UNIT-II

COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES
FOR
POWER SYSTEM
Introduction
Data communication systems are essential in any modern power system and their
importance will only increase as the Smart Grid develops. As a simple example, a data
communication system can be used to send status information from an Intelligent
Electronic Device (IED) to a workstation (human–machine interface) for display. Any
coordinated control of the power system relies on effective communications linking a
large number of devices.
The below Figure shows a model of a simple point-to-point data communication
system in which the communication channel is the path along which data travels as a
signal. As can be seen from Figure, the communication channel could be a dedicated
link between the Source and Destination or could be a shared medium.

Fig 1.: Model of simple point-to-point communication system

Figure 2. & 3. shows a typical communication network used inside a substation.

Each bay has a controller which takes the local measurements (e.g., from current
and voltage transformers) and contains the software required for protection and
control of the bay primary equipment (e.g., transformers and circuit breakers).
These bay controllers are connected to substation control and monitoring
equipment (station computer, RTUs) through a star or ring connection

Fig: 2. Fig: 3.
In the star connection (Figure 2), each bay controller has a dedicated link to the
station computer. In the ring connection (Figure 3.), the bay controllers and the
station computer are connected through a shared medium to form a Local Area
Network (LAN).
In the differential protection scheme of Figure 4., a pilot wire communication or
power line carrier may be used. A bit stream from the differential IED is first
modulated with a carrier.

Figure: 4: Differential relay

Examples of the physical devices in a power system communication system.

Component Physical device

Source Voltage
transformer
Current
transformer

Transmitter Remote terminal unit (RTU)

Communication channel LAN (Ethernet)
Receiver Network interface card
Destination Work station with graphic display IED for
protection and control
 Optical Fiber Network
Optical fiber transmission is used both inside substations and for long-distance
transmission of data. Optical fibers are often embedded in the stranded conductors of
the shield (ground) wires of overhead lines. These cables are known as Optical
Ground Wires (OPGW).
As shown in Figure below, an OPGW cable contains a tubular structure with one or
more optical fibers in it, surrounded by layers of steel and aluminum wire. Optical
fibers may be wrapped around the phase conductors or sometimes a standalone
cable, an all-dielectric self-supporting (ADSS) cable, is used.

As shown in Figure. 3, an optical fiber consists of three components: core, cladding

and buffer. The thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels is called the
core. The outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back
into the core is called the cladding. In order to protect the optical surface from
moisture and damage, it is coated with a layer of buffer coating.

Compared to other communication media, fiber optic cables have a much greater
bandwidth. They are less susceptible to signal degradation than copper wire and
their weight is less than a copper cable. Unlike electrical signals in copper wires,
light signals from one fiber do not interfere with those of other fibers in the same
cable. Further, optical fiber transmission is immune to external electromagnetic
interference (EMI). This is important in power system applications since data
transmission through the electrically hostile area of a substation is required.
The main disadvantages of optical fiber transmission include the cost, the special
termination requirements and its vulnerability (it is more fragile than coaxial cable).

Principle of fiber optics

Figure 4. shows the path of a light signal travelling inside an optical fiber. A light
signal from the optical source is first incident on surface A and then refracted inside
the core. The signal is then incident on the surface between the core and cladding.
The subsequent path depends on the incident angle, θ1.

Depending on the core diameter, there may be multiple transmission paths or

a single transmission path within the core of a fiber. Optical fiber cables having
core diameters of 50–400 μm reflect light entering the core from different angles,
establish multiple paths and are called multimode fibers. On the other hand, fiber
with a much smaller core diameter, 5–10 μm, supports a single transmission path.
This is called single mode fiber. Single mode fibers have advantages such as low
dispersion, low noise, and can carry signals at much higher speeds than multimode
fibers. Therefore, they are preferred for long-distance applications.

Commonly used multimode fibers are:

a. Step index fiber: This cable has a specific index of refraction for the core and the
cladding. It is the cheapest type of cable. Its large core diameter allows
efficient coupling to incoherent light sources such as Light Emitting Diodes
(LED). Different rays emitted by the light source travel along paths of
different lengths as shown in Figure below. As the light travels in different
paths, it appears at the output end at different times.
b. Graded index fiber: In graded index fiber, rays of light follow sinusoidal paths
as shown in Figure below. Although the paths are different lengths, all the
light reaches the end of the fiber at the same time.
Optical Fiber Based Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country
or continent. WAN (Wide Area Network) connects two or more LANs and other
networks so that computers at one location can communicate to the computers at
far away some other location. It contains a collection of machines intended for
running user (i.e., application programs) We call these machines as hosts.
The hosts are connected by communication subnet or just subnet for short. The
host are owned by costumers (e.g., people’s personal computers), whereas the
communication subnet is typically owned and operated by a telephone company
or Internet service provider. The job of subnet is to carry message from host to
host, just as telephone system carries words from speaker to listener. In most wide
area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines
and switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines. They
can be made of copper wire, optical fiber, or even radio links. Switching elements
are specialized computers that connect three or more transmission lines. When
data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an outgoing
line on which to forward them. Nowadays router is most commonly used as
switching element.

(Subnet means the collection of routers and communication lines that moved
packets from the source host to the destination host.) In this model, shown in fig,
each host is frequently connected to a LAN on which a router is present, although
in some cases a host can be connected directly to a router. The collections of
communication lines and routers (but not from the hosts) form the subnet.
The communication infrastructure of a power system typically consists of
SCADA systems with dedicated communication channels to and from the
System Control Centre and a Wide Area Network (WAN). Some long-
established power utilities may have private tele- phone networks and other
legacy communication systems. The SCADA systems connect all the major
power system operational facilities, that is, the central generating stations,
the transmission grid substations and the primary distribution substations
to the System Control Centre. The WAN is used for corporate business and
market operations. These form the core communication networks of the
traditional power system. However, in the Smart Grid, it is expected that
these two elements of communication infrastructure will merge into a Utility
WAN.
Limitations
WAN is difficult for businesses as cloud computing and other emerging
technologies converge upon the network. Cost effectiveness is a major
problem when it comes to WAN upgrades, in large part, because the network
format is not built for such large amounts of traffic. Harder to manage since
the solution typically involves multiple vendors & reliability of solution goes
down
 UNIT-II
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES
FOR
POWER SYSTEM
Notes from
26-05-2021 To 29/05/2021
IP Based Real Time Data Transmission
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/Internet Protocol (IP) or TCP/IP is
the most widely used protocol architecture today. It is a result of a project
called Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) funded by
the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) in the early 1970s.
The TCP/IP protocol architecture used in the Internet evolved out of
ARPANET.

Five layers, as shown in Figure, are defined in the TCP/IP architecture.

They are: Physical layer, Network access layer, Internet layer, Transport layer
and Application layer. The role of the Physical layer of the TCP/IP is identical
to that of the Physical layer in the ISO/OSI reference model. It deals with the
specifications of electrical and mechanical aspects of interfaces and
transmission media.
It is also responsible for encoding data into signals, defining data rate and
the synchronization of bits.
The Network layer is responsible for providing an error-free channel for the
Internet layer. Its functions include: encapsulation of IP packets coming from
the Internet layer into frames, frame synchronization, error detection and
correction, logical link control, providing flow and error control, media
access control, physical addressing (MAC addressing), LAN switching, data
packet queuing or scheduling algorithms, and IP address to/from physical
address resolution.
The main responsibility of the Internet layer is routing packets from Source to
Destination. Identifying Hosts uniquely and universally is essential for routing
packets as datagrams across networks. The Internet layer uses an identifier called
the IP address to identify devices connected to a network. There are two versions,
IPv4 and IPv6, of IP addressing currently in use. IP version 4 (IPv4) is still the
most commonly used. Since its introduction in 1998 with the publication of IETF
RFC2373 [12] and RFC2460 [13], IP version 6 is becoming more widely used
in the internet.
The Transport layer is represented by the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
TCP creates a virtual circuit between the Source to Destination and is responsible
for sending all datagrams generated by the Source. TCP establishes a
transmission by informing the Destination that there are more data to be
transmitted and terminates the connection only when all the datagrams have been
transmitted.
The Application layer in TCP/IP is a combination of session, presentation and
Application layers of the OSI model. Some of the protocols associated with the
Application layer of TCP/IP are: Domain Name Server (DNS), File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), electronic mail protocols such as Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and Uniform Resource Locator
(URL).
IP Version 4
IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long. Usually these are displayed as a sequence of 4
octets6 with space between octets to make the addresses more readable. In order
to make the address compact, a notation called dotted decimal notation is
commonly used to represent an IPv4 address as shown in Figure,

IPv4 addressing has two architectures called classful and classless addressing.
Classful addressing is the concept used initially and is still in use widely.
Classless addressing was introduced in the mid-1990s and is expected to
supersede classful addressing:

IP Version 6
IP version 6 also known as IP Next Generation (IPng) is a 128-bit addressing
scheme. There- fore, it provides a much bigger address space compared to that
of IPv4. The main advantages provided by IPv6 include:

1. Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) is mandatory for IPv6. It is a protocol

 suite for securing Internet Protocol (IP) communications by authenticating
and encrypting each IP packet of a communication session.
2. Support for jumbograms which can be as large as − 4, 294, 967, 295 (2 32 1)
octets. In contrast, IPv4 supports datagrams up to 65, 535 (216 – 1) octets.

