Academy of

Python

by
Nicholas Wilson
Dedicated to Jam, the best executive personal assistant that ever
was.
Without her cheering on all the crazy things I do, I’d be nothing.

Also, a very special thanks to my students for letting this crazy

engineer guide them into the coding world.
 Table of Contents

Preface
Chapter 1 - Introduction
● (4) What is the Python programming language?
● (5) Is Python easy to learn?
● (6) What's the difference between the Python programming language and a
living Python?
● (7) Is Python a popular programming language?
● (8) Do I need to be smart to learn Python?
● (9) Can I make mobile apps with Python?
● (11) Can I make websites with Python?
● (13) Can I make desktop programs in Python?
● (14) Where can I find official documentation for Python?
● (16) What is the difference between Python 2 and 3?

Chapter 2 - Getting Set-Up

Installation
● (18) Can I program Python on a smartphone?
● (19) How do I install Python on Windows?
● (20) How to install Python on a Mac?
● (23) How to install Python on Linux?
● (25) What is a programming IDE?
● (26) Do I need an IDE to be able to program?
● (26) Are there any good Python IDEs?
Basic Execution
● (28) What are good Python beginner projects?
● (29) In Python, how do I print out a message?
● (32) (How do I get input from the user in Python?
● (34) Can you explain Python indentation?
● (35) Should I use tabs or spaces in Python?
● (36) Can I write Python with brackets instead?
● (37) How do I run my Python program?
● (38) What is a command line interface?
● (39) How do I execute system commands in Python?
 ● (41) In Python, what is "*args"?
● (43) In Python, what is "**kwargs"?
● (45) Is Python as fast as other languages?
● (47) What is a Python compiler?

Chapter 3 - Variables and “If” Statements

Variables
● (49) In programming, what is a variable?
● (51) What is a variable in Python?
● (52) What is the difference between a mutable and immutable data
type?
● (53) In programming, what is a constant variable?
● (55) How do I make a constant variable in Python?
Basic Data Types
● (57) In programming, what is a data type?
● (59) What are data types in Python?
● (60) What is an "int" in Python?
● (61) What is a String in programming?
● (62) How do I make a String in Python?
● (64) What are operators in Python?
● (66) How do decimal numbers work in Python?
● (70) What is a boolean in Python?
● (73) Can you explain more about None in Python?
● (74) In programming, what is casting?
● (75) How do I cast variables in Python?
● (77) How do I use “is” in Python?
● (79) In Python is there “undefined”?
If Statements
● (80) In programming, what is an "if statement"?
● (81) How do you use "if statements" in Python?
● (83) How do I use "and" and "or" logic in Python if statements?
● (86) How does scope work in Python?
● (90) Does Python have “switch” statements?

Chapter 4 - Common String Operations

● (93) How do I reverse a String in Python?
● (95) How do you make a String in Python all uppercase?
● (97) How do I turn a String into a number in Python?
● (100) How do I turn a number into a String in Python?
● (103) How do I format strings in Python?
 ● (105) How do I split a String in Python?
● (107) How do I find a substring in a String in Python?
Regex
● (110) What is a RegEx?
● (110) How do I use RegEx in Python?

Chapter 5 - Loops
● (114) In programming, what is a loop?
● (115) What is a loop in Python?
● (116) What is the range function in Python?
● (118) What does the slice operator do in Python?
● (121) What is a "for loop" in Python?
● (122) How do I use "while loops" in Python?

Chapter 6 - Functions, Comments, and Modules

Functions
● (125) In programming, what is a function?
● (126) How do I call a function in Python?
● (129) How do you write functions in Python?
● (130) How do I return values from functions in Python?
● (132) What is the difference between a function and a method?
● (133) What is a function argument in programming?
● (133) How do I use function arguments in Python?
● (135) How do I make default arguments in Python?
● (137) How do I make optional arguments in Python?
● (138) What is type hinting in Python?
● (140) How do I use with/as in Python?
● (142) How do I use generic typing in Python?
● (144) What are decorators in Python?
Comments
● (146) What is a comment?
● (147) What is a docstring?
● (149) What is PEP 8 style?
Modules
● (150) What is a Python module?
● (152) What is pip?
● (153) What is the Python standard library?
● (155) In Python, how do I import a class from another file?
Chapter 7 - Data Structures
● (158) In programming, what is a data structure?
Lists
● (160) What is a list?
● (162) Does Python have arrays?
● (162) How do I sort a list in Python?
● (164) How do I slice a list in Python?
● (165) How do I remove duplicates from a list in Python?
● (167) What are the map, filter, and reduce functions in Python?
● (171) How do I make a lambda in Python?
● (173) In Python what is an iterable?
Sets
● (175) In programming, what is a set?
Tuples
● (177) In programming, what is a tuple?
Dictionaries
● (178) In programming, what is a dictionary?
● (180) How do I use dictionaries in Python?

Chapter 8 - Object Oriented Programming

● (183) What is object-oriented programming?
● (185) In programming, what is a class?
● (186) How do you use classes in Python?
● (187) What are public and private attributes in Python?
● (190) What is "self" in Python?
● (192) Does Python have interface blueprints like other languages?
● (194) In Python, what is a dunder method?
● (196) What does the __init__ method do in Python?
● (198) Can I docstring Python classes?
● (200) In programming, what is class inheritance?
● (203) In programming, what is a static method?
● (204) How do I make a static method in Python?

Chapter 9 - Errors When Things Go Wrong

● (206) What is an exception in Python?
● (207) What is "try except" in Python?
● (209) What is code debugging?
● (210) How do I debug code in Python?
 ● (211) Is there a visual debugger for Python?
● (213) What is a programming syntax error?
● (214) What is a programming run-time error?

Chapter 10 - Math and Charts

● (217) How do I do basic math in Python?
● (220) How can I get a random number in Python?
● (221) How do I round numbers in Python?
● (222) How do I calculate exponents in Python?
● (224) How do I calculate the radius and area of a circle in Python?
● (225) How do I use trigonometry functions in Python?
● (227) How do I do calculus in Python?
Charting with Matplotlib
● (229) What is Matplotlib?
● (231) How do I make a scatter plot with Matplotlib?
● (232) How can I make a histogram with Matplotlib?
● (234) How can I make a bar chart with Matplotlib?
● (235) How can I make a Pie chart with Matplotlib?
● (236) What are some advanced uses of Matplotlib?
Pyplot
● (238) What is Pyplot?

Chapter 11 - Dates and Times

● (241) How do I work with Dates in Python?
● (245) How do I work with timezones in Python?
● (246) How do I get the current time in Python?
● (247) How do I get the current date in Python?
● (248) In Python what is the strftime method?
● (249) How do I use the timedelta class in Python?

Chapter 12 - Networking and JSON

Networking
● (253) What is HTTP?
● (254) How do I make an HTTP request in Python?
● (255) How do I make a POST request in Python?
● (256) How can I host a webserver in Python?
● (258) What is a server socket?
● (259) Can a server socket be used to make a simple chat app?
JSON
 ● (261) What is JSON?
● (262) How do I convert something to JSON in Python?
● (264) How do I convert JSON to a Python object?
Django
● (266) What is Django?
● (267) How do I install Django?
● (268) How do I make a web app with Django?

Chapter 13 - Files, Video, Audio, and More

Files
● (272) How do I read from a file in Python?
● (275) How do I write to a file in Python?
● (277) How do I delete files in Python?
Video
● (278) Can Python be used to edit videos?
● (279) How do I edit a video with OpenCV using Python?
● (282) Can I use ffmpeg with Python to edit videos?
Audio
● (284) Can I edit audio with Python?
● (286) Can I make music with Python?
Desktop Apps
● (289) How do I make a desktop app in Python?
● (291) What kind of widgets are there in tkinter?
● (293) How do I use layout managers in tkinter?
Gaming
● (297) Can I make games in Python?

Chapter 14 - Images and Threads

Images
● (299) Can Python do image manipulation?
● (300) How do I resize an image with Python?
● (301) How do I flip an image with Python?
● (303) How do I rotate images with Python?
● (304) How can I draw on an image in Python?
● (305) How can I write text on an image using Python?
● (307) How can I draw an image on another image in Python?
Threads
● (308) In programming, what are threads?
● (309) How do I make multiple threads in Python?
 ● (311) How do I wait for threads to finish in Python?

Chapter 15 - Databases
MySQL
● (314) What is MySQL?
● (315) What is SQL?
● (315) What is a relational database?
● (316) How do I connect to MySQL with Python?
● (318) How do I make tables in MySQL using Python?
● (319) How do I make conditional queries in MySQL using
Python?
● (320) How do I join tables in MySQL using Python?
● (322) How do I update a row in MySQL from Python?
● (323) How do I insert a row in MySQL using Python?
● (325) How do I delete a row in MySQL using Python?
● (326) How do I sort results from a MySQL query?
MongoDB
● (327) What is MongoDB?
● (329) Can I connect to MongoDB using Python?
● (331) How do I update my MongoDB database using Python?
● (333) Are relational databases better than NoSQL databases?

Chapter 16 - Advanced Math and Science

● (336) Can I do physics calculations in Python?
NumPy
● (338) What is NumPy?
● (338) What can I do with NumPy?
● (340) How can I get started with NumPy?
● (341) What are good places to learn more about NumPy?
● (343) What math functions can NumPy do?
● (344) What is NumPy ufunc?
● (346) What are some advanced uses of NumPy?
SciPy
● (348) What is SciPy?
● (349) How can I get started with SciPy?
● (351) What are some good resources for learning how to use
SciPy?
● (352) What are some advanced uses of SciPy?
Pandas
 ● (354) What is Pandas?
● (355) How do I get started with Pandas?
● (356) How would I use Pandas to work with a CSV?
● (358) What is a CSV?

Chapter 17 - Machine Learning

● (360) What is machine learning?
● (361) Is Python good for machine learning / AI?
● (362) What is Tensorflow?
● (363) How do I get started with Tensorflow using Python?
● (365) Where can I find the Tensorflow documentation?
● (366) What is PyTorch?
● (366) How do I get started with PyTorch?
● (368) Where can I read the official PyTorch documentation?
● (369) Is Tensorflow better than PyTorch?
● (370) What is Stable Diffusion?
 Preface

How do I use this book?

Most everything in the book is phrased in the form of a question so that you
can easily search for things you need help with using the Table of Contents.
Python is an easy to learn language, so keeping it casual as if you’re just
asking questions to a teacher can help it from feeling intimidating.

Will I become a Python master after reading this?

