 3rd November, 2007.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-intelligence. Retrieved on 4 April, 2008.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/intelligence-cycle-security. Retrieved on 5 April, 2008.
.fas.org/spg/crs/intel/RL33616 .pdf. Retrieved on 5 April, 2008.
UNIT 5
DATA MINING AND AUTOMATED DATA ANALYSIS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Meaning of Data Mining
3.2 Meaning of Automated Data Analysis
3.3 Application Processes for Data Mining and Automated Data Analysis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
224
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be drawing our attention to the subject, Data Mining and
Automated Data Analysis in furtherance of our study on basic security tools and
applications. These concepts are relatively new in security studies and practice. They
are inter-related and complementary because two of them are two sides of the same
coin. Data mining and Automated data analysis have continued to attract robust
acceptance and appreciation not only among security practitioners but also
corporations or commercial ventures that often use these tools to improve their
businesses. It is my belief that you will find this unit intellectually rewarding.
Meanwhile, in the following segment of this unit, we shall quickly go through various
tasks we hope to accomplish in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain the meaning of data mining;
Describe automated data analysis; and
Discuss the application processes for data mining and automated data analysis
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Meaning of Data Mining
As earlier stated in the introductory segment of this unit, data mining and automated
data analysis are inter-related as two of them play complementary roles in intelligence
reporting as well as in security investigation. No doubt, they are very effective tools
and applications in crime prevention and detection. They can help to unravel secrets in
organised crimes like terrorism, assassination, computer intrusion, theft, financial
fraud, armed robbery, electoral malpractices, money laundering, among others.
Alas, these two concepts can be less effective or absolutely defective, if we fail to
understand effectively well their guidelines and controls. It is therefore advisable for
security professionals and policy makers to always “....acquire an understanding of
data mining and automated data analysis tools so that they can craft policy that
encourages responsible use and sets parameters for that use” (DeRosa, 2004: v).
At this juncture, let us subject the concepts to conceptual illumination, but in this
segment, we shall begin with data mining. So, what is data mining? It is worthy to
note that data mining is also known as Knowledge-Discovery in Databases (KDD)
(see ://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-data-mining.htm).
225
As you may agree with me, one of the major features of Social Sciences and other
related fields is the absence of universal definition of any terms among scholars.
Social scientists define concepts not only according to their respective disciples but
also from individual choice of perspectives. For this reason, we shall consider
different definitions of the term data mining. Some the definitions of data mining
Data mining (sometimes called data or knowledge discovery) is the process of

analyzing data from different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information
...Data mining software is one of a number of analytical tools for analyzing data. It
allows users to analyze data from many different dimensions or angles, categorize it,
and summarize the relationships identified. Technically, data mining is the process of
finding correlations or patterns among dozens of fields in large relational databases
( ://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/jason.frand/teacher/technologies/palace/dataminin
g.htm).
Data mining can also be described as:
....the process of extracting patterns from data. As more data is gathered, with the
amount of data doubling........., data mining is becoming an increasingly important
tool to transform this data into information. It is commonly used in a wide range of
profiling practices, such as marketing, surveillance, fraud detection and scientific
discovery ( ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mining).
Data mining can also be said to be a tool that makes use of:
......automated statistical analysis techniques....., discovering new trends and patterns

of behavior that previously went unnoticed. Once they've uncovered this vital
intelligence, it can be used in a predictive manner for a variety of applications
( ://databases.about.com/od/datamining/a/datamining.htm)
We can also contend that:
Data mining is usually defined as searching, analyzing and sifting through large
amounts of data to find relationships, patterns, or any significant statistical
correlations. With the advent of computers, large databases and the internet, it is
easier than ever to collect millions, billions and even trillions of pieces of data that
can then be systematically analyzed to help look for relationships and to seek
solutions to difficult problems ( ://www.tech-faq.com/data-mining.shtml)
Data mining is also an application that:
......uses a relatively large amount of computing power operating on a large set of

data to determine regularities and connections between data points. Algorithms that
employ techniques from statistics, machine learning and pattern recognition are used
226
to search large databases automatically ( ://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-data-

mining.htm).
What is data-mining?
3.2 Meaning of Automated Data Analysis
Automated data analysis can be described as a tool designed to:
............find previously unknown knowledge through links, associations, and patterns

in data (DeRosa, 2004: 3; Jensen, 2003).
Additionally, automated data analysis involves:
....the use of large databases containing identifying information assists in the

important task of accurate identification (DeRosa, 2004: 6).
Automated data analysis can be applied in two ways, which include:
The use of subject-based queries; and