ISO/ OSI MODEL

There are N numbers of users who use computer network and are located over
the world. So, to ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems
must be developed which are compatible to communicate with each other ISO
has developed a standard. ISO stands for International organization of
Standardization. This is called a model for Open System Interconnection (OSI)
and is commonly known as OSI model. The ISO-OSI model is a seven-layer
architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete communication
system. They are:
1. Application Layer
2. Presentation Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Network Layer
6. Datalink Layer
7. Physical Layer
Features of OSI Model
1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through
this OSI model.
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
3. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different
networks.
Principles of OSI Reference Model
The OSI reference model has 7 layers. The principles that were applied to arrive
at the seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward
defining internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information
flow across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions
need not be thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small
enough that architecture does not become unwieldly.
 Substation Communication Technologies
Introduction
The communication layer in smart grids serves as the core of the entire
remote monitoring system. It not only collects operational data from
the field devices and sends the data to the SCADA servers, but also
transmits commands from the control center to the control units in order
to actuate the equipment. The emphasis of the communication layer is
to describe appropriate protocols and mechanisms for the interoperable
exchange of data between the components of the smart grid.
Key requirements of a fast, robust and reliable communication system
include.
(i) Identification of communication traffic flows:
source/destination/quantity.
(ii) System topology (e.g., star, mesh, ring, bus).
(iii) Device addressing schemes.
(iv) Communication network traffic characteristics (bandwidth,
delay, latency, jitter, reliability, and error handling).
(v) Performance requirements.
(vi) Timing issues.
(vii) Reliability/backup/failover.
(viii) Operational requirements (e.g., security, and management
of the network).
(ix) Quantification of electromagnetic interference withstand
requirements.
Another critical requirement and recent trend in substation integration
and automation architecture is the use of standard communication
interfaces to ensure interoperability between different vendors’
components as well as with legacy equipment. The lack of standard
protocols may lead to communication errors or to incompatibility
between different devices. Industries that have invested in proprietary
and vendor-oriented SCADA communication systems address serious
scalability issues, as they are restricted to limited choice of equipment
when requirements change. To mitigate such problems, open
communication protocols (e.g., IEC 60870-5-101/104 and DNP 3.0)
and control-center-to-control-center communication
(e.g.,ICCPIEC608706/TASE.2) became increasingly popular among
SCADA equipment manufacturers and solution providers alike.
Substation Communication Technologies: In conventional
substations, serial communication buses or proprietary protocols are
used for local HMI, as well as for remote SCADA communication.
Modern communication in substation is data transmission inside and
between station, bay and process level. Communication between these
3 levels is called vertical communication and is conducted by high-
speed Ethernet station bus and process bus. Station bus facilitates
communication between station level and bay level. Communication
within one level is considered horizontal. Communication networks
within the substations often have lower-level data link, physical layer
protocols and multiple application layer protocols running on top of
TCP/IP. Traditional SCADA systems had a master-slave
communication model. Nowadays, with the availability of networkable
communication protocols, such as IEC 61850, it is possible to
simultaneously support multiple clients located at different remote
locations, although it complicates who has the control of the equipment.
The Figure shows an example of such a network.

Figure: Networked SCADA Communications.

These networks allow the integration of both control center and

enterprise information systems. Based on the topology of the
distribution network, the appropriate technology has to be chosen
among different solutions. Utility communication networks comprise
both wireless and wired technologies. Copper wires (e.g., low rate or
broadband DSL signals), fiber optics (e.g., Ethernet signals for
broadband MANs), leased phone lines or cellular and satellite
communications may be employed for the interconnection of the
substation with the control center or between the components of the
substation. New development trend is the spread spectrum radio
technologies which can operate in unlicensed ISM bands in the
900MHz, 2.4GHz, and 5.6GHz bands or licensed in other nearby
bands. Criteria for the selection of the most appropriate technology are
bandwidth and delay requirements for the communication link, and
whether a global or a regional solution is targeted or not. Additionally,
wireless and satellite systems are subject to eavesdropping, so the use
of appropriate security measures is indicated to avoid loss of
confidential information. SCADA communication networks tend to
come in line with standard networking technologies in future. Ethernet
and TCP/IP based protocols are replacing the older proprietary
standards. Migration strategies that are available today have to be
identified, in order to move from legacy technology to the standard
protocols. It is unlikely that one technology alone will ever provide a
complete solution for all communications, thus interoperability and
compatibility of different technologies will be the key requirement for
all future generations of systems.
 UNIT-II
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES
FOR
POWER SYSTEM
Notes from
31-05-2021 To 05-06-2021
 ZIGBEE COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
ZigBee is the communication technology which, built on IEEE 802.15.4. This
is a low data rate wireless networking standard. Currently this standard is the
most popular protocol for a Wireless Public Area Networks (WPAN) due to its
low power consumption, high flexibility in networking and low cost. It creates
an ad-hoc self-organising network by interconnecting fixed, portable and
moving devices.
The protocol architecture of a ZigBee device is shown in Figure below. As
shown in Figure, the lower two layers are defined by IEEE 802.15.4 standards.
Application support and Network layer protocols for a ZigBee network are
defined by the ZigBee Alliance.

Application Layer
Zigbee Device Objects
Application Support Sublayer
Network Layer

MAC
Physical Layer

Figure: Protocol Architecture of Zigbee.

A ZigBee device can be a Full Function Device (FFD) or a Reduced Function

Device (RFD). A network will have at least one FFD, operating as the WPAN
coordinator. The FFD can operate in three modes: a coordinator, a router or an
end device. An RFD can operate only as an end device. An FFD can talk to other
FFDs and RFDs, whereas an RFD can only talk to an FFD. An RFD could be a
light switch or a sensor which communicates with a controller. ZigBee networks
can have star, mesh or cluster tree architecture, as shown in Figure below.
Communication models
 Zigbee high-level communication model

An application may consist of communicating objects which cooperate to carry

out the desired tasks. The focus of Zigbee is to distribute work among many
different devices which reside within individual Zigbee nodes which in turn form
a network (said work will typically be largely local to each device, for instance,
the control of each household appliance).
The collection of objects that form the network communicates using the facilities
provided by APS, supervised by ZDO interfaces. The application layer data
service follows a typical request-confirm/indication-response structure. Within a
single device, up to 240 application objects can exist, numbered in the range 1-
240. 0 is reserved for the ZDO (Zigbee device object) data interface and 255 for
broadcast; the 241-254 range is not currently in use but may be in the future.
Two services are available for application objects to use (in Zigbee 1.0):

• The key-value pair service (KVP) is meant for configuration purposes.

It enables description, request and modification of object attribute
through a simple interface based on getting/set and event primitives,
some allowing a request for a response. Configuration uses
compressed XML (full XML can be used) to provide an adaptable and
elegant solution.
 • The message service is designed to offer a general approach to
information treatment, avoiding the necessity to adapt application
protocols and potential overhead incurred on by KVP. It allows
arbitrary payloads to be transmitted over APS frames.
Addressing is also part of the application layer. A network node consists of an
802.15.4-conformant radio transceiver and one or more device descriptions
(basically collections of attributes which can be polled or set, or which can be
monitored through events). The transceiver is the base for addressing, and devices
within a node are specified by an endpoint identifier in the range 1-240.
Communication Using Zigbee
For applications to communicate, their comprising devices must use a common
application protocol (types of messages, formats and so on); these sets of
conventions are grouped in profiles. Furthermore, binding is decided upon by
matching input and output cluster identifiers, unique within the context of a given
profile and associated to an incoming or outgoing data flow in a device. Binding
tables contain source and destination pairs.
Depending on the available information, device discovery may follow different
methods. When the network address is known, the IEEE address can be requested
using unicast communication. When it is not, petitions are broadcast (the IEEE
address being part of the response payload). End devices will simply respond with
the requested address while a network coordinator or a router will also send the
addresses of all the devices associated with it.
This extended discovery protocol permits external devices to find out about
devices in a network and the services that they offer, which endpoints can report
when queried by the discovering device (which has previously obtained their
addresses). Matching services can also be used.
The use of cluster identifiers enforces the binding of complementary entities
using the binding tables, which are maintained by Zigbee coordinators, as the
table must always be available within a network and coordinators are most likely
to have a permanent power supply. Backups, managed by higher-level layers,
may be needed by some applications. Binding requires an established
communication link; after it exists, whether to add a new node to the network is
decided, according to the application and security policies.
Communication can happen right after the association. Direct addressing uses
both radio address and endpoint identifier, whereas indirect addressing uses every
relevant field (address, endpoint, cluster, and attribute) and requires that they are
sent to the network coordinator, which maintains associations and translates
requests for communication. Indirect addressing is particularly useful to keep
some devices very simple and minimize their need for storage. Besides these two
methods, broadcast to all endpoints in a device is available, and group
addressing is used to communicate with groups of endpoints belonging to a set of
devices.
 UNIT-II
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES FOR
POWER SYSTEM
Notes from
07-06-2021 To
UNIT-II COMPLETE
 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
➢ Introduction
A GIS is a particular form of Information System applied to geographical data.
An Information System is a set of processes, executed on raw data (Longitude,
Latitude) to produce information which will be useful when making decisions.
A system is a group of connected entities and activities which interact for a
common purpose. A GIS is an organized collection of computers hardware,
software, geographic data, and personnel to efficiently capture, store, update,
manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of geographically referenced
information. A GIS integrates spatial and other kinds of information within a
single system to provide a consistent framework for analyzing geographic
(spatial) data. A GIS makes connections between activities based on geographic
proximity.