Your mileage will certainly vary! Programming is definitely a skill where

you will get out of it what you put into it. I’ve been doing it for 25 years at
this point and have certainly had my ups and downs. It’s an enormous field
with tons of things to learn. Even outside of languages, there’s web
technology, image technology, AI, app development… The list goes on and
on!

The best thing you can do is just to never give up. Continual practice and
experience will always be the best way to improve and succeed. Put in the
time, keep chugging along, and eventually you’ll realize you gained a ton of
skill along the way. A black belt is just a white belt who never gave up.

How to read code segments

In the book there will be lots of included code segments. They will have a
dark background and look something like this:

variable = "I'm a line of code!"

 # I'm a comment

> I'm code output

Lines of code will be colored according to the different parts of the coding
structure, just how most typical coding helper programs color code.
Comments about the code, or lines that don’t affect how the code runs but
can be used to document the code or describe what is happening, will start
with a #. The big bolded text with the > in front will be the code output, or
what your program should print out on the screen when you run it. You
shouldn’t include this in your code file if you are typing the examples
into your computer to run them!
 Chapter 1
Introduction

What is the Python programming language?

Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language that is used

widely for a variety of things like website development, data analysis,
scientific computing, and script writing. It is known for being simple,
flexible, and for having powerful data-handling capabilities.

Python is an interpreted language, which means that it is executed directly

by an interpreter (a program that translates the instructions), rather than
being compiled into machine code. This makes it very easy to write and test
code, and it also allows Python programs to run on any computer operating
system that has a Python interpreter installed.

Python is named after the British comedy group Monty Python, and its
design philosophy is about emphasizing code simplicity and readability.
The syntax (the way the language is written) of Python is designed to be
easy to read and understand, making it a great language for beginners to
learn and get into programming with. It also has a giant and very active
community of developers and users who contribute to the development of
the language and its ecosystem of frameworks and libraries.

Is Python easy to learn?

Yes, Python is generally considered as an easy programming language to

learn, especially for beginners and others new to coding. Its simple and
readable code syntax makes it a good language for people who are new to
programming, and its focus on simplicity and readability makes it a good
choice for learning programming fundamentals.

As said above, Python has a huge community of developers writing and

contributing code to the Python ecosystem, meaning that there are many
resources available for learning Python like tutorials, books, online courses,
and forums where you can ask questions and get help from other Python
coders.

Overall, Python's simplicity and ease of code maintainability/readability

make it a great language for beginners to learn, and its flexibility and power
make it a good choice for a wide variety of purposes.

What's the difference between the Python programming language and

a living Python?

Python is a programming language, which means that it is a set of

instructions and language structures that a computer can execute to perform
various hardware operations. It is called "Python" because it was made by a
fan of the British comedy group Monty Python.

A living python, on the other hand, is a type of snake that is found in

various parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and Australia. It is called
a python because it is a member of the Pythonidae family of snakes, which
includes many species commonly known as pythons.

The two are completely different things. A living python is a real-world

animal and Python is a computer programming language. There is no direct
relationship between the two, other than the fact that they happen to share
the same name! So if you are afraid of snakes, Python can still be your
favorite coding language!

Is Python a popular programming language?

Python is a very popular programming language. It is widely used in many
different fields like web development, data science, scientific computing,
artificial intelligence, server backend development, visual applications, and
much more.

According to the TIOBE Index, which ranks the popularity of programming

languages, Python is the fourth most popular language in the world (at the
time of writing)! It is also one of the fastest-growing languages, with a
popularity rating that has increased significantly over the last few years.

Python is popular for many reasons, including its simplicity, powerful

standard library, and its large and active community. Many programmers
also find it easy to learn and use, and it has a wide range of applications in
different areas.

Python is a very popular programming language, and it is used by many

programmers and organizations around the world. Its popularity is expected
to continue to grow in the coming years so learning it is always going to be
a safe bet.

Do I need to be smart to learn Python?

No, you do not need to be smart to learn Python! While it is true that
programming can be really challenging sometimes, and that some people
may find it more difficult than others, Python is generally considered to be a
language that is easy to learn, even for beginners.

Python's simplicity makes it easier to understand and work with than many
other coding languages. Additionally, there are many resources available for
learning Python so you’ll always have help along the way as you code.

Even if learning Python may not be the easiest thing in the world, you can
do it if you put in the time and effort! It is not necessary to be smart or have
any prior programming experience to learn Python.
Can I make mobile apps with Python?

Yep! You can make mobile apps with Python. While Python is not typically
used for building native mobile apps that run directly on mobile platforms
such as iOS and Android, it can be used to build cross-platform mobile
apps that can be run on multiple mobile platforms, using awesome tools
and frameworks such as BeeWare, Kivy, PyQt, and many more.

Kivy is a popular and powerful open-source library and framework for

building mobile apps with Python that can run on multiple platforms. It
provides a rich set of components and features, such as graphics, audio, and
touch that let you create and develop interactive and user-friendly mobile
apps. Using Buildozer and the Kivy Launcher app you can package up
your Kivy app for lots of different platforms.

PyQt is another popular library for building cross-platform mobile apps

with Python. PyQt is a bridge to using the Qt library, a powerful and
comprehensive framework for building desktop and mobile apps with C++.
PyQt allows you to leverage the capabilities of Qt from Python, and to
develop cross-platform mobile apps with Python that have a native look and
feel, and that can run on platforms like iOS, Android, and Windows.

BeeWare is a collection of tools and libraries for building mobile apps with
Python. BeeWare provides tools for building, testing, and debugging Python
apps for various platforms, such as iOS, Android, and web browsers, as
well as libraries for implementing common mobile app features, such as
graphics, audio, and networking, using Python. BeeWare also provides
support for building and deploying mobile apps for various platforms, using
tools such as the Toga library or the Cordova framework.

Can I make websites with Python?

Yes, you can make websites with Python! Python is a versatile and powerful
coding language that can be great for building various types of apps,
including websites. Python provides a rich set of libraries and frameworks
that make it easy to make and develop web apps in Python, such as Flask,
Django, and Pyramid.

Flask is a popular, lightweight web framework for Python that allows you
to make web applications in Python quickly and easily. Flask provides a
simple and flexible API that allows you to define and implement the
components of a web application, such as templates, views, and routes, then
connect them all together in a modular and extensible way. Flask also
provides support for other things such as databases, authentication,
sessions, etc, that are commonly used in web apps.

Django is another popular framework for Python that provides a full-stack,

“batteries-included” approach to web dev with Python. Django provides a
ton of integrated components and features that allow you to create and
develop web applications with Python end-to-end, all the way from the
user interface to the database. Django also provides a feature-full and
secure architecture, as well as a robust and extensible set of tools and
libraries that make it easy to build complex and scalable web apps, all in
Python!

Pyramid is a web framework for Python that provides a modular and

flexible approach to web development. Pyramid allows you to choose and
combine the various components and features that you need to create and
develop a web app using Python, like routing, templating, and
authentication, and integrate them together in a scalable and maintainable
way. Pyramid also provides support for various databases, web servers, and
deployment scenarios that allow you to customize and optimize your web
app for specific requirements and constraints.

Using Python to make websites is a popular and effective option that allows
you to leverage the strengths of Python and create high quality web
applications that can meet the various needs or requirements of your
project.
Can I make desktop programs in Python?

Yes, you can make desktop programs in Python. Python is a versatile

programming language that can be used for a wide range of purposes,
including the development of desktop applications. There are several ways
to create desktop programs in Python, depending on your specific needs and
goals. One option is to use a framework such as PyQt or Tkinter which
provides a set of tools that make it easy to create graphical user interfaces
(GUIs) for your Python programs.

These frameworks allow you to create rich and interactive desktop

applications using Python, and can be used to develop programs for a wide
range of purposes, from simple utilities to complex and dynamic apps.
Alternatively, you can use Python to create command-line interface
programs (CLI), which are applications that are run from the terminal or
command prompt. These do not have a graphical user interface, but can still
be useful for a wide range of tasks, from automating simple things to
creating powerful tools for developers.

Where can I find official documentation for Python?

The official documentation for Python is available on the Python website

https://docs.python.org/3/. The documentation includes tutorials, guides,
and API reference materials for all the versions of Python. It is a great
resource for learning more about the tons of features in Python and how to
use them.

To access the documentation just go to the Python website and click on the
"Documentation" link in the main navigation menu. This will take you to
the documentation homepage where you can look through the various
sections of the docs and search for specific topics.

The documentation on the site is well organized and easy to navigate! It

includes a table of contents on the left side of the page that allows you to
quickly jump to different sections. It also includes a search bar at the top of
the page that you can use to find whatever it is you’re looking for.

The official Python documentation is a valuable resource for anyone

learning or writing code in Python. It is regularly updated to reflect the
latest changes and improvements to the language and is an essential
reference for anyone in the Python community.

What is the difference between Python 2 and 3?

Python 2 and Python 3 are two major versions of the Python programming
language. They are similar in many ways, but there are some important
differences that you should be aware of if you are learning Python or
working with Python code.

One of the main differences between version 2 and 3 is that Python 3 is the
future of the language, and Python 2 is no longer actively developed. This
means that new features and improvements are only being added to Python
3, and Python 2 will eventually reach the end of its life and be phased out.

Another important difference is that Python 3 is not backwards-compatible

with Python 2. This means that code that works in Python 2 may not work
in Python 3, and vice versa. So, if you are learning Python, I would
recommend starting with Python 3, and avoiding Python 2 if you can.

Some other differences between Python 2 and Python 3 include changes to

the syntax and standard library, improved support for Unicode, changes to
the way that numbers are handled, and much much more. For a more
detailed comparison of the two versions please refer to the official Python
documentation.
Chapter Review
● What kind of things can you make in Python?
● Where is the official Python documentation if you get stuck?
● Can anyone learn Python?
● Is Python easy for beginners?
● Are you excited to learn Python?
 Chapter 2
Getting Set-Up

Installation
Can I program Python on a smartphone?

Yes, you can program Python on a smartphone. While smartphones are not
typically known for their powerful computing capabilities, many modern
smartphones are more than capable of running simple Python programs.
There are several different ways to program Python on a smartphone. One
option is to use a third-party Python app, such as Pythonista or PyMobile,
which provides a Python-friendly development environment and lets you
write, run, and test your Python code on your phone. Another option is to
use a remote development setup, where you use your smartphone as a
terminal to connect to a remote computer that runs the actual Python code.
This allows you to write and manage your code on a more powerful
computer, while still being able to access and run your programs on your
smartphone.

How do I install Python on Windows?