The use of pattern-based queries.
Subject-based queries: In subject-based queries, we begin data analysis with a

particular and known subject, and continue the process by searching for more
information about the subject. In this case, the subjects identity could be of a crime
suspect, a religious leader, a security officer, a suspect at large, a bank official, a
politician, to mention a few. In seeking to get more information about the subject, we
may decide to probe his/her various contacts with other people, places, even telephone
or/and communication facilities and other things that can assist us in our investigation,
especially as it involves getting clues that can help us unravel some facts about the
subject.
A subject-based query assists us in our analysis of data to have more information

about the subject and gives us a clearer picture of what the subject is up to especially
as it concerns his/her activities. This opportunity is attained through provision of
(useful) link between the subject and other elements of our investigative scrutiny.
Again, the beauty about this model is that it affords us an opportunity to identify other
subjects that we will need to include in our investigation. One vital element of the
subject-based query is link analysis. It helps to draw a connection between the subject
and other subjects or places and things we will need to arriving at a decision in our
investigation and analysis. Link analysis is usually popular among public security
practitioners like the Police and intelligence agencies.
227
Meanwhile, in Nigeria, application of subject-based queries is very inadequate and

ineffective because of the poor information infrastructure in public security sector. It
is absolutely ridiculous in a country like Nigeria to have a police institution that does
not have any computing system network that connects all its various stations and
posts, area offices and state commands, as well as zonal/regional offices to the
headquarters for proper record keeping of their activities and crime files (see Alemika,
2004; Shettima. & Chukwuma, 2002). The existence of central information system
will enable all its offices to access and make information contributions to the database
on suspects-profiling, prompt crime situation reporting, staff information and auditing,
intelligence gathering and sharing, among others.
However, lack of technological innovation has really undermined the capacity of the
police to perform its functions in Nigeria, a situation which has attracted the decision
of most the state governors in the country to call for introduction of Joint Task Force
(patrol team consisting of the police and men of the armed forces). Painfully, this is an
indictment on the police authorities, for the failure of the police to live up to its
responsibilities. Also, many people have claimed that several of the dismissed
policemen have continued to find their ways back into the force without being
detected by police authorities. For instance, a dismissed policeman might have been
previously recruited in Lagos, and after his dismissal, he may proceed to Ondo state in
an effort to be recruited into the Police again. The question that comes to one’s mind
here is- if Nigeria Police fails to keep proper record of its personnel, how can it have
adequate record of crime suspects? That means the police can hardly identify who is
or not a first time offender except the suspect is well known by the officer in charge of
the investigation.
Coming back to the subject matter, subject-based queries are potentially useful as
forms of inquiries that characterise intelligence and law enforcement practice, which
involve conducting a further search on the activities and relationships of the subject
(someone under investigation) with other people. In this course of investigation, we
may identify other people whose presence will be required to providing us a
breakthrough and opportunity to have a successful investigation of the subject.
On the other hand, pattern-based queries involve conducting our investigation by

moving from unknown to known. Here, we don’t actually have any subject on our
minds but through a pattern of activity, we may decide to probe further into the
activity that we suspect may constitute act of criminality or a threat to security. For
instance, we may detect that through bank money transfers, some activities involving
importation of expensive goods into the country are noticed. And if this same pattern
of activity is noticed to be taking place from time to time, then, we can investigate the
persons involved in such transactions. After identifying the persons, we may probe
further to know if the subjects have strong and genuine businesses to warrant having
large sums of money that they often transfer to purchase expensive goods abroad.
Then, our pattern-based queries will change to subject-based queries because through
the pattern of activity, we have identified some persons who were not previously in
the picture and can be subjected to further scrutiny.
228
Thereafter, the suspected persons will become our subjects (those we investigate) and
we will conduct further search on their activities and relationships. At the end of the
day, after a thorough search and analysis, we may find out that the suspected persons
are fronting for some public office holders who embezzle public funds and use it for
their personal aggrandisement. Knowing that they cannot lodge such money into their
private accounts, corrupt leaders tend to use some unsuspected persons to front for
them through whom they use the money for all sorts of investment or property
acquisitions.
How do you describe automated data-mining?

What are the two basic ways through which automated data analysis can be applied?
3.3 Application Processes for Data-Mining and Automated Data Analysis
Data-mining and automated data analysis are very important tools of security threat
management as well as intelligence collection and analysis. Meanwhile, they require
proper application and administration of various processes pertaining to their usage. It
is therefore essential to have proper understanding of these processes in order to avoid
making errors and information abuse. It is against this background that we shall be
explaining in this segment, the steps to be taken in effective usage of these two
concepts: data mining and automated data analysis.
a) Collection and Processing of Data: Collecting relevant data and useful

information is a very big task. The reason is that it is more difficult to identify
information useful for our task than the challenges we may encounter in the
collection of data. It is always advisable to before we set out for the gathering
of data, to always consider what we seek to achieve in our analysis, so that we
will be able to conclude appropriately on the kind of information that will be
useful to achieve the purpose of our investigation.
There is no doubt that innovations in technology have made it easy to mine