➢ Definition of GIS
There are different definitions for Geographic Information System, each
developed from a different perspective or disciplinary origin. Some focus on the
map connection, some stress the database or the software tool kit and others
emphasis applications such as decision support. Defining a GIS can be done by
either explaining what it can do (Functions) or by looking at the components.
“A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping
and analyzing things that exist and events that happen on earth. GIS technology
integrates common database operations such as query and statistical analysis with
the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps” —
Environmental Systems Research Institute (Environmental Systems Research
Institute- ESRI).
• Components of GIS
GIS have mainly 5 components: Hardware, Software, Data, People, and Methods.

• Hardware: Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates; GIS

software runs on a wide range of hardware types, from centralized
computer server to desktop computers and in stand-alone or networked
configurations. Hardware relates to device used by end users such as
graphic devices or plotters and scanners. Data storage and manipulation
is done using a range of processor. With the development of the Internet
and Web based application, Web servers have become part of much
system’s architecture, hence most GIS’s follows 3-Tier architecture. It
consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The
choice of hardware system ranges from 300MHz Personal Computers to
Super Computers having capability in Tera FLOPS. The computer forms
the backbone of the GIS hardware, which gets its input through the Scanner
or a digitizer board
• Software: GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store,
analyse and display geographic information. Key software components are
Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information.
A database management system (DBMS) Tools that support geographic
query, analysis and visualization. A geographical user interface (GUI) for
easy access to tools. Software is also a highly dynamic part of the system.
Dozens of GIS software packages now exist. These systems are available
on many different types of hardware platforms and come with a wide
variety of functional capabilities. GIS software provides the functions and
tools needed to store, analyse, and display geographic information. GIS
software’s in use are ArcGIS, MapInfo, Global mapper, AutoCAD Map,
etc. The software available can be said to be application specific. When the
low-cost GIS work is to be carried out desktop Global mapper, Map info
is the suitable option. It is easy to use and supports many GIS feature. If
the user intends to carry out extensive analysis on GIS including modelling
and report generation, ArcGIS is the preferred option. For the people using
AutoCAD and willing to step into GIS, AutoCAD Map is a good option.
• Data: Possibly the most important component of a GIS is the data.
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or
purchased from a commercial data provider. A GIS will integrate spatial
data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most
organizations to organize and maintain their data, to manage spatial data.
Geographic data are basically divided into two main groups are vector
and raster.
• User/People: GIS technology is of limited value without the people who
manage the system and develop plans for applying it to real-world problems.
The GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain
the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work.
The final component required for a true GIS is users. The term "user" may
refer to any individual who will use GIS to support project or program
goals, or to an entire organization that will employ GIS in support of its
overall mission.
• Methods: A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed
plan and business rules, which are the models and operating
practices unique to each organization. Geographic Information
System- The organized activity by which people,
o Measure aspects of geographic phenomena and processes.
o Represent these measurements, usually in the form of a
computer database, to emphasize spatial themes, entities and
relationships.
o Operate upon these representations to produce more
measurements and to discover new relationships by integrating
 disparate sources.
o Transform these representations to conform to other frameworks
of entities and relationships.
These activities reflect the large context (Institution and Cultures) in which these
people carry out their work. GIS is primarily a computer software package for
organizing data with location dimension.

• Applications of Geographic Information System (GIS) In Smart Grid

1. Site Selection and Evaluation

Generation site placement studies are supported using GIS. For example,
building a hydropower station requires thorough studies of geological
lithologies, water drainage patterns, surface, and subsurface structures. The
geological, structural configuration is essential to understand the strengths
and weaknesses of the area so the project can be implemented in suitable
terrain. GIS is used to process this data to show, for example, the
hydropower potential of an area. Using information, such as spot height
topographic maps and digitized data about elevation contours, ArcGIS can
generate digital elevation models (DEMs). GIS is used to layer additional
data on the DEM such as catchment boundaries, drainage networks, and
location of major habitation and environmental factors.
2. Plant Licensing
Utilities generating power are required by federal regulation to license or
relicense their facilities. A large number of environmental studies are
conducted during this process, and GIS tools aid in efficient and
comprehensive results. The studies require a wide variety of data from
governmental and other sources including ecological, engineering,
recreational, cultural, and socioeconomic content. Examples of GIS-related
tasks used for relicensing are analysis of data, capture and display of
changes over time, two- and three-dimensional surface/bathymetry
models, elevation models, and the presentation and reporting of the studies
for meetings as well as ongoing monitoring after a license is granted.
3. Network Viewing Solutions
Intelligently building a transmission line network requires precise
planning, costing, scheduling, and so forth. Use GIS for selecting suitable
areas, finding the optimum path, creating the profile analysis, engineering
design of towers and wires, surveying support, and estimating costs.
4. Wholesale Power Markets
Planning engineers are also working toward a GIS interface with a load
flow program, the Power System State Estimation, which creates better
visualizations of resultant contingencies on the system caused by new
generation, new transmission, generation retirements, and other changes.
GIS is used for various reports to stakeholders such as the Federal Energy
 Regulatory Commission, state agencies, and state regulatory commissions.
GIS-generated reports show the status of the transmission grid and the
status of construction on the system in the next five and ten years’
5. Right-of-Way Solutions
GIS is used to manage right-of-way activities including planning and
management, property appraisal, property acquisition, property/asset
management, asset relocation, vegetation management, and corridor
preservation. Use GIS to buffer and overlay right-of-way requirements for
tower placement, query features to identify property owners and other land
information, and perform geospatial analysis to direct tree-trimming
efforts. GIS provides a myriad of opportunities to streamline right-of-way
processes from facility management to market assessment.
6. Asset Management Solutions
By providing a geographically oriented view of the electric generation and
transmission structures, devices, and network, ESRI’s ArcGIS helps
electricity generation and transmission utility managers visualize, analyze,
and understand their facilities.
7. Land Management Solutions
Utility organizations that accumulate land must perform the accompanying
records and land management duties. GIS supports land data storage and
organization, surveying, mapping, and more. The result is fast access to
maps, comprehensive data, and reduced costs.
8. Business Partners
ESRI’s business partners for the electric and gas industry bring ESRI
software users the best applications available. Consultation support,
extensions, and customization help you get the most out of GIS.
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Definition of GPS:
The GPS is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24
satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defence. GPS was originally
intended for military applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the
system available for civilian use. GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere
in the world, 24 hours a day. There are no subscription fees or setup charges to
use GPS.
• GPS Segments/ Components of GPS/ Principles of GPS:
The Global Positioning System consists of three major segments: the Space
Segment, the Control Segment, and the User Segment. The space and control
segments are operated by the United States Military and administered by the U.S.
Space Command of the U.S. Air Force.

Figure: Components of GPS.

1. The Control Segment
➢ The control segment of the Global Positioning System consists of one Master
Control Station (MCS) located at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado Springs,
Colorado, and four unmanned monitor stations located strategically around the
world e.g., Hawaii Monitor Station, Ascension Monitor Station, Diego Garcia
Monitor Station, Kwajalein Monitor Station.
➢ In addition, the Air Force maintains three primary ground antennas, located
more or less equidistant around the equator.
➢ Observation and controlling the satellite system regularly.
➢ To check the satellite functions and its accurate position in the space.
➢ To determine the time of GPS.
➢ Update periodically navigation messages for each satellite.
➢ In the event of some catastrophic failure, there are also two backup Master
Control Stations, one located in Sunnyvale, California, and the other in Rockville,
Maryland.
➢ The CS is responsible for maintaining the satellites and their proper
functioning. This includes maintaining the satellites in their proper orbital
positions (called station keeping) and monitoring satellite subsystem health and
status.
➢ The CS also monitors the satellite solar arrays, battery power levels, and
propellant levels used for manoeuvrers. Furthermore, the CS activates spare
satellites (if available) to maintain system availability.
➢ Newly added control stations after 2005 are Washington DC England,
Ecuador, Argentina, Bahrain and Australia.
➢ Master stations collect the data about the satellites of this system continuously
from the other tracking stations. MCS process the tracking data for computation
of satellite ephemerides (or co-ordinate) & satellite clock parameters.
➢ This sequence of events occurs every few hours for each of the satellites to
help ensure that any possibility of error creeping into the satellite positions or
their clocks is minimized.

2. The Space Segment

➢ The space segment consists of the complete constellation of orbiting

NAVSTAR GPS satellites. The current satellites are manufactured by Rockwell
International and cost approximately $40 million each.
➢ The Space Segment of the system consists of the GPS satellites. These Space
Vehicles (SVs) send radio signals from space. The Space Segments - consists of
the group of minimum 24 Satellites & the signals -that are broadcast by them,
which allow user to determine position velocity & time. The basic functions of
satellites are - To receive & store data uploaded by Control Segment.
➢ Currently 12 of these satellites are re-designed as the part of GPS
Modernization Programme.