To install Python on a Windows computer, you can follow these steps:

1. Open your browser and go to the official Python website

(https://www.python.org/).
 2. Click on the "Downloads" button in the top menu to go to the
download page.
3. Scroll down to the "Python Releases for Windows" section and
click on the link for the latest Python version. This will download
the Python installer to your computer.
4. Once the download is complete, open the installer and follow the
instructions to install Python.
5. After the installation is complete, open the Start menu and search
for "Python". You should hopefully see a Python 3.x entry in the
list of results. Click this to open the Python interpreter, which you
can use to run Python code.

To verify that the installation was successful, you can run the following
command:

python --version

or

python3 –version

This should print the version number of Python that was installed on your
computer.

How to install Python on a Mac?

To install Python on a Mac, you can follow these steps:

1. Open a browser and go to the official Python site

(https://www.python.org/).
2. Click on the "Downloads" button in the top menu to go to the
download page.
3. Scroll down to the "Python Releases for Mac OS X" section, and
click on the link for the latest Python version. This will download
the Python installer.
 4. Once the download is finished, open the installer and follow the on-
screen instructions to install Python on your Mac.
5. After the installation is complete, open the Terminal app and run
the following command to verify that Python was installed
correctly:

python --version

or

python3 --version

This should print the version number of Python that was installed on your
Mac.

Alternatively, you can also use a package manager like Homebrew to

install Python on your Mac. To do this, follow these steps:

1. Open a Terminal window and run the following command to

install Homebrew (we are using Ruby here to run this as it’s
generally preinstalled on most Mac):

/usr/bin/ruby -e "$(curl -fsSL

https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Homebrew/install/master/install)"

2. After Homebrew is installed, run the following command to install

Python:

brew install python

This will install the latest Python version on your Mac. To verify that the
installation was successful, you can run the following command:

python --version
 or

python3 --version

This should print the version number of Python that was installed on your
Mac.
How to install Python on Linux?

To install Python on a Linux computer, you can follow these steps:

1. Open a terminal and run the following command to check if

Python is already installed on your Linux system:

python --version

or

python3 --version

If Python is already installed, this command will print the version number
of Python that is installed on your system. If Python is not installed, you
will see an error message instead.

2. If Python is not installed, you can install it using the package

manager that comes with your Linux distribution. For example, on
Ubuntu and other Debian-based systems, you can use the apt
command to install Python like this:

sudo apt update

sudo apt install python3

On Fedora and other Red Hat-based systems, you can use the dnf
command to install Python like this:

sudo dnf update

 sudo dnf install python3

On other Linux distributions, you can use the appropriate package manager
command to install Python.

After Python in installed you can verify it’s working correctly with this
command:

python --version

or

python3 --version

This should print the installed version of Python or an error message if not
installed properly.

Python is a popular programming language that is widely used on Linux,

and most Linux distributions come with a version of Python pre-installed.
You can also install the latest version of Python using the package manager
of your Linux distribution. Once Python is installed, you can use it to write
and run Python code!

What is a programming IDE?

A programming IDE, or Integrated Development Environment, is a

software program that provides a range of tools and features designed to
help software developers write and manage their code more efficiently.
They typically include a code editor, a debugger, and a compiler or
interpreter, and may also include features such as code completion, code
refactoring, and version control integration. The goal of an IDE is to
provide a single, integrated workspace where developers can access all the
tools and resources they need to efficiently develop and maintain their code.
Do I need an IDE to be able to program?

No, you do not need an IDE to be able to program. While an IDE can
provide a bunch of nice tools that can make the process of writing code
more efficient, it is not essential for learning or practicing programming.
Many programmers choose to use a simple text editor, such as Notepad,
Sublime Text, nano, or vim to write and edit their code, and then use the
terminal to compile and run their programs. In fact, learning to program
without an IDE can be a valuable learning experience as it can instill
concepts without you becoming over-reliant on the IDE to do many things
for you.

Are there any good Python IDEs?

Yes, there are many good Python IDEs available! Some of the most popular
Python IDEs include:

● PyCharm: PyCharm is an awesome Python IDE developed by

JetBrains. It includes features like a code editor, a debugger, and
support for version control systems. PyCharm is available in a
paid professional edition and a free community edition.
● Visual Studio Code: VSC is a popular open-source code editor
developed by Microsoft. It includes support for Python and many
other languages. Visual Studio Code is highly customizable with
lots of available extensions, and it is available for free.
● Spyder: Spyder is an open-source Python IDE that was specifically
designed for scientific and data science development. It includes
great features like an interactive console, a code editor, and a
debugger, and is available for free.
● IDLE: IDLE is the default Python IDE that is included with the
Python language. It is a simple and lightweight IDE that includes a
code editor, a terminal for running Python code, and a debugger.
IDLE is available for free.
These are just a few examples of Python IDEs, and there are many other
good options available. The best Python IDE for you will depend on your
specific needs and preferences. Some IDEs are more suited to professional
development, while others are more focused on scientific or data science
development. Some IDEs are open-source and free, while others are
commercial products. You can try out different IDEs and see which one
works best for you.

Basic Execution
What are good Python beginner projects?
There are many good Python beginner projects that you can work on to help
you learn the language and improve your skills. Some ideas for beginner
Python projects include:

1. Building a simple game, such as Tic-Tac-Toe or Blackjack. These

can help you practice using loops and conditional statements.
2. Writing a program that simulates a simple virtual chatbot, which
can respond to user input based on what you type to it.
3. Creating a program that generates strong random passwords, which
can help you learn about strings and the use of random numbers in
Python.
4. Building a web scraper, which can extract data from websites and
save it to a file, to learn about web network calls and Strings and
file input/output in Python.
5. Writing a program that performs basic image manipulation, such as
resizing or cropping images, to learn about working with media in
Python.

As you work through this book, try to think about how you may implement
the project ideas above!

In Python, how do I print out a message?

To print out a message in Python, you can use the print function. The print
function takes one or more arguments, and it prints them to the screen
(technically the standard output but don’t worry about that for now),
separated by spaces and followed by a newline character.

For example, to print a simple message like "Hello there!", you could do
this:

print("Hello there!")

In this code, the print function is called with the string "Hello there!" as the
argument. This code would print "Hello there!" on the screen (your
terminal), followed by a line break, also known as a newline character.

You can also pass multiple values to the print function, and they will be
printed to the screen separated by spaces. For example, you could do this:

print("Hello", "there!")

In this code, the print function is called with two values or arguments: the
string "Hello," and the string "there!". This code would print "Hello there!"
to the screen, with a space between "Hello" and "there!", followed by a line
break.

You can also use the print function to print the value of a variable by
passing the variable as an argument to the print function. For example, you
could do this:

message = "Hey you!"

print(message)
In this code, the message variable is defined and assigned the string "Hey
you!", and then the print function is called with the message variable as the
argument. This code would print "Hey you!" to the screen, followed by a
line break.

Overall, the print function is used to print values to the screen in Python.
The print function takes one or more values as arguments, and it prints
them to the screen separated by spaces and followed by a newline character.
You can use the print function to print simple strings, the values of
variables, or the results of other code statements known as expressions.

How do I get input from the user in Python?

To get input from the user in Python, you can use the input() function. This
function will print a message to the user and wait for the user to enter some
text back before hitting the enter key. Here's an example:

name = input("What’s your name: ")

print("Hello " + name)

In this example, the input() function will print the prompt "What’s your
name: " and then wait for the user to enter their name. When the user enters
their name and presses enter, the input() function will return the user's input
as a string. This string is then assigned to the name variable, and it is used
in the print() statement to say hello to the user.

Here's how this example would work if you ran it:

Enter your name: Kenobi

Hello Kenobi
Remember that the input() function always returns the user's input as a
string, even if the user entered a number. If you want to use the user's input
as a number, like for math calculations, you will need to convert it to a
number using one of Python's conversion functions, such as int() or float().
For example:

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

print(f"{num} squared is {num * num}")

In this example, the input() function is used to get a number from the user,
and then the int() function is used to convert the user's input from a string
to an integer. This integer is then assigned to the num variable and used to
calculate the number squared.

Also in this example, the curly brackets and letter f are used to format the
output. Between the curly brackets you can put variables or coding
statements and they’ll be executed as the message is printed to the screen.

Can you explain Python indentation?

In Python, indentation is used to indicate the coding block structure. It is a

fundamental aspect of the Python language, and it is used to define the
scope and hierarchy of code blocks.

In Python, indentation is done using whitespace and is typically done using

four spaces for each level. Here is an example of a Python code block that
uses indentation:

def say_hello(name):

if name:
 print("Hello " + name)

else:

print("Hello there!")

In this example, the say_hello() function has two code blocks: an if

statement and an else statement. Each of these code blocks is indented using
four spaces, which indicates that they are both part of the say_hello()
function. The print() statement inside the if block is also indented, which
indicates that it is part of the if block.

Indentation is used to show the relationship between different code blocks

in Python, and it is important to use it accurately. If your code is not
properly indented, it will not run and you will get syntax errors.

Ultimately, indentation is a key part of the Python language, and it is

essential for writing structured and readable code. Remember that it is
required as part of Python syntax and must be used for code blocks.

Should I use tabs or spaces in Python?

PEP 8, the official style guide for Python, recommends using 4 spaces for
indentation in Python programs. It also recommends using spaces, not tabs,
for indentation.

Using 4 spaces for indentation is a common convention in Python, and it is

used by many programmers and organizations. It allows for consistent
indentation across different Python files, and it helps to improve how
readable the code is.

Using spaces instead of tabs for indentation is also recommended by PEP 8,

because tabs can be interpreted differently depending on the editor being
used.
So just keep in mind that 4 spaces is the convention that is most commonly
used in the Python community, and it is a good starting point for writing
clean and readable Python code. When you use an IDE there is a good
chance pressing tab will insert 4 spaces instead of a tab character, making it
easy to get accustomed to the tradition even if you are used to pressing tab
already.

Can I write Python with brackets instead?

No, you cannot use brackets instead of indentation in Python. Indentation is

a fundamental aspect of the language, and it is used to define the scope and
hierarchy of code blocks.

Python uses indentation to show the relationship between different code

blocks, and it is not possible to use brackets instead of indentation. If you
try to use brackets to define code blocks in Python, you will get a syntax
error.

How do I run my Python program?

Once you have Python installed, you can run a Python program by using the
python command in a command-line interface, such as the terminal on
macOS or Linux, or the command prompt on Windows. For example, if
you have a Python program saved in a file called my_program.py, you can
run it by using the following command:

python my_program.py

or

python3 my_program.py

This will start the Python interpreter, which will read and execute the
instructions in your program. If your program has any output, such as
printed text or plotted figures, it will be displayed in the command-line
interface.