data (see Mostashari, 2003). Introduction of computing systems has really
impacted positively on the task of data mining. Presently, through computer,
we can develop a large database through which we can also create a single
database for our data mining, a process known as data warehouse or data mart.
We can also conduct our data mining by using a variety of database. For
instance, if we are investigating a political office-holder accused of corruption,
we may collate information through several means like conducting a search on
all his/her official transactions and his/her contacts and relationships as well as
financial transactions made by those with whom the suspect has one
relationship or the other especially his/her family members.
229
Also, we can conduct a search on the private companies owned by the suspect
including their various business and financial transactions as well as the
activities of their respective management among others. If we consider the
foregoing example, you may agree with me that data mining process is a
difficult task that may involve the use of different databases in the collection of
the needed information. After collating the information considered useful for
our analysis, it is important to consider the standardisation and cleansing of the
collected data so that we can identify which among the data, that can be most
useful to our analysis task. By doing this, we shall be avoiding misuse of
information.
According to DeRosa (2004: 10), the last step in this process involves
“transforming the data to make them useful”. This step is usually known as
“data aggregation”. It enables us to remove unimportant or unusable data by
cleaning them, and the data are standardised for accuracy in our searches. By
following these steps, we would reduce data errors that may mar our analysis
especially errors like false positives and false negatives.
False positive errors are those errors that bother on the possibility of
wrongfully labelling an innocent person as a crime suspect/criminal due to
mistakes in the result of our automated data analysis. This error is usually
associated with collection of wrong data or misapplication of data through
imperfect search models (see DeRosa, 2004: 10). It will be improper to accuse
innocent persons because they have relationship at one time or the other with
any crime suspects or convicts due to inaccurate data mining or defective
automated data analysis procedure.
On the other hand, in computer security, when a spam email is wrongly

classified as non-spam email, we can therefore conclude that a false negative
error has been committed (see ://www.cgisecurity.com/questions/false
negative.shtml). Another example is if the result of our automated data analysis
confirms a real crime suspect not culpable, meaning that our investigation
effort is entirely faulty due to wrong check and defective data mining process
and/or wrong procedure of analysis;
b) Finding Search Models: In carrying out our data analysis, we need a search
model. For instance, if we want to use pattern-based searching, it will be
cumbersome to get perfect models that help us to achieve good results in our
automated data analysis. Meanwhile, we can adopt a “bottom-up” approach,
using data mining to develop a model such that we search for anomalies or
patterns that surround a behaviour or activity. We can also use “top-down
approach” in analysing our data by beginning the process of analysis with a
hypothesis “...about the model and determining whether it exists in data”
(DeRosa, 2004: 11). By and large, models developed must be predictive and
relevant to investigation. We should avoid running into the problem of data-
dredging, resulting from models that are poorly designed; and
230
c) Decision making: The decision making process is also very significant in the
application of data-mining and automated data analysis. It is the climax of the
data-mining and automated data analysis. Decision making comes after
exploring other processes such as gathering of data, to carrying out
investigations, through interpretation of results to making decisions on the most
effectively ways to utilise the results of our analysis. The quality of the decision
we make after our automated analysis largely determines the amount of success that
we will likely record in the course of our investigation.
What are the steps to the application of data-mining and automated data analysis?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Advancing effective security management and threat mitigation is an enormous task,

which often demands adequate use of information technology and systemised
information-gathering tools or techniques. As you may be aware, information is very
vital to the security sector, without which security practitioners will be lackadaisical
and highly incapacitated in the discharge of their duties. It is not a surprise that in
many developed countries like the US and Britain, the government and security sector
continues to undergo reforms, appreciating the strategic importance of information to
the operations of various security agencies. Information plays a great role in hazard
management, intelligence collection and analysis, threat mitigation, counter-terrorism,
as well as overall security planning and management.
If the importance of information in security management cannot be over-emphasised,

therefore, the use of data-mining and automated data analysis is very significant and
useful to securitisation. The relevance of these tools has been evident in the way they
have continued to enjoy growing acceptance among security practitioners in most
developed countries of the world and elsewhere. These tools are powerful not only in
security management and threat mitigation but they are used by several commercial
institutions or corporations to improve their businesses. It is very essential to promote
the use of the tools in our various places of work for efficiency and optimal
performance through we can easily achieve the overall objectives of our organisations.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, our study focused on the conceptual definition of data-mining, and we
also described the meaning of automated data analysis. The third and the last area of
inquiry was the list of processes that we undertake in the application of data-mining
and automated data analysis.
231
Define data-mining and automated data analysis; and
Explain the basic processes to the application of data-mining and automated data
analysis.
Alemika, E. E. O. (2004). Crime Statistics and Information Management in Nigerian