GPS Satellite Details

• Name: NAVSTAR (The Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging-USA)
• Galaxy: consist of 24 satellites.
• Manufacture: Rockwell International
• Altitude: 20200 km
• Weight: 845 kg
• Number of path or orbit: 6
• Number of satellites per path: 4
• Orbital inclination: 55 degrees to equatorial plane
• Orbital spacing: 60 degree (360/6)
• Orbital period: 12 hours
• Planned life span: 7.5 years

3. User Segment
➢ Information that comes from space and sends to satellites is the most important
part of GPS.
➢ The part that does this work is User Segment. It has the GPS receiver section.
➢ GPS collect and stored the all information that has come from space. For this,
4 satellites are required. The GPS user segment consists of the GPS receivers and
the user community. GPS receivers convert SV signals into position, velocity and
time estimates. Four satellites are required to compute the four dimensions of X
(latitude), Y (longitude), Z (altitude) and T (time). GPS receivers are used for
navigation, positioning, time dissemination and other research.
➢ The user receiving equipment comprises the user segment. Each set of
equipment is typically referred to as a GPS receiver, which processes the L-band
signals transmitted from the satellites to determine user PVT (Position, Velocity
and Time).
➢ While PVT determination is the most common use, receivers are designed for
other applications, such as computing user platform attitude (i.e., heading, pitch,
and roll) or as a timing source.
➢ Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GPS. Navigation
receivers are made for aircraft, ships, and ground vehicles and for hand carrying
by individuals. Precise positioning is possible using GPS receivers at reference
locations providing corrections and relative positioning, geodetic control and
plate tectonic studies are example.
➢ Time and frequency dissemination, based on the precise clocks on board the
SVs and controlled by the monitor stations, is another use for GPS, Astronomical
observatories, telecommunications facilities, and laboratory standards can be set
to precise time signals or controlled to accurate frequencies by special purpose
GPS receivers. Research projects have used GPS signals to measure atmospheric
parameters.
• Applications of GPS in Smart Grid:
The United States government created the system, maintains it and makes it freely
accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver. The global positioning system provides
critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users around the world. But
in terms of Electrical Smart Grid System, it is very useful. The benefits of GPS
in Power system are listed below.
1. Improvement in Efficiency of Daily Operation and Maintenance:
The number of electrical power equipment’s is big, and they’re widely
distributed. Lots of devices are deployed in remote areas, which brings much
inconvenience for inspection and checking. It’s difficult to find the equipment.
The traditional method is to train the new generation of staff by senior ones. This
approach is neither scientific nor efficient, especially for large-scale activities
(such as the Olympic Games), which need regional cooperation. The GPS
positions of all equipments are entered into the map data, so everyone can easily
find the destination with a GPS device. Labour cost is saved and the efficiency is
significantly improved.
2. Improvement in the Ability of Handling Accidents:
Accidents cannot be completely avoided today. In addition to active prevention,
a quick solution is particularly important after it happens. Quick and accurate
arrival at the scene with a precise navigation device could avoid great loss of the
country. Meanwhile, with advanced wireless communication systems, real-time
videos of the accident are transmitted to the experts all-round the country for
remote diagnosis, which can greatly enhance the ability to handle accidents.
3. Considerable Economic Benefit:
Power failure could cause national economic disaster. A malfunction may cause
economic losses from a few hundred million to more than a billion dollars. (Two
severe power blackouts affected most of northern and eastern India on 30 and 31
July 2012. The 30 July 2012 blackout affected over 400 million people and was
briefly the largest power outage in history by number of people affected, beating
the January 2001 blackout in Northern India (230 million affected) The blackout
on 31 July is the largest power outage in history. The outage affected more than
620 million people, about 9% of the world population or half of India's
population, spread across 22 states in Northern, Eastern, and Northeast India. An
estimated 32 gigawatts of generating capacity was taken offline). When an
emergency occurs, every second can be extremely valuable. GPS positioning and
navigation system can realize fast positioning, rapid troubleshooting, and hence
avoiding economic losses as much as possible. Meanwhile, the reservation of the
guides can be avoided in daily operation and maintenance, even in large cross-
regional operations. The labour cost is greatly saved.
4. Large Social Benefits:
Electrical power is closely related to everyone’ life in civil society. In any city,
power failure is an inconceivable disaster. Several large-scale power outages
caused by the accident in history gave local people painful memories. Thus, with
GPS positioning and navigation system, the ability of troubleshooting is enhanced
for Power Enterprises, which has a very significant impact on people’s livelihood
and social stability.
5. Positioning of Transmission Towers, Substations and Offices:
The locations of transmission towers, substations, offices and so on, are pre-set
in GPS devices. With an electronic map in GPS devices, after positioning by GPS
satellites, the route can be automatically calculated by directly clicking on the
destination. The route from the start point to the destination can be reasonably
planned and tracked.
6. Dynamically Addition or Subtraction of Location Information
According to Requirement:
The system employs open data structure, which makes it convenient to add or
remove location information. When new equipments are added, or some
equipment is out of date, the user can easily make the change by him/herself. The
system also realizes data sharing of address book and navigation path with
different devices. Cross regional cooperation can be achieved by simply
integrating location information of different areas. New devices are no longer
required.
7. Real-Time Monitoring, Improving Management Efficiency
The GPS navigation device receives GPS satellite signals, automatically
positions, and sends the location information in the forms of SMS or data (GPRS
/ 3G, etc.), to the master control center, via built-in wireless modules. The master
control center receives the information, extracts the location information, and
dynamically displays the longitude, latitude, speed, status, etc., of the vehicles on
the electronic map. By integrating the data collected, the corporation can find the
most appropriate operating fashion, avoid waste, and save cost. By digging
deeper into the data, the analyzer can provide the most authentic and reliable
reference to the management team, to make more opportunities.
8. Combined with Advanced Network, to Enhance Emergency Response
Capabilities
When dealing with urgent accidents, the monitoring platform can accurately
obtain the distribution of vehicles and personnel, and carry out overall
arrangements. At the same time, GPS positioning and navigation system not only
can guide staff to the scene quickly, but can communicate with supervisors via
wireless communication capabilities in time, to obtain the correct commands.
When facing with complex problems, live scene video can be sent to the master-
monitoring center via advanced wireless network (GPRS/3G, etc.). Experts from
different regions can participate in the multi-party consultation to diagnose and
resolve the problem in time, saving the loss.
 INTREGRATED COMMUNICATION CONTROL SYSTEM (ICCS)
EID’s integrated communications control system features a full integration of all
internal and external communications resources, including remote functions. It’s
powerful, comprehensive control and supervision tool gives the system high
survivability and reliability. The embedded training facilities allow the set-up of
a communications training environment; coexisting with normal operation, it
enables on-board users to develop their operational prociency. The
communication system contains unique operational characteristics, namely
through the concept of communication plans (Complains); an extremely efficient
management of resources is achieved, as well as the capability to react quickly to
changes on the operational scenario.
• Main characteristics of the ICCS include:
• Cost-effective, modular system design
• Open system, based on widely accepted standards and technology, thus
guaranteeing easy, fast and cost-effective integration of communication
equipment and subsystems of any manufacturer
• Interfaces with the combat system enabling the transfer of information
between both systems
• Inherent upgrade and growth capabilities, both in terms of configuration
and technological evolution
• Flexible architecture, suitable for any type of warship
• State-of-the-art technology
ICCS is indeed a step ahead in terms of shipboard communications management,
supporting high-level concepts such as COMPLANS and on-board training
facilities.
The system features a centralized control, with an appealing, intuitive and
powerful human interface, that turns the control and
management of the ship’s communications into a simple and trivial task,
requiring a minimum of skilled personnel.

• Architecture of ICCS
The Integrated Communications Control System (ICCS) is a hardware device or
a set of hardware that allows communications protocols/interfaces as diverse as
conventional PMR (UHF, VHF, HF), TETRA, digital telephony, analogue
telephony, GSM, CDMA, and VoIP to interact seamlessly. The ICCS functions
as an EPABX, except that it switches communication links of different
protocols/interfaces instead of switching links of just one protocol/interface.
Depending on the solution, the following are the components of an ICS
 • Switch Server: This is typically a computing unit with the ability to be
configured with communications line cards, and running the user-interface
(UI). Depending on the hardware platform, the line cards will sit on a CNR
slot or on a PCM MVIP bus. The chassis will be industrial-design and can
take up to 20-line cards. Some solutions allow this component to be
configured in a redundant mode, given its criticality to the operation of the
ICS. In case there is a redundant server, the ICS will provide for an
Interconnection Unit to make signals available to both servers.
• Connection Panel: This component can either be an integrated sub-system
of the Matrix/Switch server or an add-on module. The Connection Panel
receives all the external signals to the system and routes them to the
Matrix/Switch server. It is the termination box for all physical lines and
radio links.
• Application/UI:
The application runs on the server and allows a user to patch calls, set up
conference calls, and carry out configuration tasks. The user-interface can
be graphical or character. In addition, some solutions provide a touch-
screen interface for easier patching and conferencing.
• External Conversation Recorder: This is an optional component and
allows all voice communications passing through the ICS to be recorded
for archiving purpose.
➢ Desired Features of an ICCS
There are various ICCS solutions in the market, offering differing levels of
sophistication in the implementation of the switching functionality, in the number
of protocols/interfaces supported, and in the call functions supported. A few
features users need to look for in an ICCS, over and above standard call features
such as group call handling, conferencing, call multiplexing. An Integrated
Communications System, ICCS can be the difference between a coordinated and
effective response to a crisis, and a confused and delayed to a crisis. Homeland
Security response teams the world over is investing in such systems to improve
their performance. Mistral offers the Integrated Communications System for
users interested in a fully-featured, robust, and user-friendly solution.

