Module I - Principle of Crop Production

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FOOD SCIENCE
E-mail: caffs@antiquespride.edu.ph
PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

2ND SEMESTER, 2020-2021
Compiled by: Ms. Christine Viola A. Gonzales
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is one of the most ancient of human activities. Developments in the

agriculture led to the growth of civilizations in the past, continue to shape the present and
will determine mankind’s future on this earth.
At this end of this chapter, the students are expected to be able to:
1. Understand the development of Agriculture,
2. Understand the origin, domestication and history of some important crops,
3. Explain the world situation and centers of production,
4. Discuss the Philippine Agriculture,
5. Explain the major crops of the Philippines and their geographic distribution.
I. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Pastoral Stage (Hunting/gathering)
Primitive man satistfied his daily needs directly from nature by hunting wild animals,
gathering wild plants and fishing. The hunter-gatherers moved from one location to another
in search of food sustain them. The fishing tribes were more likely settled in one place as a
permanent home usually near bodies of water.
When did Agriculture start?
The geologic event, the Ice Age, further explains the recent beginnings of Agriculture.
Agriculture was not practiced until the climatically stable Holocene warming. During the
most recent glaciations, there was a warm period sandwiched between the oldest Dryas
(18000-14000 BP) and Younger Dryas (12900-11500 BP) cold periods. This warm period
allowed hunting-gathering which delayed the emergence of agriculture.
Based on the evidences (archaelogical, botanical, linguistics, history, literature),

agriculture had been practiced in the following areas.
1. Near East- 8000-9000 BC in an area known as the Fertile Crescent, which is often
recognized as “the cradle civilization”.
- wheat and barley farming pattern was established and spread overland through Iran. Other

crops include grapes, peaches, apricots and melons.
2. Ethiopia – 9,000 years before present
3. Southern Asia. First crops spread overland from Iraq and Iran in South Asia about
5,000 years before present In Southern India and Ceylon, irrigation reservoirs were
constructed as early as 3,500 – 3,300 before present.
4. East Asia. There was diffusion of SW Asian wheat complex by mainland diffusion.
Crops like yams, bamboo, soybeans and rice are native to tropical Far East region.
Agriculture flowed from China and Thailand to Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines.
5. Southeast Asia - various crops including rice, banana, coconut, and yam
6. Pacific and Oceania. Agriculture in New Guinea and Pacific Islands remained
somewhat primitive until modern times. Crops are taro, yams, coconut, bananas, sugarcane
and breadfruit.
7. South America - indigenous crops like beans, potato, tomato, eggplant, vegetables,
peanut, pineapple and squash
8. Central America. Plant remains of corn and other crops were found dated 10600-
7600 years before present.
Why did agriculture start?
Many theories on the origin of agriculture presented by Harlan (1992) include the following:
1. Agriculture as a divine gift
2. Agriculture as a discovery
3. Agriculture as a result of stress
4. Agriculture as an extension of gathering
What types of plants were used?
Many of the earlier plants used have the following characteristics:
1. Thrive in disturbed areas
2. Short life cycle
3. High competitive ability
Early man intuitively realized that in a vegetative diet, he needed three major
components i.e. carbohydrates for energy, protein for muscle development, and vitamins to

augment different types of proteins and minerals.
It is of interest that from the multitude of plants from which the early domesticators
have to choose, two plant families achieved absolute dominance with regards to
carbohydrates and protein sources, namely Graminae (Poaceae) and the Leguminosae
(Fabaceae), respectively. In fact, all subsequent civilizations have since been established
around a diet originating largely from these basic plant sources. For example:
The Americas - maize and peanuts
Africa - sorghum and beans
The Middle East - wheat, barley and beans
Asia - rice and soybeans
II. ORIGIN, DOMESTICATION AND HISTORY OF SOME IMPORTANT CROPS
Origin of Major Crops
The center of origin of crops means a geographical area where a plant species, either
domesticated or wild, first developed its distinctive properties.
The Philippines is also home to many plant species.