In several of the examples up until now I have noted that you can use the
python or python3 command. Some installation methods will install
Python in such a way that one or the other will be the command to use on
your computer. Just keep in mind, as long as you have Python 3.x installed,
they will be identical. Find the command that works for you after your
installation and continue to use that command.

What is a command line interface?

A command-line interface (CLI) is a type of user interface that allows

users to interact with a computer by entering commands using a keyboard.
This is also commonly called a terminal. In contrast to a graphical user
interface (GUI), which uses visual elements such as windows, buttons, and
menus to provide a more user friendly way to interact with a program, a
CLI uses text-based commands that are entered into a command-line
prompt.

CLIs are often used in situations where a GUI is not practical or necessary,
such as when working with a remote computer server over the internet or
when automating tasks using scripting programs. They are also often used
by developers when the flexibility and power of a CLI makes more sense.

In most CLIs, the user enters commands at a prompt. This prompt

commonly ends in a symbol such as a dollar sign ($) or a percent sign (%)
on Mac or Linux systems. The user can then type the command, followed
by any necessary options, and then press the enter key to execute the
command. The computer will then read the command options and perform
the appropriate actions, printing any output back out into the terminal used.

How do I execute system commands in Python?

To execute system commands in Python, you can use the subprocess
module. This module provides a number of functions that allow you to
execute other programs from Python and then read their output, and much
more.

Here's an example of how you can use the subprocess module to run a
system command and capture its output:

import subprocess

command = "ls"

output = subprocess.check_output(command, shell=True)

print(output)

In Linux (or Unix systems like Mac), the ls command will print out all the
files in the current directory.

In this example, the subprocess.check_output() function is used to run the

ls command. The output of the ls command is captured and assigned to a
variable, and then it is printed to the console. Here's how the output might
look:

> file_a.txt
> file_b.txt
> file_c.txt

There are many other functions in the subprocess module that you can use
to run system commands and interact with their input, output, or error
streams. You can learn more about these in the official Python docs.
In Python, what is "*args"?

In Python, the *args syntax allows you to pass some arguments to a

function. It is used to define a function that can take an arbitrary number of
arguments, and it is often used in combination with the * operator to
"unpack" a list of arguments when calling a function.

Here is an example of how to use *args to define a function that takes an

arbitrary number of arguments:

def sum_numbers(*args):

sum = 0

for arg in args:

sum += arg

return sum

# Call the function with a bunch of arguments

result = sum_numbers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

print(result)

> 15

# Call the function with a single argument

result = sum_numbers(1)

print(result)
 >1

In this example, the sum_numbers() function has a single parameter,

*args, which is used to collect all of the arguments passed to the function.
The *args parameter is treated as a tuple, which is a sequence of values
that cannot be changed.

When we call the sum_numbers() function, we can pass as many

arguments as we want between the parenthesis. The *args parameter
collects all of the arguments, and they are looped over in the for loop. The
sum variable is initialized to 0, and then each of the arguments is added to
it, and the final result is returned to be printed out.

This example shows how *args can be used to define a function that can
take an arbitrary number of arguments. You can use this syntax to create
functions that are flexible and can be used in a variety of situations.

In Python, what is "**kwargs"?

In Python, the **kwargs syntax allows you to pass a variable number of

keyword arguments to a function. It is used to define a function that can
take an arbitrary number of keyword arguments, and it is often used in
combination with the ** operator to unpack these into a dictionary.

Here is an example of how to use **kwargs to define a function that takes

an arbitrary number of keyword arguments:

def print_values(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(key + ": " + value)

 # Call the function with multiple keyword arguments

print_values(name="Luke", age=30, planet="Endor")

> name: Luke

> age: 30
> planet: Endor

# Call the function with a single keyword argument print_values(name="Han")

> name: Han

In this example, the print_values() function has a single parameter,

**kwargs, which is used to collect all of the keyword arguments passed to
the function. The **kwargs parameter is treated as a dictionary, which is a
collection of key-value pairs.

When we call the print_values() function, we can pass as many keyword

arguments as we want. The **kwargs parameter collects all of the keyword
arguments, and they are looped over in the for loop. The key and value
variables are used to access each key-value pair in the dictionary, and the
values are printed to the screen.

This example shows how **kwargs can be used to define a function that
can take an arbitrary number of keyword arguments. You can use this
syntax to create functions that are flexible and can be used in a variety of
situations.

Is Python as fast as other languages?

The performance of Python, compared to other programming languages,
can vary depending on various factors, such as the specific implementation
of Python and the code being executed. In general, Python is not considered
to be as fast as some other compiled languages like C or C++, which are
designed for high-performance and low-level programming tasks.

However, Python provides several tools and techniques that can be used to
improve the performance of Python programs. One way is using a just-in-
time (JIT) compiler, such as Numba or PyPy, which compiles Python
code into machine code at runtime. You could also use a static compiler,
such as Cython or Nuitka, which compiles Python code into machine code
before runtime.

Additionally, Python provides a rich set of libraries and modules, such as

NumPy and Pandas, that are optimized for numerical and scientific
computing, and that can provide high-performance and efficient
implementations of common algorithms and operations. With these libraries
optimized for speed you can be sure they’ll execute fast.

While Python may not be as fast as some other languages in some cases, it
is well-suited for a wide range of applications, including data analysis,
machine learning, and web development, where performance might not be a
large concern. Additionally, there are ways to increase your Python
execution speed so there will always be a way to get more speed if you need
it.
What is a Python compiler?

A Python compiler is a program that translates Python source code written

in the Python programming language into a lower form like machine code.
Python is an interpreted language, which means that the Python interpreter,
rather than a compiler, is responsible for executing Python code.
Instructions are read in from your text file as text and then executed.
However, Python has several JIT and other compilers made for it as
discussed in the previous section.
Overall, using a Python compiler may provide various benefits, such as
improved performance and portability.

Chapter Review
● What operating system do you have?
● What is a compiler?
● What is an interpreter?
● How do you run your Python program?
● How is indentation used in Python?
● Is indentation structure required in Python?
● How do you print out to the screen?
● Should you use tabs or spaces when writing code in Python?
● What is a terminal?
● Is a terminal the same thing as a command prompt?
● What is a CLI program?
● What is a GUI program?
● What is a system command?
 Chapter 3
Variables and “If” Statements

Variables

In programming, what is a variable?

In programming, a variable is a named location in a computer's memory

that is used to store data. A variable has a name, a type, and a value, and it
is used to represent a value that can change or vary during the execution of
a program.

In most programming languages, a variable is defined by specifying its

name and type, and then assigning a value to it. For example, in Python,
you could define a variable like this (note that an integer is just another
word for a whole number):

x=7

# x is an integer variable with the value 7

In this code, the x variable is defined as an integer with the value 7. The x
variable has a name, a type, and a value, and you can use it in other places
in your code for various operations.

For example, after you make your x variable, you could use it in an
expression like this:
 y = x + 13

# y is an integer variable with the value 20

In this code, the x variable is used in an expression to add 13 to its value,

and the result is stored in the y variable. This allows the x variable to be
used multiple times within a program, making it easier to write and
maintain complex code.

Just remember that a variable is a named location in a computer's memory

that is used to store data. Variables are an essential part of many
programming languages.

What is a variable in Python?

Remember that in Python, you can create a variable named z and assign it
the value 42, like this:

z = 42

Once you have created a variable, you can access its value by using the
variable's name. In this example, you could print the value of z like this:

print(z)

This would output the value 42 to the screen.

In Python, you can use variables to store all kinds of data like numbers,
strings (a string of characters, or just text), and more complex data types
such as lists and dictionaries. You can also use variables to store the results
of computations and other expressions. This makes it easier to write
programs that can store and manipulate data in powerful and flexible ways.
What is the difference between a mutable and immutable data type?

The main difference between a mutable and immutable data type is that a
mutable data type can be modified after it is created, while an immutable
data type cannot be modified. In Python, the mutable data types include
lists, sets, and dictionaries, while the immutable data types include strings,
numbers, and tuples. Mutable data types are useful when you need to
change the values of an object after it is created. For example, you can add,
remove, or update the items in a list, set, or dictionary, and the object will
be updated to reflect these changes. Immutable data types, on the other
hand, cannot be modified after they are created. This means that any
operation that attempts to change the value of an immutable object will
instead create a new object with the modified value. Because of this,
immutable data types are often considered to be safer and more predictable
than mutable data types, as they cannot be modified unexpectedly.

In programming, what is a constant variable?

In programming, a constant variable is a variable that has a fixed value

that cannot be changed or reassigned once it has been defined. In other
words, a constant is a value that remains the same throughout the execution
of a program.

Constant variables are often used in programming to represent values that

are fixed and known in advance, such as physics constants, mathematical
constants, or other values that do not change during the execution of a
program. For example, the value of the mathematical constant pi in math is
a constant that is defined as 3.141592654…. This value does not change
during the execution of a program, so it can be defined as a constant
variable. We can simplify our representation to 3.14159 for these examples.

In many programming languages, there is built-in syntax for defining

constant variables. For example, in C++, you can use the const keyword to
define a constant variable, like this:

const double PI = 3.14159;

In this code, the PI variable is defined as a constant with the value 3.14159.
The const keyword indicates that the variable is a constant, and it cannot be
changed or reassigned once it has been defined.

Remember that a constant variable is a variable that has a fixed value that
cannot be changed or reassigned once it has been defined. Constant
variables are often used to represent values that are known in advance and
do not change during the execution of a program.

How do I make a constant variable in Python?

A constant is a variable that cannot be changed or reassigned once it has

been defined. In other words, a constant has a fixed value that cannot be
changed.

In Python, there is no built-in syntax for defining a constant variable.

However, you can achieve the same effect by using a variable name that is
in all uppercase letters. For example, consider the following code:

MY_COOL_CONSTANT_VARIABLE = 15

In this code, the MY_COOL_CONSTANT_VARIABLE variable is

defined with the value 15. By convention, the use of all uppercase letters in
the variable name indicates that the variable is a constant and should not be
modified.

However, it is important to note that this convention is not enforced by the

Python interpreter. In other words, even though the
MY_COOL_CONSTANT_VARIABLE variable is defined with all
uppercase letters, there is nothing stopping you from reassigning a different
value to it, like this:

MY_COOL_CONSTANT_VARIABLE = 15

MY_COOL_CONSTANT_VARIABLE = 42

In this code, the MY_COOL_CONSTANT_VARIABLE variable is first

defined with the value 15, but then it is reassigned to the value 42. This is
allowed in Python, even though the variable is defined with all uppercase
letters, because there is no built-in syntax for defining a constant variable
in Python.