Time Synchronization In ICCS

Substation automation demands precise time synchronization for a variety of
Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs). There are different possible approaches to
achieve the required accuracy. Time synchronization for substations with
integrated protection- and system control functions, as well as data collection
require a target architecture that distributes synchronized time in several ways.
Electrical companies are turning into the biggest users and generators of
• Operational Data
• Administrative Data
They are the biggest users
• of real time data
• Operational data
Application of time synchronization in electrical systems Time Synchronization
in:
• SCADAs-> Protocolization and registration
• Communication equipment-> Communication processors, protocol
translators
• Protection relays-> Fault and performance analysis
• Fault recorders-> Post mortem analysis, responsibility, liability
• Billing meters AMR-> Tarif switching, load analysis
• IEDs, RTUs, SOE, Sensors-> Protocolization + registration
• Servers, Routers, Switches-> IT security!
• Frequency deviation-> System stability
• Security monitoring-> Physical security
• Digital voice and video recording-> Civil responsibility, Law, Insurance
companies.
 E-Commerce of Electricity
Deregulation brought the segmentation of the electricity industry. From
generation, passing through transmission and ending at the distribution sector, all
are separated from each other. During the nineties several countries have adopted
this structure. Nevertheless, the traditional utility model still exists. Generation,
transmission and distribution all belongs to the same entity which have a
monopoly or an oligopoly economic structure. Nowadays in the developed
countries customers become the focus of energy and energy service providers.
This means that generation sells its commodity in the wholesale market to
retailers that distribute to the consumers. Transmission of electricity is usually
done by state regulated entity to clarify and avoid market influence. The aim of
this work focusses on the development of an electricity retail model that enables
market efficiency growth with the existence of the retailer entities, and the
importance of a Business-to-Client communication infrastructure to improve
better quality of service to the final client.
There are three different types of clients, industrial, commercial and domestic, as
a consequence different types of needs and different types of load profiles.
Without the impact of price oscillation at the final client, it is impossible to
provide profit to the entities of the deregulated market for new generation
systems, maintenance and to provide a new set of products besides electricity.
➢ Electricity retail model
An e-Business model for the electricity retailer and the connections with the other
entities. Besides the wholesalers and the final clients, as could be seen there is
also an Independent System Operator – ISO which coordinates the electricity
physical structure. From country to country, this entity can have different levels
of intervention in the market. He (the ISO) could operate only the physical
structure or also the financial market, regulating the transactions schedule in time.
Electricity can be traded in different periods of time ranged from fifteen minutes
to several months later, before empowering the lines. The ISO acts like a regulator
of the commodity and also of the financial systems
➢ E-Business transactions
In the traditional electricity industry, the company has to support generation,
transmission and distribution costs besides maintenance. The company profit is
granted by contracts that are made by the distribution sector with their clients.
Deregulation brought the segmentation of the electricity industry, all parts from
generation to distribution where separated and new markets where created.
Retailers buy electricity from the wholesalers which is then sold to the final
clients. Retailer business is well suited to be supported by an e-Business structure,
where a B2B relation is established between the wholesalers and the retailer, on
the other side a B2C platform is the retailer solution to improve their competence
and services to the final costumers. Information and communication technologies
are essential for optimal performance of a retailer.
 ➢ Security requirements
Any kind of web transaction to be successful must be secure, surveys indicate the
most important factor that influences an online purchase is the security of that
transaction.
An issue of great importance is the security of the B2C market, from both sides,
the access to the market and the information exchanged are significant values to
preserve. On the contrary to other electronic markets the break of the security
market not only affects the information but also a huge number of resources in a
directly or indirectly way.
The above, retailers are necessary in any type of electricity market structure and
in the near future their presence will be more essential. The natural evolution of
the electricity industry and Internet technologies will bring a electricity web
retailer market for costumers with dynamic tariffs. It makes sense they will have
such a market, where the client could choose between different type of electricity
prices, bundle of products and services.
 Distributed Generation Utilization Barriers
Many of the technical barriers to distributed power relate to the utility’s responsibility to maintain the
reliability, safety, and power quality of the electric power system. Typical technical barriers
encountered in the case studies are interconnection requirements that the utility may unnecessarily
require to ensure reliability, safety, and power quality.
• These may include:
• Requirements for protective relays and transfer switches
• Power quality requirements.
• Power flow studies and other engineering analyses.
1. Safety Standards
The principal safety concern among utilities with respect to connecting generation equipment to the
grid is protection against “islanding” the condition where a generating facility continues to supply
power to a portion of the grid when the balance of grid has been de-energized (during a power outage,
for example)This condition is of concern in two scenarios: where the distributed generator is either
feeding a short circuit thus potentially causing a fire, and where a lineman might mistakenly come in
contact with what is otherwise thought to be a deenergized line. Traditionally, utilities protected against
islanding by using mechanical relays and transfer switches that automatically isolated generating
facilities from the grid, whether these facilities were utility-owned or non-utility owned. This equipment
is effective and reasonably efficient, but is prohibitively expensive for small-scale distributed
generators.
2. Power Quality Standards
Power quality concerns include voltage and frequency disturbances, voltage flicker, and waveform
distortion. Distributed power facilities, like central-station facilities, can have either a detrimental or a
beneficial effect on power quality. As with the modern electronic approaches that can provide islanding
protection, innovation in power electronics is revolutionizing the way that power quality concerns are
addressed. Traditionally, utilities required the installation of over/under voltage and over/under
frequency relays and other, separate, protective devices to ensure that power quality requirements were
being met. The principal problem facing distributed generators with respect to power quality issues is
the same as with anti-islanding protection. Lacking experience with the newer technologies or
standardized testing procedures, utilities so far have been reluctant to accept the power quality
protection built into distributed generating facilities.
3. Local Distribution System Capacity Constraints
The general approach among utilities in dealing with local distribution system capacity constraints is to
conduct pre-interconnection studies before interconnecting distributed generators. These studies
evaluate the potential effects of the distributed generating facility on the specific portion of utility
system to be affected, and determine whether any upgrades or other changes are needed to accommodate
the generating facility.
4. Initial Contact and Requests
Reaching the appropriate utility representative and getting a consistent response was frequently cited as
a significant problem for both small- and mid-sized projects. With large projects, developers usually
included these costs as a ‘part of doing business with utilities’ and could more easily bear the cost of
lengthy contested legal negotiations. Many distributed power facilities could not.
• Application process delays
• Unproductive time spent by individuals and developers
• Excessive procedural requirements.
5. Application and Interconnection Fees
Application and interconnection fees are generally required for the approval or permitting of distributed
power facilities. These fees are typically assessed regardless of size of the proposed project. Therefore,
they present a significant market barrier for smaller scale facilities. Some of the smallest distributed
generators are asked to pay fees or charges equivalent to many months or even years’ worth of
anticipated energy savings.
6. Final Interconnection Delay
Proponents of several projects reported delays continuing from the application process through final
approval. In some cases, these delays were procedural; in other cases, delays were equipment related
on the utility side. One utility postponed transmission connection on questions of system reliability for
several months during the early high demand summer months, then reversed its position as the summer
peak approached and the probability arose of capacity shortages.
7. Direct Utility Prohibition
The utility simply prohibited distributed power systems from operating in parallel with the grid; that is,
the utility simply refused to interconnect with these systems. The wholesale generation and transmission
utility supplying the distribution utility with power invoked ‘all requirements contracts’ to prevent the
member distribution utility from allowing interconnection. Even projects installed on the customer side
of the meter face prohibitions, some directly and others in the form of requirements to disconnect before
operation or other utility limitations of on-site generation.
8. Tariff Barriers
Tariffs were most often seen as discouraging distributed power, rather than encouraging it. These tariffs
included the following:
• Demand charges and backup tariffs
• Buy-back rates
• Exit fees
• Uplift tariffs (charges for distribution, ancillary services, capacity and losses)
• Regional transmission procedures and costs.
9. Regional Transmission Procedures and Costs
In today’s competitive wholesale electricity markets, delivery of power into the regional transmission
market, is governed by rules that have been designed by and for large-scale generation. Like the rates
and rules developed for the central station model at the distribution level, these rules are often
inappropriate or prohibitively expensive for smaller-scale distributed power. With the creation of
independent system operators (ISOs) to manage regional transmission markets, the access issues have
become even more complicated for smaller distributed generation projects.
10. Environmental Permitting Requirements as Market Barriers
Environmental permitting requirements can be a significant barrier in many regions of the country,
especially for smaller projects. Environmental testing and emissions requirements were as stringent for
small projects as for larger projects. As with custom engineering requirements and other similar costs,
smaller projects cannot bear the same cost of emissions testing as larger projects and remain feasible
Operation and Protection of Distributed generation
Mode of Operation of Distributed Generation
The integration of distributed generation would result in a change in the direction of the power
flow in distribution systems from the previously radial distribution systems to bidirectional
meshed/looped distribution systems. DG units can be operated in three different modes: the
grid-connected mode, the islanded mode, and the standby mode. The grid-connected mode of
operation involves the parallel operation of the DG units alongside the utility supply. This is
the most commonly implemented mode of operation. In this mode, the DG units must be
capable of automatically shutting down during faults. In the islanded mode of operation, the
DG units operate in isolation from the utility grid and may continue to fully or partially supply
local loads at the DG side of the system.
Thus, there is no power flow to and from the grid. The stand-by mode is designed to supply the
essential loads during a major supply disruption. In most cases, the DG units are emergency
(backup) systems powered by diesel or gas engines that are started when there is an outage of
the utility supply. They are usually operated after the loads are disconnected from the utility
network with a change-over switch. The DG penetration level for a distribution system may be
defined as:
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝐺 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Penetration level = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

