ETHICS AND MORALS

Week 1 Lecture 2-3

- Michaela Langa
Morals
Human behaviours, values, beliefs considered or judged in light of the principles
of ethics. We can judge a person's morals as good or bad. One can act morally
or immorally
Amoral
Used to designate human attitudes that show LACK OF CONCERN on
whether a conduct is right or wrong. People who DON'T CARE about the
morality or immorality of an action insofar as it gratifies their selfish
desires
Non-moral
Used to describe acts that fall outside the spectrum of moral evaluation
(choosing what to order for lunch - pizza or burgers / soccer or rugby)
Ethics
Branch of philosophy that studies the ideal human conduct in terms of right and
wrong, good and bad or desirable and undesirable actions
IDEAL BEHAVIOUR: WESTERN PERSPECTIVE
ARISTOTLE
Eudaimonia (consequentialism)
High level of happiness or well-being
BENTHAM
Utilitarianism (consequentialism)
Happiness to the greatest number
KANT
Deontology - duty for its own sake
a) Freedom to exercise autonomy*
 *the capacity to be one's own person, to live one's life according to
reasons and motives that are taken as one's own and not the
product of manipulative or distorting external forces, to be in this
way independent (without influence of desires)
b)Treated with dignity as an END rather than a MEANS
c) Do to others as you would want them to do to you
d) Make that a universal law
IDEAL BEHAVIOUR: AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE
Menkiti
Deontology + Consequentialism
Duty to the community (as a means to the) -> Attainment of
personhood (end in itself).
Ethics of personhood
Asouzu
Consequentialism
Joy of being -> individual AND collective
Ethics of Complementary Reflection
Metz
Deontologism
Duty to others (Communion as an end in itself)
Ubuntu-based rational ethics
Chimakonam
Consequentialism
Joy of being -> individual AND collective OR both (as an end in itself)
Uze-Ezumezu ethics
META-ETHICS
Studies the nature, scope, meaning and sources of moral theories, and the
foundation of moral principles and judgements.
Asks about the SOURCE and MEANING of ethical principles and standards
Are they subjective or objective?
Rational or emotional?
Are moral principles and standards culturally relative or universal
Metaethics
Metaphysical Issues:
Whether morality exists
independently of humans
One Other-Worldly Discussion
Moral Values are objective
- exist in spirit-realm beyond subjective human
conventions
- are absolute and eternal, never changing
- universal and apply to all rational creatures around the
world and throughout time
E.g. Plato: moral values are absolute truths, thus abstract,
spirit-like entities - spirit-like objects
Medieval philosophers commonly grouped all moral
principles together under the heading of “eternal law”
which were also frequently seen as spirit-like objects.
One This-Worldly Discussion
Approach to the metaphysical
status of
-morality is divine commands issuing from Godʼs will
-sometimes called voluntarism (or
divine command theory), this view was inspired by the
notion of an all-powerful God who is in control of
everything
-God simply wills things, and they become reality.
-William of Ockham: God wills moral principles, such as
“murder is wrong,” and these exist in Godʼs mind as
commands.
-God informs humans of these commands by implanting
us with moral intuitions or revealing these commands in
scripture.
 SKEPTICISM
- The second and more this-worldly approach to the
metaphysical status of morality follows in the skeptical
philosophical tradition and denies the objective status
of moral values. Technically, skeptics did not reject
moral values
themselves, but only denied that values exist as spirit-
like objects, or as divine commands in the
mind of God. Moral values, they argued, are strictly
human inventions, a position that has since
been called moral relativism
REALITIVSIM
Individual Relativism
-Individual people create their own moral
standards
Cultural Relativism
- morality is grounded in the approval of one's
society and not simply in the preferences of
individuals
Psychological Issues:
Underlying mental basis of moral
judgment & conduct (what motivates us to be moral)
Egoism and Altruism
Many if not all of our actions are prompted by selfish
desires even donating to charity (experiencing power over
other people) - known as Psychological Egoism
Closely related to Psychological Egoism is Psychological
Hedonism - pleasure is the driving force behind all actions
Psychological Altruism - at least some of our actions are
maintained by instinctive benevolence (instinctive
kindness)
Emotion and Reason
-We need a distinctly emotional reaction in order to make a
moral pronouncement.