Therefore, while using all uppercase letters in a variable name is a

convention that indicates that the variable should be treated as a constant, it
is not a guarantee that the variable will not be changed or reassigned.

Remember that there is no built-in syntax for defining a constant variable in

Python, but you can use the convention of using all uppercase letters in the
variable name to indicate that the variable should be treated as a constant.
Always keep in mind though that there’s no guarantee this value hasn’t been
changed somewhere in the code.

Basic Data Types

In programming, what is a data type?

In programming, a data type is a classification of data that specifies the

type and format of the data, and the operations that can be performed on the
data. Different programming languages support different data types, and
each data type has its own characteristics and behavior.
Data types are an essential part of many programming languages, as they
allow the programmer to specify the type and format of the data that a
program will work with. This helps to ensure that the data is stored and
manipulated correctly, and it also allows the compiler or interpreter to check
the correctness of the code and generate efficient machine code.

In most programming languages, data types are divided into two main
categories: primitive data types and composite data types. Primitive data
types are the basic data types that are built into the language, and they
typically include types for storing numbers, characters, and Boolean values.
Composite data types, on the other hand, are data types that are composed
of multiple values or objects, and they include types such as arrays,
dictionaries, and other complex objects.

Each data type has its own characteristics and behavior, and it is important
for a programmer to choose the appropriate data type for the data that they
are working with. For example, the int type is suitable for storing whole
numbers, but it would not be suitable for storing numbers with fractions, in
which case the float type would be a better choice.

Overall, data types are an essential part of many programming languages,

and they allow the programmer to specify the type and format of the data
that a program will work with.

What are data types in Python?

In Python, every value has a data type, which specifies the kind of value it
is and determines what operations can be performed on it. Some of the most
commonly used data types in Python include integers, floats, strings, lists,
and dictionaries.

An integer is a whole number, and a float is a number with a decimal point.

A string is a sequence of characters, and a list is an ordered collection of
values. A dictionary is a collection of key-value pairs, where each key is
mapped to a specific value.
Here are some examples of values with different data types in Python:

# Integer

a = 42

# Float

b = 3.1414159

# String

c = "Hello there!"

# List

nums = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

# Dictionary

jedi = { "name": "Mace Windu", "age": 42, "city": "Coruscant" }

The data type of a value in Python determines how that value can be used
and what operations can be performed on it. For example, you can add two
numbers together, but you can't add a number to a string. Understanding
and working with data types is an important part of programming in Python.

What is an "int" in Python?

In Python, an int is a data type that represents an integer, or a whole number

without a fractional part. This data type is used to store numeric values that
do not have decimal places, such as quantities, ages, or sizes.

To create an int in Python, you can use the int() function, which takes a
numeric value as an argument and returns the corresponding integer. For
example:

# Create an integer from a float

int_value = int(3.14159)

# Create an integer from a string

int_value = int("42")

In the first example, it converts the decimal number 3.14159 to the integer 3
by removing the fractional part. In the third example, it converts the string
"42" to the integer 42.

What is a String in programming?

In programming, a string is a sequence of characters that represent text. A

string is often used to store and manipulate text-based data, such as words,
sentences, and paragraphs.

Strings are a common data type in many programming languages, and they
are typically enclosed in quotation marks (single or double, depending on
the language) to distinguish them from other types of data. Here is an
example of a string:

"Hello there!"

In this example, the string is a sequence of characters that represent the text
"Hello there!". The string is enclosed in double quotes (") to indicate that it
is a string.

Strings are an important data type in programming, and they are used to
store and manipulate text-based data. They are a fundamental building
block of many apps and are supported by most programming languages.

How do I make a String in Python?

To create a string in Python, you can use string literals, which are
sequences of characters enclosed in quotation marks and assign it to a
variable. Here is an example of how to create a string in Python:
# Create a string using double quotes

string_value_1 = "Hello there!"

# Create a string using single quotes

string_value_2 = 'General Kenobi...'

In this example, two strings are created using string literals. The first string
is created using double quotes ("), and the second string is created using
single quotes (').

In Python, you can use either single or double quotes to create a string, and
you can use the same type of quotes to enclose the string as long as they are
not used within the string. For example, if you want to create a string that
includes a quote character, you can use the other type of quotation mark to
enclose the string, as shown here:

# Create a string that includes a double quote

str_1 = 'The general said, "Hello there!"'

 # Create a string that includes a single quote

str_2 = "The enemy replied, 'General Kenobi...'"

In this example, two strings are created that include quote characters. The
first string uses single quotes to enclose the string, and it includes a double
quote character within the string. The second string uses double quotes to
enclose the string, and it includes a single quote character within the string.

You can create a string in Python by using string literals, which are
sequences of characters enclosed in quotation marks. You can use either
single or double quotes to create a string, and you can use the same type of
quotes to enclose the string as long as they are not used within the string.
Strings are an important data type in Python as they are in any language!

What are operators in Python?

In Python, operators are special symbols that represent computations like

addition, multiplication, and division. These operators are used to perform
operations on variables and values. For example, the + operator can be used
to add two numbers together, like this:

king = 10

ace = 11

blackjack = x + y

After this code has been executed, the blackjack variable will hold the
value 21.

There are various types of operators in Python, including:

 ● Arithmetic operators, which are used to perform mathematical
operations on numbers, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
● Assignment operators like “=” which are used to assign a value to
a variable.
● Identity operators, which are used to compare the identity of two
objects.
● Comparison operators, which are used to compare two values
and return a Boolean value (True or False) depending on the
outcome of the comparison.
● Membership operators, which are used to test whether a value is
a member of a sequence (such as a list or a string).
● Logical operators, which are used to combine multiple conditions
in a single expression.

Each type of operator has its own specific syntax and usage, which you can
learn more about by reading the Python docs on the official site.

How do decimal numbers work in Python?

In Python, decimal numbers are represented using the float data type. This
data type allows for the representation of fractional values, as well as very
large and very small numbers.

To create a decimal number in Python, you can use the float() function,
which takes a numeric value as an argument and returns the corresponding
float number. For example:

# Create a decimal number from an integer

float_val = float(123)

# Create a decimal number from a string

 float_val = float("3.14159")

In the first example, the float() function converts the integer 123 to the
floating-point number 123.0. In the second example, it converts the string
"3.14159" to the floating-point number 3.14159.

Once you have a decimal number, you can perform a bunch of operations
with it, such as math, comparison, and type conversion. Some examples:

# Create a decimal number

float_val = 2.25

# Perform math operations on the decimal number

result = float_val + 3.10

# Compare the first number to another number

if float_val < 5.0:

print("The number is less than 5.")

# Convert the decimal number to an integer

int_val = int(float_val)

In the first example, the code adds the decimal number 2.25 to the number
3.10 and assigns the result 5.35 to the result variable. In the second
example, the code compares the decimal number to the number 5.0 and
prints a message only if the decimal number is less than 5.0. In the third
example, the code converts the decimal number to an integer (5) and
assigns the result to the int_val variable.
Note that decimal numbers are not always represented exactly in Python,
due to the way they are stored in memory. This can lead to some
imprecision in calculations involving decimal numbers. For example:

# Create a decimal number

float_val = 0.1

# Perform math operations on the decimal number

result = float_val + 0.2

# Print the result

print(result)

This code will print the number 0.30000000000000004, instead of the

expected result 0.3. This is because the decimal number 0.1 cannot be
represented exactly in binary floating-point format, and the imprecision
accumulates when performing arithmetic operations on it.

To avoid this issue, you can use the decimal module, which provides the
Decimal class for representing decimal numbers with a fixed number of
digits of precision. This allows for more precise calculations with decimal
numbers, but it comes at the cost of slower performance.

Here is an example of how to use the Decimal class to perform precise

calculations with decimal numbers:

# Import the `decimal` module

import decimal
 # Create a `Decimal` object

decimal_value = decimal.Decimal("0.1")

# Perform arithmetic operations on the `Decimal` object

result = decimal_value + decimal.Decimal("0.2")

# Print the result

print(result)

This code will print the number 0.3, which is the expected result of adding
the numbers.

What is a boolean in Python?

In Python, a bool is a data type that represents a boolean value, which is

either True or False. This data type is used to represent binary choices,
such as yes/no questions or an on/off switch.

To create a bool in Python, you can use the bool() function, which takes a
value as an argument and returns True if the value is considered "truthy",
or False if the value is considered "falsy". For example:

# Create a boolean from an integer

bool_val = bool(42)

# Create a boolean from a string

bool_val = bool("hello")
In the first example, it converts the number 42 to the boolean True, because
non-zero integers are considered truthy in Python. In the third example, it
converts the string "hello" to the boolean True, because non-empty strings
are also considered truthy.

Once you have a bool, you can perform various operations with it, such as
comparison, logical operations, and type conversion. For example:

# Create a boolean

bool_val = True

# Compare the boolean to another bool value

if bool_val == True:

print("The bool is True!")

# Perform logical operations on the boolean

result = bool_val and False

# Convert the bool to an int

my_int = int(bool_val)

In the first example, the code compares the boolean True to the boolean
literal True, and prints a message if they are equal (they are). In the second
example, the code performs a logical and operation on the boolean True
and the boolean False, and assigns the result (False) to the result variable.
In the third example, the code converts the boolean True to the integer 1,
and assigns the result to the bool_val variable, since True can map to 1 and
False can map to 0.
Note that in Python, True and False are not just special values, but are
actually boolean constants that are instances of the bool class. This means
that you can use the is keyword to check if a value is a bool, and you can
use the bool class to create new bool objects. For example:

# Check if a value is a bool

if isinstance(True, bool):

print("The value is a bool.")

In the example, the code checks if the boolean literal True is an instance of
the bool class, and prints a message if it is.

Can you explain None in Python?

In Python, None is a special value that represents the absence of a value or

a null value. It is an object of its own data type. None is often used to
represent the default value of a function or method that does not have a
return value. It is also commonly used to represent the end of a list of items.

None is a unique value in Python and it is not equivalent to any other value,
not even to an empty string or 0. This means that, for example, you cannot
use the equality operator (==) to compare a variable with None to see if it
is equal to the null value. Instead, you have to use the is keyword operator
to check for None:

x = None

if x is None:
 print("x is None")

In Python, None is a falsy value, which means that it is considered to be

False in a boolean context. This means that, for example, you can use it as
a condition in an if statement or a while loop to check if a value has been
assigned to a variable or not.

a = None

if a:

print("a has a value that isn’t None")

else:

print("a is None")

In programming, what is casting?