Protection of Distributed Generation

Distributed generation is integrated to the distribution system using synchronous generator,
induction generator, or power electronics-based technology. Synchronous generators produce
fault currents that are six times the generated full load current. The fault currents produced will
decay within seconds as the generator field collapses. Unlike the synchronous generators, the
fault currents produced by induction generators are less. Power electronics-based technology
does not produce significant fault currents. Typically, the fault current contribution is about
1.2–1.5 times the inverter’s rated load current. The commonly applied fault detection
algorithms in protective relaying based on fault current magnitude might fail for a distribution
system integrated with power electronics-based distributed generation. Other types of detection
algorithm based on voltage supervision or frequency sensing can be used to supplement the
traditional overcurrent protective relaying.
a. Short Circuit Current Level: Fault currents are induced in power systems as a result
of abnormal conditions (disturbances). The presence of distributed generation would
affect the short circuit contribution from all the sources in the distribution system. The
additional short circuit current contribution from the DG units will depend on the type
of technology used, the penetration level, and the location of the DG units with respect
to the fault location. A fault current source (FCS) device was proposed in to increase
the fault current contribution of power electronics-based DG units during faults. The
FCS will be activated by the voltage sag that ensues during a fault condition. Upon
activation, the FCS will attempt to restore the voltage to the pre-fault condition thereby
injecting some fault current into the network
FCS would typically consist of the following:
i. An energy storage device that can supply for a specific duration the active power
required for the fault current;
 ii. A power electronic circuit or switch for releasing the active power from the
FCS into the low voltage network;
iii. A circuit for monitoring the system, detection of fault conditions, and triggering
of the FCS; and
iv. A recharging system for restoring the charge of the energy storage device after
the delivery of the fault current.

b. Protective Relaying: The integration of distributed generation in the distribution

system will affect then existing protection schemes. This is because the normally radial
distribution system is transformed into a bidirectional loop system with current flow
from the grid to the distribution system and from the DG units to the distribution
system. Hence, the review of the existing protection settings/schemes is necessary.
Generally, the type of protection to use in an interconnected system will depend on the
size of the DG, the DG technology, and the point of connection in the grid. Also, the
type of interconnection (interface) transformer used in connecting the DG unit to the
utility will determine whether ground faults are detectable in the system.
Some common protection issues that occur as a result of the integration of distributed
generation include the following:
• Failure of the utility protection schemes;
• Sympathetic tripping whereby the protective device on an unfaulted feeder trips for
faults on adjacent feeders;
• Protection blinding due to the increase or reduction in the fault current seen by the
protective device thereby causing the protective device to overreach or underreach its
zone of protection;
• Unintended islanding of the interconnected system;
• Unsynchronised reclosing; and
• Loss of protection coordination.
The DG mode of operation may also impact the protection settings and coordination of the
implemented protection scheme. For example, if the DG unit is in a parallel grid-connected
mode, a different configuration setting may be required compared to that needed for
islanded or standby modes of operation.

End of 3 Unit rd
Phasor Measurement Units (PMU)
Phasor Measurement Units or Synchrophasors give operators a time-stamped
snapshot of the power system. The PMUs consist of bus voltage phasors and
branch current phasors, in addition to information such as locations and other
network parameters. Phasor measurements are taken with high precision from
different points of the power system at the same instant, allowing an operator to
visualize the exact angular difference between different locations. PMUs are
equipped with GPS receivers which allow synchronization of readings taken at
distant points. Microprocessor-based instrumentation such as protection relays
and Disturbance Fault Recorders (DFRs) incorporate the PMU module with other
existing functionalities as an extended feature. The IEEE standard on
Synchrophasors specifies the protocol for communicating the PMU data to the
Phasor Data Concentrator.

Fig: Conceptual diagram of a synchronized phasor measuring system

PMUs ensure voltage and current with high accuracy at a rate of 2.88 kHz. They
can calculate real power, reactive power, frequency, and phase angle 12 times per
60 hertz cycle. The actual sampling rate used to achieve this output is 1.4 MHz.
Recent trends now require fast controls and online implementations for mitigating
voltage collapse in the shortest, least-cost time. Over the years, researchers and
engineers have found PMUs are suitable for monitoring and control of voltage
stability PMUs. Offering wide-area situational awareness, phasor measurement
work to ease con- gestion, bottlenecks and mitigate—or even prevent—blackouts.
When integrated with Smart Grid communications technologies, the
measurements taken will provide dynamic visibility into the power system.
Voltage Synchrophasors
Below figure shows voltage synchrophasors at the two ends of an inductive
transmission line. The sinusoidal waveform of the voltage is expressed as:
𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑚_𝑖 sin⁡(𝑤𝑡 + ∅)

where:
i is the bus number at each end of the line (1 or 2)
Vm_i is the peak value.
Synchrophasors measured at different parts of the network are transmitted to a
Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC) at a rate of 30–60 samples per second. Each
PDC sends the data that is collected to a super PDC where there is Application
software for data visualization, storing the data in a central database and for
integration with EMS, SCADA and Wide Area Application systems.

Fig: PMU Connection

 WIDE AREA MEASUREMENT SYSTEM (WAMS)
Power industries have been deregulated, restructured and decentralized in order
to increase their efficiency, to reduce their operational cost and to free the
consumers from their choices of electricity providers (Eshraghnia et al., 2006).
As a result of these changes, in comparison with the traditional power systems,
new competitive power industries face specific challenges that are related to their
generation, operation and planning. As a consequence of these challenges, new
intelligent systems should be introduced and established in the power systems in
order to tackle such challenges. Wide Area Measurement Systems (WAMS) is a
new term, which has been introduced to power system literatures in late 1980s.
Recently, they are commercially available in power systems
for purposes of monitoring, operation and control.
WAMS definition
In recent years, PMU measurements are commercially available and are widely
used in power systems. On the other hand, high speed and low-cost
communication systems; which are worked based on a layer model, are also well-
established in power systems. As a result, the definition of WAMS is slightly
different from past. Nowadays, a general definition of WAMS may be presented
as follows:
” The WAMS combines the data provided by synchrophasor and conventional
measurements with capability of new communication systems in order to
monitor, operate, control and protect power systems in wide geographical
area.”

WAMS process
A WAMS process includes three different interconnected sub-processes: data
acquisition, data transmitting and data processing. Measurement systems and
communication systems together with energy management systems perform these
sub-processes, respectively.
In general, a WAMS acquires system data from conventional and new data
resources, transmits it through communication system to the control center(s) and
processes it. After extracting appropriate information from system data, decisions
on operation of power system is made. Occasionally, WAMS may command
some actions that are performed by system actuators in remote sites. All of these
facts indicate that WAMS denotes efficient usage of data and data flow to achieve
a more secure and a better strategy for the flow of electrical energy. An inspection
of the above-mentioned facts together with below Fig. indicates that data itself
is the fundamental requirement to perform WAMS functions. It can also be
concluded that each sub-process has different responsibilities and different tasks
that should be performed on system data.
 Fig. WAMS Process in Power Systems
Data resources of WAMS
The operational data includes the instantaneous measurements of voltages,
currents, phasors and breaker statuses that are measured by intelligent devices.
Such data is transmitted continuously to the control center(s) through
communication systems. Occasionally, they may be used locally for the local
decision making.
1. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
SCADA is a generic name for a computerized system, which is capable of
gathering and processing data and applying operational controls over long
distances. Typical uses of SCADA include power transmission and distribution
and pipeline systems. In an electrical power system, a SCADA system provides
three critical functions in the operation of such a system:
Data acquisition
Supervisory control
Alarm display and control
In general, a SCADA system consists of both hardware and software. Typically,
SCADA hardware may include three parts: Master Terminal Unit (MTU),
Remote Terminal Unit (RTU), and Communication System. It should be noted
that sometimes Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) or Intelligent Electronic
Devices (IDEs) may be used as RTU in SCADA systems.

Fig. SCADA sub-systems

2. Synchronized Phasor Measurement System (SPMS): The Synchronized
Phasor Measurement System (SPMS) was firstly developed and introduced
into the power system in mid-1980s. These systems have the ability of
measuring currents and voltages, and calculating the angle between them.
This ability has been made possible by the availability of Global
Positioning System (GPS); on the one hand, and the sampled data
processing techniques; on the other hand. In order to synchronize measured
angles, SPMS uses time received from GPS as its sampling clock. In
addition to measuring angles of voltages and currents, these systems can
also measure local frequency and rates of frequency changes.
A SPMS consists of three main parts: Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU),
Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC), and communication system. PMUs are
normally installed at remote sites. They calculate phasors of voltages and
currents and stamp measured phasors with the time received from GPS.
a. Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU)
Phasor Measurement Units or Synchrophasors give operators a time-
stamped snapshot of the power system. The PMUs consist of bus voltage
phasors and branch current phasors, in addition to information such as
locations and other network parameters. Phasor measurements are taken
with high precision from different points of the power system at the same
instant, allowing an operator to visualize the exact angular difference
between different locations. PMUs are equipped with GPS receivers which
allow synchronization of readings taken at distant points. Microprocessor-
based instrumentation such as protection relays and Disturbance Fault
Recorders (DFRs) incorporate the PMU module with other existing
functionalities as an extended feature. The IEEE standard on
Synchrophasors specifies the protocol for communicating the PMU data to
the Phasor Data Concentrator.
b. Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC)
The main functions of a PDC are: to gather data from several PMUs, to
reject bad data, to align the time stamps, and to create a coherent record of
simultaneously recorded data. As a consequence, a snap-shot of phasors of
the measured area can be obtained.
In some cases, a central PDC may concentrate the area data received from
other PDCs and may provide phasors of the entire system. A study of MTU
tasks in a SCADA system indicates that the tasks and functions of PDC in
SPMS systems are almost the same as those in SCADA systems.
c. Communication system of SPMS
The communication systems of SPMS may be similar to the SCADA
communications in terms of technology, architecture and utilized media.
Although these communication systems may be the same, their streamed
data are different. The phasor data, which is provided by PMUs, have
different nature in comparison with the data of RTUs. Phasor data is
 continuous and streaming in nature while RTU data is transmitted to the
master station either in a specified time interval or when master station
requests it. Another difference between PMU and RTU data is their
volume. In general, data of a PMU has more value than data provided by
an RTU.
3. Digital Fault Recorder (DFR)
The Digital Fault Recorder (DFR) acts as the black box of a substation. It
records highly accurate waveforms related to faults. The recorded data are
huge amount of analog and status data for pre-fault, fault and post-fault
conditions. These data may include maximum current, sequence of events,
type of fault and the sequence of operation of circuit breakers.
4. Digital Protective Relay (DPR)
Digital protective relays, in addition to performing the traditional relaying
tasks, are capable of measuring and recording analog and status data, as
well as communicating with a centralized location. They collect current
and voltage signals from instrument transformers and digitize them. Due
to the fact that relays should act very fast, the accuracy of measured data is
not of major concern. Consequently, to speed up A/D conversion, lower
sampling rates are normally applied. This implies that data obtained from
DPRs are generally less accurate than from the other data resources.
5. Circuit Breaker Monitor (CBM)
The Circuit Breaker Monitor (CBM) is an electronic device that monitors
circuit breakers. The CBM captures detailed information about each CB
operation in real time; either the operation is initiated manually by the
operator or it is initiated automatically by the protection and control
equipments. The CBM data is also formed in COMTRADE format.