DAVID HUME
 Inspired by DAVID HUME's anti-rationalist views - 20th
century philosophers DENIED that MORAL assessments
are FACTUAL descriptions
"it is good to donate to charity"
EMOTIVE ELEMENT
-The Speaker (I) expresses personal feelings
(emotions) of approval about charitable donations
(behaviour) (basically saying "HOORAY FOR
CHARITY!
- EXPRESSES EMOTIONS ABOUT CERTAIN
BEHAVIOUR
PRESCRIPTIVE ELEMENT
-The Speaker (I) is trying to get you to donate to
charity by essentially giving a command - "DONATE
TO CHARITY"
-PRESCRIBING SPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR
IMMANUEL KANT
Moral assessments are indeed
acts of reason
-Although emotional factors do play a part, he
argued that we should resist that kind of "sway".
-TRUE moral actions are motivated ONLY by reason
when it is sFREE from EMOTIONS and DESIRES
 IN OPPOSITION
-Kurt Baier (1958), was proposed in direct
opposition to the emotivist and prescriptivist
theories of Ayer and others. Baier focuses more
broadly on the reasoning and argumentation process
that takes place when making moral choices. All of
our moral choices are, or at least can be, backed by
some reason or justification. If I claim that it is wrong
to steal someoneʼs car, then I should be able to
justify my claim with some kind of argument. For
example, I could argue that stealing Smithʼs car is
wrong since this would upset her, violate her
ownership rights, or put the thief at risk of getting
caught. According to Baier, then, proper moral
decision making involves giving the best reasons in
support of one course of action versus another.
Male and Female Morality
-psychological differences between men and women
Traditional Morality is male centred
Feminist Philosophers:
- women have traditionally had a nurturing role which
require less rule following and more spontaneous action
Since it is modelled after practices that have
been traditionally male-dominated, such as acquiring
property, engaging in business contracts, and
governing societies
Using the womanʼs experience as a model for moral
theory, then, the basis of morality
would be spontaneously caring for others as would
be appropriate in each unique circumstance.The
agent becomes part of the situation and acts
caringly within that context whereas male-modelled
morality the agent would act mechanically and
perform required duty but can remain distanced and
unaffected by the situation
There is a unique female perspective of the world which
can be shaped into a value theory
NORMATIVE ETHICS
Studies moral principles and standards that regulate good and bad, right and
wrong actions. Prescribes the ultimate criterion for gauging all right and
wrong conducts and EXPLAINS THE CONSEQUENCES of bad actions
Details
- Involves arriving at moral standards that regulate right and wrong
conduct
- The Golden Rule:
We should do to others what we would want others to do to us
an example of a normative theory that establishes a single principle
against which
we judge all actions
The key assumption in normative ethics is that there is only one
ultimate criterion of moral conduct, whether it is a single rule or a set of
principles. 3 types of strategies
Virtue Theories
Places emphasis on developing good habits of character such as
kindness rather than following rules of conduct
Plato cardinal virtues
wisdom
courage
temperance
justice
Aristotle argued that virtues are good habits that we acquire
which regulate our emotions.
- natural feelings of fear -> develop virtue of courage -> allows
you to be fir when facing danger
- if you do not have enough courage, you develop the disposition
of cowardice (a vice)
- if you have too much courage you develop the disposition of
rashness (also a vice)
According to Aristotle, since it is difficult to find a perfect
mean between extreme character traits, we need assistance
from reason
Duty Theories
- Base morality on specific, foundational principles
of obligation.
- These theories are sometimes called deontological
- They are also sometimes called non-consequentialist since
these principles are obligatory, irrespective of the consequences
that might follow from our actions.