That’s where you use your code wizardry to start a magic spell, of course.

More seriously though, casting in programming refers to the process of

converting a variable from one data type to another data type. This is often
necessary when working with different data types in the same program. For
example, if you have a variable that holds an integer value and you want to
convert it to a string so that you can concatenate (combine) it with another
string, you would need to cast the integer to a string. This is typically done
using a typecast operator, which specifies the data type that you want the
variable to be converted to.

How do I cast variables in Python?

In Python, you can use the str(), int(), float(), and bool() functions to cast
variables to the corresponding data types. For example, to cast a variable to
a string, you would use the str() function, like this:

x=6

str_val_of_x = str(x)

After this code has been executed, the str_val_of_x variable will hold the
string value "6", which can be concatenated with other strings in your
program.

Similarly, you can use the int() function to cast a variable to an integer, the
float() function to cast a variable to a decimal number, and the bool()
function to cast a variable to a bool value. For example:

a = "7"

int_a = int(a)

b = "3.141592654"

float_b = float(b)

c = "True"

bool_c = bool(c)

After this code has been executed, the int_a variable will hold the integer
value 7, the float_b variable will hold the floating-point value
3.141592654, and the bool_c variable will hold the Boolean value True.

You can also use these functions to explicitly convert variables from one
data type to another. For example, if you have a variable that holds an
integer value and you want to convert it to a floating-point value, you can
use the float() function to do this, like this:

my_variable = 5

float_my_variable = float(my_variable)

After this code has been executed, the float_my_variable variable will hold
the floating-point value 5.0.

How do I use “is” in Python?

In Python, the is operator is used to test whether two variables refer to the
same object. It returns True if the two variables refer to the same object, and
False if they refer to different objects.

Here is an example:

x = [4, 5, 6]

y = [4, 5, 6]

z=x

print(x is y)

> False
print(x is z)

> True

In the above example, x and y are two different objects that have the same
value, so the is operator returns False when they are compared. However, z
is assigned the value of x, so x and z refer to the same object, and the is
operator returns True when they are compared.

The is operator is different from the equality operator (==), which is used
to test whether two values are equal. The is operator checks for object
identity, while the equality operator checks for value equality. Here is an
example that illustrates the difference between is and ==:

a = [6, 7, 9]

b = [6, 7, 9]

print(a == b) > True

print(a is b) > False

In the above example, a and b have the same value, so the equality operator
returns True when they are compared. However, a and b are still two
different objects, so the is operator returns False when they are compared.

In Python is there "undefined"?

In Python, there is no special value or object that represents an undefined

value like in some other programming languages. If a variable is declared
but not assigned a value, it is created with the default value None.

Here is an example:

x = None

print(x)

> None
In the above example, x is declared but not assigned a value, so it is created
with the default value None. You can use the is operator to check if a
variable has been assigned a value or not:

It is important to note that None and undefined are not the same thing.
None is a special value that represents the absence of a value, while
undefined means that a value has not been assigned to a variable. In Python,
you can use the is operator to check if a variable is undefined, but you
cannot use it to check for undefined values directly.

If Statements
In programming, what is an "if statement"?

In programming, an if statement is a control flow statement that allows the

programmer to specify a condition and then execute a block of code only if
the condition is true. If statements are an essential part of many
programming languages, and they are used to control the flow of execution
of a program based on the values of variables or expressions.

An if statement typically takes the following form:

if (condition):

# Code here executes when the condition is true

# Take note of the indentation!

In this code, the if keyword is followed by a condition in parentheses (), and

then a colon (:). The code to be executed if the condition is true is indented
below the if statement, and it is executed only if the condition evaluates to
true. The parentheses are optional as you’ll see below.
How do you use "if statements" in Python?

Here's an example of a simple if statement in Python:

if x > 10:

print("x is greater than 10")

In this example, the if statement checks whether the value of x is greater

than 10. If it is, then the code inside the if block is executed and the
message "x is greater than 10" is printed to the screen. If x is not greater
than 10, then the if block is skipped and the code continues to execute from
the next line.

You can also use else and elif (short for "else if") statements to specify
additional blocks of code that should be executed under different
conditions. For example:

if x > 10:

print("x is greater than 10")

elif x == 10:

print("x is equal to 10")

else:

print("x is less than 10")

In this example, if x is greater than 10, then the first if block is executed and
the message "x is greater than 10" is printed. If x is not greater than 10 but
is equal to 10, then the elif block is executed and the message "x is equal to
10" is printed. If x is not greater than 10 and not equal to 10, then the else
block is executed and the message "x is less than 10" is printed.
if statements are a fundamental building block of Python programs, and
they allow you to control the flow of your code based on the values of
variables and other conditions.

How do I use "and" and "or" logic in Python if statements?

In Python, you can use the and and or keywords to combine multiple
conditions in an if statement.

The and keyword allows you to specify multiple conditions that must all be
true in order for the code in the if block to be executed. For example:

# Check if a number is positive and even

if num > 0 and num % 2 == 0:

print("The number is positive and even.")

In this code, the if statement checks if the value of the num variable is
greater than 0 and also if the value of num modulo 2 is equal to 0. If both
of these conditions are true, the code in the if block is executed, and the
message "The number is positive and even." is printed.
The modulo operator, shown here in its code form as “%”, returns the
remainder of a division operation. For example, 9 % 4 would return 1,
because 4 goes into 9 twice with 1 remainder. You can easily check if a
number is even by using x % 2 == 0, because an even number will never
have a remainder when divided by 2 but an odd number will.

The or keyword allows you to specify multiple conditions, of which at least

one must be true in order for the code in the if block to be executed. For
example:

# Check if a number is zero or negative

if num == 0 or num < 0:

 print("The number is zero or negative.")

In this code, the if statement checks if the value of the num variable is
equal to 0 or if it is less than 0. If either of these conditions is true, the code
in the if block is executed, and the message "The number is zero or
negative." is printed.

Note that you can use parentheses to group multiple conditions together and
specify the order in which they are evaluated. For example:

# Check if a number is positive and even, or zero or negative

if (num > 0 and num % 2 == 0) or (num == 0 or num < 0):

print("The number is positive and even, or zero or negative.")

In this code, the if statement first checks if the value of the num variable is
greater than 0 and also if the value of num modulo 2 is equal to 0. If both
of these conditions are true, the code in the if block is executed, and the
message is printed. If either of these conditions is false, the if statement
then checks if the value of the number variable is equal to 0 or if it is less
than 0. If either of these conditions is true the message will be printed.

How does scope work in Python?

In Python, the scope of a variable is the part of the program where the
variable is defined and can be accessed. There are two types of scope in
Python: global scope and local scope.

Global scope refers to the part of the program where a variable is defined
outside of any function or class. A variable defined in global scope can be
accessed from anywhere in the program, including inside functions and
classes. For example, consider the following code:

x=7

# x is in the global scope

def cool_function():

print(x) # x can be accessed here in a function

cool_function()

>7

In this code, the variable x is defined in global scope, outside of the

cool_function function. Therefore, x can be accessed inside the function,
and when the function is called, it prints the value of x, which is 5.

Local scope refers to the part of the program where a variable is defined
inside a function or class. A variable defined in local scope can only be
accessed inside the function or class where it is defined. For example,
consider the following code:

def cool_function():

x = 7 # x is in local scope

print(x) # x can be accessed in the function

cool_function()

>7
 print(x)

# x is not in the global scope so this will cause an error!

In this code, the variable x is defined inside the cool_function function, so

its scope is local to that function. Therefore, x can only be accessed inside
the function, and when the function is called, it prints the value of x, which
is 5. However, if you try to access x outside of the function, in the global
scope, you will get an error, because x is not defined in global scope.

Another important aspect of scope in Python is the concept of scope

nesting. This refers to the fact that local scope can be nested inside other
local scope, and the most inner scope will take precedence over outer
scopes. For example:

x=8

# x is declared in the global scope

def outer():

x = 10

# x made again in local scope (outer function)

def inner():

x = 15 # x is declared again in local scope (inner function)

print(x) # this will print 15 because of the INNERmost scope with x

inner()
 print(x) # will print 10 as the outer scope takes precedence here

outer()

print(x) # this will print 8 from the global scope

In this code, there are three levels of scope: global scope, local scope (outer
function), and another local scope (inner function). When the inner
function is called, it prints the value of x that is defined in its own local
scope, which is 15. Then, when the outer function is called, it prints the
value of x that is defined in its own local scope, which is 10. Finally, when
the code is run, it prints the value of x that is defined in global scope, which
is 8.

Scope in Python is a mechanism that determines where variables are

defined and can be accessed. Variables defined in global scope can be
accessed from anywhere in the program, while variables defined in local
scope can only be accessed inside the function or class where they are
defined.

Does Python have “switch” statements?

In Python, there is no switch statement like in other programming

languages. Instead, Python provides a more powerful and flexible way to
handle conditional branching using if-elif-else statements.

Here is an example of how you can use if-elif-else statements to implement

the same functionality as a switch statement:
 def switch_case_example(argument):

if argument == 1:

print("Case A")

elif argument == 2:

print("Case B")

elif argument == 3:

print("Case C")

else:

print("Default")

switch_case_example(1)

> Case A

switch_example(2)

> Case B
switch_example(3)

> Case C

switch_example(4)

> Default

In the above example, the switch_case_example() function takes an

argument and uses if-elif-else statements to evaluate it and print a different
message for each possible case.
If-elif-else statements allow you to handle multiple cases more concisely
and more easily than using a series of if statements. You can also use the
elif keyword to combine multiple cases into one statement, which can make
your code more readable and easier to maintain.

Chapter Review
● What is a variable?
● How do you declare a variable with a value?
● How is an int different than a float?
● What is a constant?
● What is a String?
● What is a boolean?
● How do you make an if statement?
● How can you use “and” and “or” to make your if statement
conditions more complex?
● Does Python have a “switch” block?
● What is scope?
● What is local scope versus global scope?
● What is the modulo operator?
● What is None?
● What is the “is” keyword for?
 Chapter 4
Common String Operations

How do I reverse a String in Python?

To reverse a string in Python, you can use the built-in reversed() function.
Here is an example:

# Make a string

str_val = "Hello there!"

# Use the reversed() function to get a list that has the characters of the string in
reverse order

reversed_string = reversed(str_val)

# Print the reversed string

print("".join(reversed_string))

> !ereht olleH

This will print the original string reversed.

Alternatively, you can use slicing to reverse a string in Python. Here is an
example of how to do that:

# Make a string

str_val = "Hello there!"