 According to International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the Philippines
ranks fifth in the world in terms of species diversity and endemism.
 A total of 39,100 species of flora and fauna have been identified in the country, of
which a high 67% are endemic.
Plants found only in the Philippines
Some of the plants that are endemic in the Philippines are the following:
1. Abaca (Musa textilis)
2. Pili (Canarium ovatum)
3. Kapa-kapa (Medinilla magnifica)
4. Lubi-lubi/Niyug-niyugan (Ficus pseudopalma)
5. Duhat (Syzygium cumini)
6. Jade vine (Strongylodon macrobotrys)
7. Kahoy-dalaga (Mussaenda philippica var ‘aurorae’)
8. Waling-waling (Vanda sanderiana)
Domestication of Major Crops
 Crop plant domestication began approximately 10,000 years ago at the dawn of
agriculture (Harlan1992).
 During the domestication process, early agriculturalists consciously or unconsciously

selected among wild germplasm for material that was better adapted to human use and
cultivation (Frary and Douanlar, 2003).
 Since the transition from wild species to domesticate, crop plants have continued to
change due to selection exerted by ancient and modern plant breeding and cultivation
practices.
 Domestication is an ongoing process and selection is driven by changing human needs

and agricultural conditions.

III. WORLD FOOD SITUATION AND CENTERS OF PRODUCTION
World population Agriculture
 It is imperative to increase current

levels of food production to provide
 an adequate supply of food to

increasing population.
 The 34% include Antarctica, deserts,

mine sites, urban areas
 Nearly all of the world's productive

land is already exploited. Most of
the unexploited land is too steep,
too wet, too dry or too cold for agriculture
 In Asia, nearly 80% of potentially arable land is now under cultivation
 Globally, countries may be categorized either as a developed or a developing country


 The rapid population growth in most developing countries had greatly reduced the
arable land per capita (Figure 7). It is estimated that by 2050, the amount of arable land
will be just over one-tenth of a hectare per person, from 0.50 ha in 1961
Philippine Population, Food Supply and Agriculture
 In the Philippines in 2008,

the population was 88.57
M (BAS, 2008)
 The annual population

growth from 2000-2007 is
2.04%
 It is projected, however,
that with the population
growth rate of 1.96%, the
population is estimated to
be 97.97 M in 2010
 About 32% of the country's

total land area constitutes the agricultural land.

 The amount of arable land is 4,936 M ha, of which 4,226 M ha are permanent
croplands.
 There were 12.04 M persons (34% of total employment) employed in the agriculture
sector and about three-fourths were male workers (BAS, 2009).
 At constant prices, the agriculture and fishery sector had 3.23% growth in 2008.
 The average annual rate of increase was 3.98% for the period 2006 to 2008.
 The share of agriculture in the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2008 is 18%.
 Presently, the increase in food supply is about 2% per year.
 About 20% of this increase is the result of expansion of new production areas.
 The remaining 80% is due to technological advances in production like improved

irrigation, crop protection, better cultivars, improved crop nutrition, postharvest
handling, etc.
 If population increases exponentially and the population growth outpaces the rate of
food production, then starvation results.
 There is a limit to
what a given area
can produce and
we cannot utilize all
areas for food
production.
 Therefore, other
sources of food
must be considered
such as the use of
synthetic foods,
use of lower plant
forms and further
increasing their
production
efficiencies.


The following tables show the

Percentage Distribution of Production by Region, Philippines, 2009 ('000mt)




IV. PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE
1.1 Philippine Agriculture

A. Concept of Agriculture
 Systematic raising of useful plants and livestock under the
management of man.
 Purposeful work through which the elements of nature are
harnessed to produce plants and animals to human needs.
 Broad industry engaged in the production of plants and animals
for food and fiber, the provision for agricultural supplies and
services and the processing, marketing and distribution of
agricultural products.
B. Philippines as an Agricultural Country

 Composed of small farmers
 Humid tropical climate and variable weather
 Varying topographies and soil types
 Diverse flora and fauna; and
 Mélange of cultures in numerous communities

C. Crop Agriculture and Land Use in the Philippines
Total Land Area

=30, 018, 000 ha
Public & Unclassified Forest Alienable and Disposable

Lands= 15, 883 M ha Lands= 14, 117 M ha
D. Crop Agriculture and Land Use in the Philippines