FOUR CENTRAL DUTY THEORIES
Samuel Pufendorf
Duties to God
Theoretical duty to know the existence and nature
of God
Practical Duty to both inwardly and outwardly
worship God
Duties to Oneself
Duties to soul which involve one's skills and talents
Duties to the body which involve not harming our
bodies
Duties to others (universally binding on people,
conditional duties (keep one's promise) and are a result
of contracts between people)
Avoid wronging others
Treat people as equals
Promote the good for others
Rights Theory
- My right to not be harmed by you
RELATION BETWEEN RIGHTS AND DUTIES
(CORRELATIVITY OF RIGHTS AND DUTIES)
The Rights of one person implies the Duties of
another person
John Locke
Natural rights given by God
Argued that the laws of nature mandate that we
should not harm anyoneʼs life, health, liberty or
possessions
Thomas Jefferson recognises 3 foundational rights
 Life
Liberty
Pursuit of Happiness
FOUR FEATURES OF ASSOCIATED WITH MORAL
RIGHTS
They are natural, not created by government
Universal, don't change from country to country
Equal, the same for all people (irrespective of race,
gender, age etc)
Inalienable, cannot hand them over to another
person (such as selling yourself into slavery)
Immanuel Kant
Emphasises a single principle duty
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
- It is a single, self-evident principle
of reason
- Fundamentally different from hypothetical
imperatives that hinge on some personal desire that
we have, for example, “If you want to get a good job,
then you ought to go to college.”
- Simply mandates an action, irrespective of oneʼs
personal desires, such as
“You ought to do X.”
Always treat people with dignity, and never use
them as mere instruments.
W.D. Ross
Emphasises prima facie duties
Ross argues that our duties are “part of the
fundamental nature of the universe.”
Fidelity: the duty to keep promises
Reparation: the duty to compensate others when
we harm them
Gratitude: the duty to thank those who help us
 Justice: the duty to recognize merit
Beneficence: the duty to improve the conditions
of others
Self-improvement: the duty to improve our virtue
and intelligence
Non-maleficence: the duty to not injure others
Consequentialist Theories
- determine our moral responsibility by weighing the
consequences of our actions.
- correct moral conduct is determined solely by a cost-benefit
analysis of an actionʼs consequences
- An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are
more favourable than unfavourable.
-the most attractive feature of consequentialism is that it appeals
to publicly observable consequences of actions
Ethical Egoism
an action is morally right if the consequences of that action
are more favourable than unfavourable ONLY to the agent
performing the action
Ethical Altruism
an action is morally right if the consequences of that action
are more favourable than unfavourable to everyone except
the agent
Utilitarianism
an action is morally right if the consequences of that action
are more favourable than unfavourable to everyone
Jeremy Bentham
Two notably important features
Act-Utilitarianism
Tally consequences of each action we perform
and thereby determine on a case by case basis
whether an action is morally right
or wrong
Hedonistic Utilitarianism
 Tally the pleasure and pain which results from
our actions. (For Bentham, pleasure
and pain are the only consequences that
matter in determining whether our conduct is
moral)
Rule-Utilitarianism
Revised version where a behavioural code or rule is
morally right if the consequences of adopting that
rule are more favourable than unfavourable to
everyone. Unlike act utilitarianism, which weighs the
consequences of each particular action, rule-
utilitarianism offers a litmus test only for the morality
of moral rules, such as “stealing is wrong.” Adopting
a rule against theft clearly has more favourable
consequences than unfavourable consequences for
everyone.
Three-tiered method for judging conduct
APPLIED ETHICS
Details
Analysis of specific, controversial moral
issues such as abortion, animal rights, or euthanasia
most commonly appealed to in applied ethical discussions
Personal benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces
beneficial consequences for the individual in question
Social benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces
beneficial consequences for society.
Principle of benevolence: help those in need
Principle of paternalism: assist others in pursuing their best interests
when they cannot do so themselves
Principle of harm: do not harm others
Principle of honesty: do not deceive others
Principle of lawfulness: do not violate the law
Principle of autonomy: acknowledge a personʼs freedom over his/her
actions or physical body
Principle of justice: acknowledge a personʼs right to due process, fair
compensation for
harm done, and fair distribution of benefits.
 Rights: acknowledge a personʼs rights to life, information, privacy, free
expression, and
safety
APPLIED ETHICS AND ITS CONNECTIONS WITH NORMATIVE AND META-
ETHICS
2 Requirements
1. Issue has to be controversial
2. Has to be a moral issue
Religion
Actions judged as righteous/sinful
Law
Actions judged as legal/illegal
Etiquette
Actions judged as correct/incorrect
Norms
Some societies like traditional ones have law and religion intertwined and
referred to as "customs" in which some customs are normative.
Line between actions that are judged as moral/immoral, righteous/sinful,
legal/illegal and even correct/incorrect - e.g. Islam societies, the way you
process meat can raise a moral question