# Use slicing to reverse the string

reversed_string = str_val[::-1]

# Print the reversed string

print(reversed_string)

This method is a bit more concise and can be easier to read, especially if
you are already familiar with slicing in Python.

How do you make a String in Python all uppercase?

To make a string in Python all uppercase, you can use the str.upper()
method. This method returns a new string with all the characters in the
original string converted to uppercase.

Here is an example of how to use the str.upper() method to convert a string

to uppercase:

# Make a string

str_val = "Hello there!"

 # Use the `upper()` method to convert the string to uppercase

uppercase_string = str_val.upper()

# Print the uppercase string

print(uppercase_string)

> HELLO THERE!

This will print the original string converted to uppercase.

If you want to modify the original string in-place, instead of creating a new
string, you can use the str.upper() method in combination with the
assignment operator =. This will replace the original string with a new
string containing all uppercase characters.

Here is an example of how to do this:

str_val = "Hello there!"

# Assign the variable to itself, but upper cased

str_val = str_val.upper()

# Print the uppercase string

print(str_val)

This will print the same string as before.

Alternatively, you can use the str.upper() method in combination with the
print() function to print the string in uppercase directly, without creating a
new string. Here is an example of how to do this:

str_val = "Hello there!"

print(str_val.upper())

This will also print the string "HELLO THERE!".

How do I turn a String into a number in Python?

To convert a string to a number in Python, you can use the built-in int() and
float() functions. These functions take a string as an argument and return
the corresponding integer or float number, respectively.

Here is an example of how to use the int() function to convert a string to an

integer:

# Make a numeric string

str_val = "42"

# Use the `int()` function to convert the string to an integer

int_val = int(str_val)

# Print the integer

print(int_val)

> 42
This will print the number 42, which is the integer representation of the
string "42".

Here is an example of how to use the float() function to convert a string to a

floating-point number:

# Make a numeric string with a decimal

str_val = "3.14159"

# Use the `float()` function to convert the string to a float

float_val = float(str_val)

# Print the float

print(float_val)

> 3.14159

If the string cannot be converted to the specified type (for example, if it

contains letters instead of numbers), the int() and float() functions will raise
a ValueError and will crash your program unless handled correctly.

For example:

str_val = "hello"

# Use the `int()` function to convert the string to an integer

int_val = int(str_val)
This will raise a ValueError, because the string "hello" cannot be
converted to an integer.

To handle this error, you can use a try/except block to catch the
ValueError and handle it.

# Make a string that is NOT a number

str_val = "hello"

# Use a `try`/`except` block to handle the `ValueError` that may be raised by the
`int()` function

try:

int_val = int(str_val)

except ValueError:

print("Trouble converting to an int!")

This code will print the message "Could not convert string to integer.",
instead of raising an error.

Note that the int() function will only convert strings that contain whole
numbers to integers. If the string contains a fraction (for example,
"3.14159"), the int() function will only return the integer (whole number)
part of the number (in this case, 3). To get the full floating-point
representation of the number, you must use the float() function instead.

How do I turn a number into a String in Python?

To convert a number to a string in Python, you can use the built-in str()
function. This function takes a number as an argument and returns the
corresponding string representation of that number.
Here is an example of how to use the str() function to convert a number to a
string:

int_val = 42

# Use the `str()` function to convert the number to a string

str_val = str(int_val)

# Print the string

print(my_string)

This will print the string "42", which is the string representation of the
number 42.

Here is another example that shows how to use the str() function to convert
a float number to a string:

int_val = 3.14159

# Use the `str()` function to convert the number to a string

str_val = str(int_val)

# Print the string

print(my_string)
 > 3.14159 (as a String)

Note that the str() function will only convert numbers to strings. If you pass
it a non-numeric value (such as a string or a list), it will raise a TypeError.
For example:

# Start with a non-numeric string value

some_value = "hey"

# Use the `str()` function to convert the value to a string

string_value = str(some_value)

This will raise a TypeError, because the str() function cannot convert the
string "hey" to a number.

To handle this error, you can use a try/except block to catch the TypeError
and handle it gracefully. For example:

str_val = "hello there"

# Use a `try`/`except` block to handle the `TypeError` that may be raised by the
`str()` function

try:

str_val = str(str_val)

except TypeError:

print("Could not convert value to string!")

 > Could not convert value to string!

This code will print the message instead of raising an error.

How do I format strings in Python?

To format strings in Python, you can use the format() method. This method
allows you to substitute placeholders in a string with values of your
choosing. Here's an example:

# Define a string with some placeholders in it

string = "Hey {}! Today is {}!"

# Use the format() method to substitute the placeholders with values

formatted = string.format("Luke", "Saturday")

# Print the formatted string to the console print(formatted)

> Hey Luke! Today is Saturday!

As you can see, the format() method substitutes the placeholders inside
curly braces in the original string with the values that are passed to it.

You can use the format() method to insert any type of value into a string,
including numbers, strings, and even other objects. You can also use it to
control the formatting of the substituted values, such as specifying the
number of decimal places for floating-point numbers or the alignment of the
text.

There are a bunch more options and arguments you can use with string
formatting. For more information on how to use the format() method you
can check out the Python documentation.

How do I split a String in Python?

To split (turn a single string into a group of strings) a string in Python, you
can use the str.split() method. This method splits a string into a list of
substrings, using a specified separator string to identify where the split
should occur.

Here is an example of how to use the str.split() method to split a string:

str_val = "Hey there"

# Use the `split()` method to split the string on the `,` character

split_string = str_val.split(",")

# Print the resulting list of substrings

print(split_string)

> [“Hey”, “there”]

If you don't specify a separator string, the split() method will use any
whitespace characters (such as spaces, tabs, and newlines) as the separator.
For example:

str_val = "That’s no moon"

# Use the `split()` method without specifying a separator

split_string = str_val.split()

# Print the resulting list of substrings

print(split_string)

> [“That’s”, “no”, “moon”]

You can also specify multiple separator strings by passing a list of strings to
the split() method. The string will be split on any of the specified separator
strings. For example:

str_val = "Luke! I am your father!"

# Use the `split()` method to split the string on the `,` and `!` characters

split_string = str_val.split(",", "!")

# Print the resulting list of substrings

print(split_string)
 > [“Luke”, “I”, “am”, “your”, “father”]

How do I find a substring in a String in Python?

To find a substring in a string in Python, you can use the str.find() method.
This method returns the index of the first occurrence of the substring in the
string, or -1 if the substring is not found.

Here is an example of how to use the str.find() method to find a substring

in a string:

str_val = "Hello there!"

# Use the `find()` method to find the substring "there"

index = str_val.find("there")

# Print the index of the substring

print(index)

>6
This will print the number 6, which is the index of the first character of the
substring "there" in the string.

If you want to find the last occurrence of a substring in a string, you can use
the str.rfind() method instead. This method works the same way as
str.find(), but it returns the index of the last occurrence of the substring in
the string, instead of the first.

Here is an example of how to use the str.rfind() method to find the last
occurrence of a substring in a string:
 str_val = "General Kenobi! General Kenobi!"

# Use the `rfind()` method to find the last occurrence of the substring "General"

index = str_val.rfind("General")

# Print the index of the substring

print(index)

This will print the number 16, which is the index of the first character of the
last occurrence of the substring "General" in the string.

You can also use the in keyword to check if a substring is contained in a

string. This keyword returns True if the substring is found in the string, and
False otherwise.

Here is an example of how to use the in keyword to check for the presence
of a substring in a string:

str_val = "Death Star"

# Use the `in` keyword to check if the substring "Star" is in the string

if "Star" in my_string:

print("Found it!")

else:
 print("Where is it?!")

> Found it!

This will print the message "Found it!", because the substring "Star" is
indeed contained in the string.
Regex
What is a RegEx?

A regular expression (shortened as RegEx or RegExp) is a sequence of

characters that defines a search pattern. Typically, this is used for matching
text with a certain pattern, such as finding all phone numbers in a
document. Regular expressions are a powerful tool for working with text,
and they are supported by many programming languages.

How do I use RegEx in Python?

To use regular expressions in Python, you first need to import the re

module. This module provides functions and methods for working with
regular expressions.

Once you have imported the re module, you can use the re.search()
method to search for a pattern in a string. This method returns a match
object if the search pattern is found, or None if the pattern is not found.

Here is an example of how to use the re.search() function to search for a

pattern in a string:

import re
 # search for the pattern "hello" in the string "hello there"

result = re.search("hello", "hello there")

# check if a match was found

if result:

print("Match found:", result.group())

else:

print("Match not found!")

In this example, the re.search() method will return a match object if the
pattern "hello" is found in the string "hello there". The result.group()
method is then used to print the part of the string that matches the pattern.

You can also use the re.findall() method to find all occurrences of a pattern
in a string. This method returns a list of all matches found in the string.

Here is an example of how to use the re.findall() method to find all

occurrences of a pattern in a string:

import re

# find all occurrences of the pattern "hello" in the string "hello world, hello friends"

results = re.findall("hello", "hello there, hello vader")

# print the list of all matches found

print("Matches found:", results)

In this example, the re.findall() method will return a list of all occurrences
of the pattern "hello" in the string "hello there, hello vader". The list of
matches will be printed to the screen.

You can also use special characters in your regular expressions to match
specific types of characters or character combinations. For example, the \d
character class matches any digit (0-9), and the * character matches zero or
more occurrences of the preceding character or character class.

Chapter Review
● What is a string?
● How is a string different than other variable data types like int?
● How do you convert a string to an int?
● How do you reverse a string?
● How do you find a string in a string?
● How do you format a string?
● What is a regex?
 Chapter 5
Loops

In programming, what is a loop?

In programming, a loop is a control flow statement that allows the

programmer to repeat a block of code a certain number of times, or until a
certain condition is met. Loops are an essential part of many programming
languages, and they are used to perform repetitive tasks or operations
efficiently and easily.

There are several different types of loops, and the specific type of loop used
in a program depends on the specific requirements and characteristics of the
task at hand. Some of the most common types of loops are:

● for loops, which are used to iterate over a sequence of values, such
as the elements of a list or the characters in a string
● while loops, which are used to repeat a block of code until a certain
condition is met
● do-while loops, which are similar to while loops, but they
guarantee that the code inside the loop will be executed at least
once

What is a loop in Python?

In Python, a loop is a way to repeat a block of code multiple times. There

are two types of loops in Python: for loops and while loops.
For loops are used to execute a block of code a specified number of times,
and while loops are used to execute a block of code until a certain condition
is met. Here are some examples of for and while loops:

# For loop

for i in range(10):

print(i)

# While loop

i=0

while i < 10:

print(i)

i += 1

In the first example, the for loop is used to print the values 0 through 9 to
the screen. The range() function is used to generate a sequence of numbers,
and the for loop iterates over that sequence, assigning each value to the i
variable.