Communication infrastructure of WAMS

The communication system of WAMS is responsible for data delivery from data
resources to the control center(s) and from control center(s) to the system
actuators.
1. Guided media
a. Power Line Carrier (PLC): Power line carrier (PLC) has used
transmission lines as a medium for communication. This type of
transmission media has been one of the first reliable media utilized in
power systems for critical communications This media is also the first
guided media commonly utilized in power systems and is a part of power
system infrastructure. As a result, failure in power system infrastructure
such as line outage causes communication difficulty. PLC systems may be
classified as two groups in common, narrow band and broad band PLCs.
b. Optical fibre: Optical fiber can be used as a medium for communication.
Because of its flexibility, fiber optic can be bundled as a cable. As
mentioned at the beginning of this section, signals are transmitted through
 the media by a type of waveform. In fiber cables, the signal is a light wave;
either visible or infrared light. Essentially, two types of fiber optic cables
including optical power ground wire (OPGW) and all-dielectric self-
supporting (ADSS) are used in power industries.
c. Leased line: Historically, leased telephone circuits have been widely used
in electric utilities to create a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
communications. The leased lines only provide a share medium for
communication and some technologies should be
implemented in order to transmit signals through this media. Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL) is a group of technologies, which provides
digital data transmission over leased telephone circuits.
2. Unguided media
Wireless transmission is used when we have several challenges such as
environmental or financial limitations for utilization of guided media.
However, as transmitted signals using wireless communication can be
accessed by anyone, the security of wireless communication is naturally
low.
a. Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN): Personal networks make a
small area networking for a variety of devices. The most popular
WPAN has been Bluetooth. In addition to the Bluetooth, two industrial
technologies, namely UWB (Ultra-Wide Band) and Zigbee, make high
data rate and low cost WPAN, respectively.
b. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): The WLAN technologies
connect devices via a wireless distribution method (typically spread-
spectrum or OFDM). Wi-Fi is a popular WLAN technology that provides
high speed connection on short ranges. In recent years, because of the lack
of more suitable metropolitan wireless networks, Wi-Fi has also been used
at the metropolitan level.
c. Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN): WiMAX, GPRS,
GSM, CDMA and 3G mobile Carrier services are four WMAN
technologies, which are used for WMAN communication.
d. Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN): Satellite communications may
be used either when a guided media cannot be established between a
remote site and the control center or when there is no line-of-sight between
such a remote site and pre-installed communication network.

WAMS applications
1. Generation applications (GEN): These applications are run in generation
level in the way that they acquire and process data of generators in the
control center(s). As its consequence, generator information can be
obtained in the control center(s) all at once. Generator operation status
monitoring and transient angle stability are some examples of such
applications.
2. Transmission and sub-transmission applications (TRAN): In deregulated
power industries, some applications are performed at transmission (or
sometimes sub-transmission) level by independent system operator (ISO).
Historically, these functions are performed by group of computer aided
tools called energy management systems (EMS). State estimation (SE),
load flow (LF), optimal power flow (OPF), load forecast (LF) and
economical dispatch (ED) are some examples of conventional EMS
applications.
3. Distribution applications (DIS): In distribution systems, WAMS
applications are known as automation applications. Distribution
Automation (DA) systems have been defined as systems that enable a
distribution company to monitor, coordinate, and operate distribution
components and equipments from remote locations in real time. The DAs
aim to reduce costs, to improve service availability, and to provide better
consumer services.
LOAD DISPATCH CENTER
At state level minute to minute operation of a power system is Coordinated from an
LDC which at the receiving end or load side. In one-way LDC is a Wonderland as it is
handling no. of changes, demand supply irregularities daily. It gives safe and secure
grid operation. It is located in state capital. It is further connected to 3/4 sub LDC’s
which in turn are connected to major substations and generating stations, hence LDC
will get information about major changes in generating station plus whether condition
information from different locations in the state. In earlier days it was only with few
telephones and few engineers to keep the record. State LDC is connected to regional
LDC (RLDC), where RLDC monitors a whole region e.g. Southern RLDC in Bangalore
monitors A.P. Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Pondicherry. RLDC also gets
information from generating station & substations of central utilities (NTPC, NPC,
POWER GRID etc). LDC at state plus regional level is connected to all these locations
using reliable communication media that can carry information and voice.
Role of SLDC
1)As per the Electricity Act, 2003, the State Load Dispatch Centre (SLDC) shall be the
apex body to ensure integrated operation of the power system in a State.
2)SLDC shall exercise supervision and control over the intra-State transmission system.
3)SLDC will be responsible for carrying out real time operations for grid control and
dispatch of electricity within the State through secure and economic operation of the
State grid in accordance with the Grid Standards and the State Grid Code.
4)The SLDC shall comply with the directions of the RLDC.SLDC shall keep accounts
of the quantity of electricity transmitted through the State grid.
Characteristics Of LDC
*Reliable and far reaching communication network
*Accurate SCADA system
*Fast data processor and data formatting system
*Reliable power supply for LDC equipment for all the time
*Visual display of important system data
*Integrity of operating engineers
*Basic amenities, utilities and logistics
Typically, LDC prepares
*An hourly generation schedule for each generating station in advance.
*Also, the maintenance schedule (prepared for the year in
*Advance for any equipment failure.) which needed relative power gen. cost.
*Contractual agreements.
*Water/fuel availability
*Irrigation requirement and load requirement forecast. Etc.
Main and important functions of load dispatch canter
* Load generation balance and quality of supply
* Maintenance scheduling of generating units and transmission lines
* Economic load dispatch
* Grid discipline
* Load forecasting or demand estimation
* System security and islanding facility
* Black start preparedness
* Energy distribution and load pattern study
* Communication and SCADA management
* Event analysis and preventive measures
* Coordination with neighbour grids
* Public relations and consumer interaction
Dispatchers study for load patterns
*Industrial category of consumers (industries working in all 3 shifts)
*Industries working in day time with high power demand.
*Commercial category consumers like shops, offices, show rooms operates during day
time (9 to 20.00 hrs.)
*Railway traction load have generally steady nature whole day.
*Water works require power for pumping drinking water for urban and rural areas
during early morning hours.
*Farmers also requires power for irrigation during day time
*Seasonal nature industries like sugar factory, cotton ginning industries, vegetable oil
industries, rice mills etc.
USE OF SCADA IN LOAD DESPATCH CENTER
There are multiple agencies within a state engaged in generation, transmission, and
distribution of electricity. State Load Dispatch Centre monitors these operations and
keeps the account of quantity of electricity transmitted through the state grid. SCADA
is a part of it. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) is a high-
tech computer system with associated communication network that enables supervision
and control of power system network. SCADA is the technology that enables a user to
collect data from one or more distant operator to stay or visit frequently to the work
locations. It includes the man machine interface. It allows an operator to make set point
changes on distant process controllers, to open or close valve or switches, to monitor
alarms to collect measurement information SCADA is best applicable to processes that
are spread over large areas and it is suitable for
1. groups of small hydroelectric generating stations that are turned on and off.
2. oil and production facilities, pipelines for gas, oil, chemicals, water which are located
at far distances
3. electric transmission systems irrigation system etc.
 MICRO GRID

Definition of Microgrid
A microgrid is a decentralized group of electricity sources and loads that
normally operates connected to and synchronous with the traditional wide area
synchronous grid (macro grid), but is able to disconnect from the interconnected
grid and to function autonomously in "island mode" as technical or economic
conditions dictate. In this way, microgrids improve the security of supply within
the microgrid cell, and can supply emergency power, changing between island
and connected modes.
Components of Microgrid
1. Local generation
A microgrid presents various types of generation sources that feed
electricity, heating, and cooling to the user. These sources are divided into
two major groups – thermal energy sources (e.g,. natural gas
or biogas generators or micro combined heat and power) and renewable
generation sources (e.g. wind turbines and solar)
2. Consumption
In a microgrid, consumption simply refers to elements that consume
electricity, heat, and cooling, which range from single devices to the
lighting and heating systems of buildings, commercial centers, etc. In the
case of controllable loads, electricity consumption can be modified
according to the demands of the network.
3. Energy storage
In microgrid, energy storage is able to perform multiple functions, such as
ensuring power quality, including frequency and voltage regulation,
smoothing the output of renewable energy sources, providing backup
power for the system and playing a crucial role in cost optimization. It
includes all of chemical, electrical, pressure, gravitational, flywheel, and
heat storage technologies. When multiple energy storages with various
capacities are available in a microgrid, it is preferred to coordinate their
charging and discharging such that a smaller energy storage does not
discharge faster than those with larger capacities. Likewise, it is preferred
a smaller one does not get fully charged before those with larger capacities.
This can be achieved under a coordinated control of energy storages based
on their state of charge. If multiple energy storage systems (possibly
working on different technologies) are used and they are controlled by a
unique supervising unit (an energy management system - EMS), a
 hierarchical control based on a master/slaves architecture can ensure best
operations, particularly in the islanded mode.
4. Point of common coupling (PCC)
This is the point in the electric circuit where a microgrid is connected to a
main grid. Microgrids that do not have a PCC are called isolated
microgrids which are usually present in remote sites (e.g., remote
communities or remote industrial sites) where an interconnection with the
main grid is not feasible due to either technical or economic constraints.