 14.0 M ha (49%)= suitable for agriculture
 94 M population (2010) --- Land-man ratio of 0.15 ha lower than
world average of 0.20 ha.
 Cropped area=13 M ha
 More than 80% of agricultural area is planted to three major
crops: rice, corn, and coconut.
E. Philippine Population, Food Supply and Agriculture

 In 2009, the Philippine population was 92.23 M.
 The annual population growth rate from 2000-2007 is 2.04%.
 About 32% of the country’s total land area constitutes the
agricultural land
 At constant prices, the agriculture and fishery sector had 3.23%
growth in 2008. The average annual rate of increase was 3.98%
for the period 2006 to 2008.
 The share of agriculture in the gross domestic product (GDP) in
2008 is 18%.
 Presently, the increase in food supply is about 2% per year which
is just enough to keep up with population increase. About 20% of
this increase is the result of expansion of new product areas. The
remaining 80% is due to technological advances in production like
improved irrigation, crop protection, better cultivars, improved
crop nutrition, post-harvest handling etc.

1.2 Problems, status and prospects of Philippine Agriculture (AFMA, GATT, WTO,
Biotechnology)
A. State of Philippine Agriculture
Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA) or Republic Act
8435
 Mandated the modernization of the country’s agriculture
sector
 Signed into law in 1997
B. GATT Issues and Philippine Agriculture

 The Philippines became a member of GATT in 1980 during
the Tokyo round of negotiations.

1.3 Philippine Agricultural Development Program
Liberalization of International Trade - Agriculture

 agreement on Agriculture (AoA), implemented under the auspices of
the World Trade Organization (WTO)
 Philippine membership at the World Trade Organization (WTO) ---
enactment of the AFMA – an attempt to modernize Philippine
agriculture
Focus of AFMA
 food security
 poverty alleviation and social equity
 income enhancement and profitability
 global competitiveness
 sustainability
GMA and AGRI PINOY Program FOR

 rice  use of hybrid rice
 corn  use of hybrid and inbred corns
 high value crops  intensive vegetable and fruit production
Philippine Commitment towards the Liberalization of Agricultural

Trade
 1996  Philippine Senate ratified country's membership in World
Trade Organization (WTO)
 Philippine agriculture being export-oriented, import-dependent and

dominated by foreign interests  such membership intensified the
basic weakness already inherent in Philippine agriculture
Philippines as Member of WTO is Committed to:
1. Increased market access through the conversion of all quantitative
restrictions (QR) into tariffs which will be eventually phased down.
 Philippines have to pass The Agricultural Tariffication Act
(Republic Act 8178) that repealed or amended existing laws
imposing QRs --- that were designed to 'protect and hasten'
the in-country production of the commodity, such as
 RA 7607 for corn, hogs, meat and meat products
 RA 1296 for onion, cabbages and potatoes
 RA 2712 for coffee
 RA 1297 and 1593 for beef and beef products
 RA 7308 for seeds
Philippines as Member of WTO is Committed to:
1. Increased market …. developed countries

 The Act also repealed the Magna Carta for Small farmers (RA
7607) --- that prohibits the importation of agricultural products
that are produced in sufficient quantities
2. Withdrawal of domestic production support
3. Reduction of budgetary outlays for export subsidies
 Philippine government did not have to reduce export subsidies
 there was never any export subsidy provided to the farmers
 Bound future government not to implement any agricultural
subsidies that could boost the country’s agricultural sector
4. Harmonization of sanitary and phytosanitary measures based on
internationally accepted and scientifically justifiable standards
 Restriction of entry of certain agricultural products in some
countries  e.g., aflatoxin test requirement for Philippine
coconut products to the US and vapor heat treatment of
Philippine mangoes against fruit fly for mangoes entering
Japan
Philippine Agriculture SWOT
A. Strength of Philippine Agriculture
 Agriculture provides a total output (GDP) of about 22%  positive