Justice and Security Systems. In E. E. O Alemika and I. C. Chukwuma (eds.). Crime
and Policing in Nigeria: Challenges and Options, Lagos: Network on Police Reform
in Nigeria (NOPRIN).
DeRosa, M. (2004). Data Mining and Data Analysis for Counterterrorism. CSIS
Report. Washington D.C. Centre for Strategic and International Studies.
Mostashari, F. (2003). Syndromic Surveillance in Practice: New York City. Paper

Presentation at CSIS Data Mining Roundtable. Washington D.C: Centre for Strategic
and International Studies (CSIS). October 9.
Shettima, K. & Chukwuma, I. (2002). Crime and Human Rights in Nigeria. Paper
Presented at the International Council on Human Rights Policy Review Seminar,
themed Crime: Managing Public Order in Countries in Transition. New York, 21-22
October.
://databases.about.com/od/datamining/a/datamining.htm. Retrieved on 29 August,

2009.
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mining. Retrieved on 29 August, 2009.
://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/jason.frand/teacher/technologies/palace/data
mining.htm. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
://www.cgisecurity.com/questions/falsenegative.shtml. Retrieved on 9 August, 2009.
://www.tech-faq.com/data-mining.shtml. Retrieved on 29 August, 2009.
://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-data-mining.htm. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009.
232

CSS 241

Uploaded by

CSS 241

Uploaded by

CSS 241 BASIC SECURITY AND SECURITY THREATS

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE CODE :CSS241

COURSE TITLE: BASIC SECURITY AND SECURITY THREATS

CSS241 BASIC SECURITY AND SECURITY THREATS

Course Developer/Writer Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

Course Editor Rasidi Okunola, Ph. D

Course Coordinator Adeniyi T. Adegoke, Ph.D

Programme Leader Prof. Abdul-Rasheed Yesufu

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

Study Units…………………………………….………. …v-vi

What You Will Learn in this Course

 Identify basic security ideas and policy actions;

 Explain the meaning of security and its approaches;

Working through this Course

Major components of the course include:

In this course there are twenty units, which include:

Unit 1 Security: Meaning and Approaches

Unit 4 Forms of Security III

Unit 1 Meaning and Types of Security Threat I: Natural Threats

Unit 1 Safety Measures to the Management of Natural Threats

Unit 1 Meaning of Intelligence

Text-Books and References

Alemika, E. E. O. (1997). Police, Policing and Crime Control in Nigeria. Nigerian

Dannreuther, R. (2007). International Security: The Contemporary Agenda. West

Molander, R. C., Riddile, A. S. & Wilson, P. (1996). Strategic Information Warfare:

Sutton, J. L. & Kemp, G. (1966). Arms to Developing Countries: 1945-1965. London:

Onyeozili, E. C. (2005). Obstacles to Effective Policing in Nigeria. African Journal of

Wardlaw, G. (1989). Political Terrorism: Theory, Tactics and Counter Measures.

Final Examination and Grading

Course Marking Scheme

Table 1: Course Making Scheme

Unit Title Week’s Assessment (end of

II: Manmade Threats

How to Get the Best from this Course

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

 Explain the meaning of security and its approaches;

 Categorise security threats;

CSS241 BASIC SECURITY AND SECURITY THREATS

Course Developer/Writer Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

Course Editor Rasidi Okunola, Ph. D

Course Coordinator Adeniyi T. Adegoke, Ph.D

Programme Leader Prof. Abdul-Rasheed Yesufu

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

Unit 1 Security: Meaning and Approaches..................................... 1

Unit 1 Meaning and Types of Security Threat I: Natural Threats...... 53

Module 3 ................................................................................................... 109

Unit 1 Safety Measures to the Management of Natural Threats......... 109

Module 4 ................................................................................................... 171

Unit 1 Meaning of Intelligence........................................................... 171

Unit 1: Security: Meaning and Approaches

SECURITY: MEANING AND APPROACHES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Define the term security;

Identify various approaches to security; and

Discuss various approaches to security

3.0 MAIN BODY

3.1 Definition of Security

epidemics like HIV-AIDS, corruption, human trafficking, (internal) insurgency,

Nevertheless, this situation has led to multidimensional approach in security discourse

........an all-encompassing condition in which Individual citizens live in freedom, peace

......the protection of a person, property or organization from an attack. There are

Despite the absence of consensus in the operational clarification of the term by

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define the term Security.

3.2 Approaches to Security Management

a) Idealism: This is a theoretical approach that emerged in the 1920s, as an

Meanwhile, the emergence o World War II had undermined the relevance of

b) Realism: This is another traditional approach to security, which emerged as a