Fig. Typical structure of a flexible microgrid based on renewable energy resources

Operation of Microgrid
The operating modes of microgrids are known and defined as follows:
grid-connected, transited, or island, and reconnection modes, which allow a
microgrid to increase the reliability of energy supplies by disconnecting from the
grid in the case of network failure or reduced power quality. In the islanded
(standalone) operating state, the microgrid must maintain the reactive power
balance independently due to the nonexistence of an infinite bus. There are two
main challenges in islanded mode:
(a) maintenance of appropriate magnitude and frequency of voltage and
(b) maintenance of power balance in the microgrid.
A genetic algorithm (GA) is proposed for optimum shunt capacitor placement in
microgrids in distribution networks, where, the islanded mode operation is of
concern, and the cost function includes three items:
(a) power cost and energy loss,
(b) investment cost of installed shunt capacitors and
(c) consumer cost of interruption conditions.
In islanded mode, there is no support from grid and the control of the microgrid
becomes much more complex in grid-connected mode of operation, microgrid is
coupled to the utility grid through a static transfer switch. The microgrid voltage
is imposed by the host utility grid. In grid-connected mode, the microgrid can
exchange power with the external grid as to maintain the supply in the local
microgrid, though the power flow of microgrid is bidirectional. While in islanded
mode, the power supply of microgrid must meet the load demand. In islanded
mode, an interconnected mode can be considered as a stronger and bigger
microgrid.
Microgrid Control
In regards to the architecture of microgrid control, or any control problem, there
are two different approaches that can be identified: centralized and
decentralized. A fully centralized control relies on a large amount of information
transmittance between involving units before a decision is made at a single point.
Implementation is difficult since interconnected power systems usually cover
extended geographic locations and involve an enormous number of units. On the
other hand, in a fully decentralized control, each unit is controlled by its local
controller without knowing the situation of others. A compromise between those
two extreme control schemes can be achieved by means of a hierarchical control
scheme consisting of three control levels: primary, secondary, and tertiary
1. Primary Control
The primary control is designed to satisfy the following requirements:

• To stabilize the voltage and frequency

• To offer plug and play capability for DERs and properly share the active and
reactive power among them, preferably, without any communication links
• To mitigate circulating currents that can cause over-current phenomenon in
the power electronic devices
The primary control provides the setpoints for a lower controller which are the
voltage and current control loops of DERs. These inner control loops are
commonly referred to as zero-level control.
2. Secondary control
Secondary control has typically seconds to minutes sampling time (i.e. slower
than the previous one) which justifies the decoupled dynamics of the primary and
the secondary control loops and facilitates their individual designs. The setpoint
of primary control is given by secondary control in which, as a centralized
controller, it restores the microgrid voltage and frequency and compensates for
the deviations caused by variations of loads or renewable sources. The secondary
control can also be designed to satisfy the power quality requirements, e.g.,
voltage balancing at critical buses.
 3. Tertiary control
Tertiary control is the last (and the slowest) control level, which considers
economical concerns in the optimal operation of the microgrid (sampling time is
from minutes to hours), and manages the power flow between microgrid and main
grid. This level often involves the prediction of weather, grid tariff, and loads in
the next hours or day to design a generator dispatch plan that achieves economic
savings. More advanced techniques can also provide end to end control of a
microgrid using machine learning techniques such as deep reinforcement
learning.
In case of emergencies such as blackouts, tertiary control can manage a group of
interconnected microgrids to form what is called "microgrid clustering", acting
as a virtual power plant to continue supplying critical loads. During these
situations the central controller should select one of the microgrids to be the slack
(i.e. master) and the rest as PV and load buses according to a predefined algorithm
and the existing conditions of the system (i.e. demand and generation). In this
case, the control should be real time or at least at a high sampling rate.

The Protection Schemes for Microgrid

There are three main categories in protection schemes which are as follows:
i. The schemes for only grid connected mode,
ii. The schemes for islanded mode and
iii. The schemes for both grids connected and islanded mode.

i. The Protection Schemes for Only Grid Connected Mode:

Protection scheme based on over current principle and time dependent
characteristics of current to prevent high fault clearing time and
maximizing the DG connection to the distribution network strategy
provides extra benifit of running extensive radial networks with directly
coupled DGs (D-DGs) or closed loop networks with converter based
DGs (C-DGs). However, this scheme is more effective when number of
relays are increased. Overcurrent pickup strategy for MV feeder with
CDGs updates the OC relay minimum pickup current on the basis of the
fault analysis of the system. However, when some of DGs are
disconnected, then this scheme is more effective. A protection strategy
using conventional OC relays with definite time grading for LV
microgrid with both C-DGs and D-DGs scheme is economical because,
this scheme does not use any communication link and can be applied
without any modification of existing protection scheme. Based on
intelligent protection scheme for radial OHL distribution system
without DG and for closed loop system with DG scheme, as compared
to conventional protection provides higher speed of back up protection,
autonomous system monitoring and adjustment of parameters, but
 needs a high-speed communication. It has been used to fault current
limier (FCL) in series with DG unit to limit the fault current during fault
and thus return the system to it ‟so state as if no DG was connected. In
this way, without disconnection of DG, the original directional OC relay
settings can be used. The use of TCSC (thyristor-controlled series
capacitor) as an FCL offers many advantages like no DG disconnection,
use of original relay settings, for handling large currents avoids
upgrading of equipment. But, its cost increases due to impedance of
FCL increases with increase in individual DG capacity
ii. The Protection Schemes for Only Islanded Mode:
A protection scheme based on monitoring harmonic content of C-DGs
in an islanded mode, which includes the total harmonic distortion
(THD) of the voltage at the converter terminal. The protection relay
monitors DG continuously and when THD exceeds a threshold value
during a fault, the converter gets shut down by relay. For detecting the
fault type, the variation of the amplitude of fundamental frequency of
faulted the phase is used, it means that the frequency of faulted phase is
dropped as compared to sound phase and also comparison of THD of
voltage between sound and faulted phase is used for fault location i.e.,
faulted phase has greater THD than sound phase. The relay with more
THD is considered to be in fault zone and it has to be trip for clear the
fault. However, for correct relay to trip, communication links are
provided for synchronisation of relays. A protection scheme based on
the principle of symmetrical components and residual current
measurement also used. The differential current measurement is also
applied. The scheme uses residual current devices as primary protection
of LG faults for the zones of upstream faults and the zero sequence
currents for primary protection of LG faults for the zones of
downstream the faults. The negative sequence current is used for
primary protection of LL faults. I²tprotection is used for primary backup
protection for both LG and LL events. Protection scheme based on
telecommunication and modern protection relays or IEDs for microgrid
with C-DGs has been applied to MV feeder divided into four protection
zones and between each zone a circuit breaker is installed which is
controlled by IED. The IEDs are provided with voltage and current
measurement, directional OC protection and these are connected with
each other through high speed communication links. This method uses
the voltage measurement for fault detection and current direction for
fault location. The complete system selectivity and speed is obtained
through transfer of fault direction and interlocking information between
IEDs.
 iii. The Protection Schemes for Both Grid Connected and Islanded
Mode:
a.) Differential Protection Scheme: Differential protection scheme using digital
relays working on the principle of synchronized phasor measurement for MV
microgrid including C-DGs and D-DGs. Instantons differential protection is used
for primary protection and for backup protection adjacent relays are used in case
of breaker failure. In case of relay failure, voltage protection is used as a tertiary
protection. However, the proposed scheme is un economical to implement and
assumes advanced technical features such as high-performance relays and
breakers, highly sensitive current transformers, which are still not present. A
protection scheme based on the principle of differential current and utilizing the
traditional OC relay and communication link for microgrid including C-DGs and
D-DGs. This protection offers economical implementation, but not effective
during unbalanced load. A differential protection scheme used for primary
protection for MV microgrid with C-DGs for grid connected and islanded mode
of operation uses OC and under voltage-based protection for backup protection
in case of breaker failure. Current differential relays used for feeder and bus
protection, while DGs are protected using under voltage, reverse power flow,
over voltage. This scheme may suffer due to switching transients and unbalanced
loads.
b.) Adaptive Protection Schemes: Adaptive protection scheme is based on the
principle of network zoning which includes zoning of the feeders in such a way
that each zone has appropriate balance of DG and load with DG capacity slightly
larger than load. Each zone, at least largest DG is equipped with load frequency
control capability. After zoning, fast operating switches are equipped with
synchronisation check relays and having capability to receive remote signals from
substation breaker which are placed between each of two zones. A computer-
based relays are used, which having high processing power, large storage
capacity, capability to communicate with zone breakers and DG relays which are
installed at sub transmission substation. A computer-based relays performs the
online fault detection and isolate the faulty zone by tripping of appropriate zone
breaker and DG connected to that zone.