 Provides direct and indirect employment to about 12.5 M families 
5.1 M are into farming
 Food security remains to be lifeline of the country  priority

attention of the government
 Agriculture  mother of many industries
(raw material  processing  local/export markets)
 Land asset still valuable possession for future’s security
 Farming remains to be noble human undertaking and profession
B. Weaknesses of Philippine Agriculture
 Low adoption rates of component technologies/whole systems 

technological deficiencies/weak extension/etc.
 Heavy dependence on imported inputs
 Multiple problems
 Physical
 climate (rainfall, To, sunshine duration)
 soil fertility (top soil erosion, etc.)
 Biological
 pests, diseases, weeds
 physiological disorders (intensively cropped areas  nutrient
deficiency
 Socioecon
 low farm income
 inadequate support services (farm)
 inadequate incentives for agricultural production (input
prices/prices of product)
V. MAJOR CROPS OF THE PHILIPPINES AND THEIR GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
Classification of Agricultural Crops
 Agricultural crops are diverse in nature hence classification of crop is necessary

for order and organization.
 A crop can be identified by its common name which varies from one locality to
another or by its scientific name which is constant worldwide.
I. Systems of Classification
a. Artificial system- based on convenience in which a structure or feature

serves as a basis of grouping.
b. Natural system- uses the most prominent and most peculiar morphological
structure of the plant with the intention of grouping together those crops
which are most familiar in a number of structure.
c. Phylogenetic system- plants are classified according to their evolutionary
status.
II. General Classification of Crops

i. According to growth habit
a. Herbs- succulent plants with self-supporting stems, with soft stems
b. Vines- succulent or woody plants without self-supporting stems
c. Shrubs- may have several main branches with no trunk and rarely grows
higher than 5 meters
d. Trees- with single central stem to which branches are attached, usually
taller than shrub
ii. According to life cycle
a. Annuals- complete their cycle in 1 year or less. eg. Squash
b. Biennials- plants ordinarily require 2 years or at least part 2 growing
seasons with a dormant period between growth stages to complete their
life cycle. eg. Carrot, cabbage, celery
c. Perrenials- plants that do not die after flowering but live from year to
year. eg. asparagus
iii. According to mode of reproduction

a. Sexual- plants that develop after undergoing processes of meiosis and
fertilization in the flower to produce a viable embryo in the seed.
b. Asexual- plants that are produced by any vegetative means not involving
meiosis and the union of gametes.
iv. Special types:
a. Parasites- parasitic, sucking roots
b. Epiphytes- grow upon other plants (orchids) but not parasitic.
c. Saprophytes- grow in places rich in decaying organic substances
III. Classification of Crops Based on Purpose

a. Cereals/grain crops- grown for their grains
eg. Rice, corn, wheat sorghum
b. Legumes- for pods and seeds
eg. Cowpea, mungbean, sitao, peanut
c. Root crops- for enlarged roots/tuberous roots

eg. Cassava, ubi, arrow root
d. Fiber crops- grown for their fibers used in textile, cordage, twines, sacks,
bags etc.
eg. Cotton, ramie, kenaf, jute
e. Oil crops- grown for their oil content
eg. Soybean, peanut, sunflower, castor, coconut
f. Sugar crops- grown for their sugar content
eg. Sugarcane, sugarbeet
g. Pasture/Forage crops- used for roughage source for animals
eg. Para grass, napier grass, ipil-ipil, Stylosanthes
h. Beverage crops- used for brewing non-alcoholic drinks
Eg. Coffee, cacao, tea
i. Spices, condiments, essences- used to provide special flavor, scent, and
color to food, perfumes, soaps and body dressing
eg. Black pepper, vanilla, citronella, ilang-ilang, annatto
j. Latex and resins- used for extracting sap from the trunk/stem
eg. Rubber, chico,pili, rimas, papaya
k. Medicinal and poison crops- with curative, laxative and pesticidal
properties
eg. Lagundi, sambong, tobacco
l. Vegetables- usually eaten with staple crops, further classified according to
similarities in the method of culture
a. Root-radish, carrot
b. Leafy- spinach, lettuce
c. Stem-celery, asparagus
d. Flowers- squash, katuray
e. Fruit- okra, tomato, eggplant
m. Fruits- edible botanical fruits usually used for dessert which may be eaten
raw, cooked or in processed form.
eg. Pineapple, cashew, mango
n. Ornamentals- plants cultivated mainly for their aesthetic value, further
classified according to their special uses.
a. Cutflowers- grown for its flowers
eg.roses, orchids
b. Cut-foliage- foliage provides background in floral arrangement
eg. ferns, fortune plant, palmera
c. Flowering pot plants- plants grown in containers for their flowers
usually used for display. eg. poinsettia
d. Landscape plants- for landscaping purposes

eg. blue palm, white grass, song of india
e. Foliage plants- for attractive foliage, maybe grown indoor or outdoor for
decoration
eg. begonia, philondendron
f. Turf- used in lawns or greens
eg. Bermuda grass, carabao grass, blue grass.
IV. Special Groups

1. Green manure- a crop that is plowed under while still green and growing to
improve the soil (eg. sesbania)
2. Cover crop- any crop grown to provide soil cover, prevent soil erosion by
wind, or water, improve soil and control weeds. (eg. centrosema)
3. Companion crop- crop sown with another crop and harvested separately.
The combination benefits either or both the crops. (eg. ipil-ipil planted with
black pepper)
4. Trap Crop- a crop which is planted to protect the main crop from pests by
attracting the pest to the crop itself and later destroying it. (eg. main crop is
rice and sweet potato is planted to trap some rats)
5. Catch crop- a short seasoned crop grown immediately after the failure of
the main crop to utilize residual resources. (eg. rice is the main crop but may
have been destroyed by typhoon therefore pechay or mustard is planted
immediately).
6. Soilage- grasses that are grown, cut and directly fed to animals.
7. Silage- grasses grown, cut, fermented, and preserved before being fed to
animals.

Module I - Principle of Crop Production

Uploaded by

Module I - Principle of Crop Production

Uploaded by

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FOOD SCIENCE

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

Agriculture is one of the most ancient of human activities. Developments in the

1. Understand the development of Agriculture,

2. Understand the origin, domestication and history of some important crops,

3. Explain the world situation and centers of production,

4. Discuss the Philippine Agriculture,

Pastoral Stage (Hunting/gathering)

When did Agriculture start?

Based on the evidences (archaelogical, botanical, linguistics, history, literature),

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

2. Ethiopia – 9,000 years before present

Why did agriculture start?

1. Agriculture as a divine gift

3. Agriculture as a result of stress

4. Agriculture as an extension of gathering

What types of plants were used?

Many of the earlier plants used have the following characteristics:

1. Thrive in disturbed areas

2. Short life cycle

3. High competitive ability

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

The Americas - maize and peanuts

Africa - sorghum and beans

The Middle East - wheat, barley and beans

Asia - rice and soybeans

II. ORIGIN, DOMESTICATION AND HISTORY OF SOME IMPORTANT CROPS

Origin of Major Crops

The Philippines is also home to many plant species.

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

Plants found only in the Philippines

1. Abaca (Musa textilis)

2. Pili (Canarium ovatum)

3. Kapa-kapa (Medinilla magnifica)

4. Lubi-lubi/Niyug-niyugan (Ficus pseudopalma)

5. Duhat (Syzygium cumini)

6. Jade vine (Strongylodon macrobotrys)

7. Kahoy-dalaga (Mussaenda philippica var ‘aurorae’)

8. Waling-waling (Vanda sanderiana)

Domestication of Major Crops

 During the domestication process, early agriculturalists consciously or unconsciously

 Domestication is an ongoing process and selection is driven by changing human needs

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

III. WORLD FOOD SITUATION AND CENTERS OF PRODUCTION

World population Agriculture

 It is imperative to increase current

 an adequate supply of food to

 The 34% include Antarctica, deserts,

 Nearly all of the world's productive

 In Asia, nearly 80% of potentially arable land is now under cultivation

 Globally, countries may be categorized either as a developed or a developing country

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

Philippine Population, Food Supply and Agriculture

 In the Philippines in 2008,

 The annual population

 About 32% of the country's

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

 Presently, the increase in food supply is about 2% per year.

 The remaining 80% is due to technological advances in production like improved

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

The following tables show the

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

IV. PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE

1.1 Philippine Agriculture

B. Philippines as an Agricultural Country

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

C. Crop Agriculture and Land Use in the Philippines

Total Land Area

Public & Unclassified Forest Alienable and Disposable

D. Crop Agriculture and Land Use in the Philippines

E. Philippine Population, Food Supply and Agriculture

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

B. GATT Issues and Philippine Agriculture