In the second example, the while loop is used to achieve the same result as
the for loop. The i variable is initialized to 0 outside the loop, and then the
while loop is used to print the value of i and increment it by 1 until i is no
longer less than 10.

What is the range function in Python?

In Python, the range() function is a built-in function that generates a

sequence of numbers. It is commonly used in for loops to iterate over a
sequence of numbers and perform the same action on each number in the
sequence.
The range() function takes three arguments: a start value, a stop value, and
a step size. The start value is the first number in the sequence, and the stop
value is the number that the sequence stops at (but does not include). The
step size is the amount by which the sequence should increment on each
iteration. Here are some examples of how to use the range() function in
Python:

# Start at 0, stop at 10, increment by 1

for i in range(0, 10, 1):

print(i)

# Start at 5, stop at 15, increment by 2

for i in range(5, 15, 2):

print(i)

# Start at 10, stop at 0, increment by -1

for i in range(10, 0, -1):

print(i)

In the first example, the range() function generates a sequence of numbers

from 0 to 9 with a step size of 1. The for loop iterates over this sequence,
and on each iteration the value of i is printed to the screen. In the second
example, the range() function generates a sequence of numbers from 5 to
14 with a step size of 2. In the third example, the range() function generates
a sequence of numbers from 10 to 1 with a step size of -1.

The range() function is a useful and versatile tool for generating sequences
of numbers in Python. It is commonly used in for loops, but it can also be
used in other contexts where a sequence of numbers is needed.
What does the slice operator do in Python?

In Python, the slice notation [start:end] is used to extract a sublist from a

list or a substring from a string. It includes the elements from the start index
(inclusive) to the end index (exclusive).

The slice notation allows you to specify either or both the start and end
indices as optional arguments. If you omit the start index, it is assumed to
be 0. If you omit the end index, it is assumed to be the length of the list or
string.

In the case of [-1 : ], the start index is -1, which means the last element in
the list or string, and the end index is not specified, which means all the
elements from the start index to the end of the list or string.

Here are a few examples of using the slice notation with lists:

# create a list of numbers

numbers = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

# print the last element of the list

print(numbers[-1])

>9

# print the last two elements of the list

print(numbers[-2:])

> [8, 9]
 # print the last three elements of the list

print(numbers[-3:])

> [7, 8, 9]

# print a copy of the list with only the last number remaining

print(numbers[-1:])

> [9]

Here are a few examples of using the slice notation with strings:

str_val = 'Hello there!'

# print the last character of the string

print(str_val[-1])

>!

# print the last two characters of the string

print(str_val[-2:])

> e!

# print the last three characters of the string

print(str_val[-3:])

> re!
What is a "for loop" in Python?

In Python, a for loop is a way to execute a block of code multiple times. It

is used to iterate over a sequence of values, such as a list or a range of
numbers, and perform the same action on each value in the sequence.

To write a for loop in Python, you use the for keyword followed by a
variable name, the in keyword, and the sequence you want to iterate over.
The code that should be executed on each iteration of the loop goes inside a
block indented under the for statement. Here's an example of a simple for
loop in Python:

for i in range(10):

print(i)

In this example, the for loop is used to print the values 0 through 9 to the
screen. The range() function is used to generate a sequence of numbers
from 0 to 9, and the for loop iterates over that sequence, assigning each
value to the i variable in turn. On each iteration of the loop, the value of i is
printed to the screen.

For loops are a powerful and important feature of Python, and they allow
you to write concise, readable code to perform the same action on multiple
values. They are commonly used to iterate over the elements of a list, but
they can be used with many other types of sequences as well.

How do I use "while loops" in Python?

In Python, while loops are used to execute a block of code multiple times
until a certain condition is met. To write a while loop, you use the while
keyword followed by the condition you want to check, and then a colon.
The code that should be repeated goes inside a block indented under the
while statement. Here's an example of a simple while loop in Python:

while x < 10:

print(x)

x += 1

In this example, the while loop will execute the code inside the loop
repeatedly as long as the value of x is less than 10. Each time the loop runs,
the value of x is printed to the screen, and then x is incremented by 1. This
means that the loop will print the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 to the
screen before the condition x < 10 is no longer true and the loop is
terminated.

It's important to make sure that the condition in a while loop will eventually
become false, otherwise the loop will run indefinitely and your program
will never finish. You can use the break keyword to exit a while loop
prematurely if a certain condition is met. For example:

while True:

if x > 10:

break

print(x)

x += 1

In this example, the while loop will run indefinitely because the condition
True is always true. However, the if statement inside the loop checks
whether x is greater than 10, and if it is, then the break statement is
executed and the loop is terminated.
Chapter Review
● What is a loop?
● How are for loops and while loops different?
● What is the range function?
● What does the slice operator do?
 Chapter 6
Functions, Comments, and Modules

Functions
In programming, what is a function?

In programming, a function is a self-contained block of code that performs

a specific task or operation. A function typically takes some input,
performs some operations on the input, and then returns an output. This
allows a function to be used multiple times within a program, making it
easier to write and maintain your code.

Functions are an essential part of many programming languages, and they

are used to modularize and organize code into reusable, self-contained
units. This makes it easier to understand and maintain large codebases, as
well as allowing for code reuse and abstraction.

In most programming languages, a function is defined using a function

declaration or definition, which specifies the name of the function, the
input parameters that the function takes, and the operations that the function
will execute.

How do I call a function in Python?

To call a function in Python, you use the function's name followed by a

pair of parentheses (). For example, if you have a function named
cool_function that you want to call, you would do the following:
 cool_function()

If the function takes arguments, you can specify the arguments within the
parentheses when you call the function. For example, if cool_function
takes two arguments, a1 and a2, you would call the function like this:

cool_function(a1, a2)

The arguments can be any valid Python expressions, and you can specify
them in any order if the function is defined to accept arguments by
position. If the function is defined to accept arguments by name, you can
specify the arguments in any order, as long as you include the argument
names in the call.

For example, if cool_function is defined to accept arguments by position,

you could call it like this:

cool_function(3, 5)

Or you could call it like this:

cool_function(5, 3)
Both of these calls would be valid, but the values of a1 and a2 would be
different depending on the order in which the arguments were specified.

On the other hand, if cool_function is defined to accept arguments by

name, you could call it like this:

cool_function(a1=3, a2=5)

Or you could call it like this:

 cool_function(a2=5, a1=3)

Either way, the values of a1 and a2 would be the same in the function call,
because the arguments are specified by name.

Overall, calling a function in Python is a simple and straightforward

process. You just need to use the function's name followed by a pair of
parentheses, and specify any required arguments within the parentheses.

How do you write functions in Python?

To write a function in Python, you use the def keyword followed by the
name of the function and any parameters it takes. The code for the function
goes inside a block indented under the definition line, and you can use the
return keyword to specify the value or values that the function should
output. Here's an example of a simple function that takes two numbers as
input and returns their sum:

def add(x, y):

return x + y

To call this function and use the result in your code, you would write
something like this:

result = add(3, 4)

print(result)

>7

Functions are a powerful and important feature of Python, and they allow
you to write modular, reusable code.
How do I return values from functions in Python?
To return a value from a function in Python, you use the return keyword
followed by the value you want to return. For example, consider the
following code:

def cool_function(x, y):

z=x+y

return z

result = cool_function(5, 10)

In this code, the cool_function function is defined to take two arguments, x

and y, and it returns the sum of those two arguments. This is done by
performing the addition operation on x and y, storing the result in the z
variable, and then using the return keyword followed by z to return the
value of z from the function.

When the cool_function function is called with the arguments 5 and 10, the
function performs the addition operation and returns the value of z, which is
15. This value is then stored in the result variable, so that it can be used
outside the function.

You can return any valid Python expression from a function using the
return keyword, and you can use the return keyword multiple times within
a function to return different values depending on the conditions of the
function. For example, consider the following code:

def my_function(x, y):

if x > y:

return x

else:
 return y

result = my_function(5, 10)

In this code, the my_function function is defined to take two arguments, x

and y, and it returns the larger of the two arguments. This is done by using
an if statement to check if x is greater than y, and if so, returning x from the
function. Otherwise, the else clause is executed and y is returned from the
function.

When the my_function function is called with the arguments 5 and 10, the
if statement is evaluated and the else clause is executed, so the function
returns the value of y, which is 10. This value is then stored in the result
variable.

Returning values from functions in Python is a simple and powerful way to

pass results from the function to the code that called the function, and it is
an important part of writing modular and reusable code.

What is the difference between a function and a method?

In programming, a function is a block of code that performs a specific task

and can be called by other parts of the code. A method is a type of function
that is associated with an object, and it is used to perform operations on the
data stored in the object.

The main difference between a function and a method is that a function is

a standalone block of code, while a method is associated with an object and
is used to operate on the data stored in the object. A function can be called
independently of any objects, while a method must be called on an object.
What is a function argument in programming?
A function argument (or parameter) is a value that is passed to a function
when it is called. The function can then use this value to perform its
operations.

Function arguments are used to provide additional information or

instructions to the function, and they can be required or optional. Required
arguments, also known as positional arguments, must be provided when
the function is called, in the correct order. Optional arguments, also
known as keyword arguments, can be omitted when the function is called,
and they can be specified in any order.

How do I use function arguments in Python?

To use function arguments in Python, you first need to define a function

that takes one or more arguments. This is done by specifying the names of
the arguments within the parentheses () in the function definition, separated
by commas. For example, consider the following code:

def cool_function(a1, a2):

# code here

In this code, the cool_function function is defined to take two arguments:

a1 and a2. These arguments are specified within the parentheses in the
function definition, and they can be used within the function to refer to the
values that are passed to the function when it is called.

To call a function and pass arguments to it, you simply specify the values of
the arguments within the parentheses () in the function call, in the same
order as they are defined in the function. For example, you could call the
cool_function function defined above like this:

cool_function(15, 7)
This would pass the values 15 and 7 to the a1 and a2 arguments,
respectively. The function could then use these values to perform its
operations.

Alternatively, if the function is defined to accept arguments by name, you

can specify the arguments in any order in the function call, as long as you
include the argument names. For example, you could call the cool_function
function like this:

cool_function(a2=7, a1=15)

This would have the same effect as calling the function with
cool_function(15, 7), but the arguments are specified by name instead of
by position.

How do I make default arguments in Python?

To create a default argument in Python, you can use the equal sign to
assign a default value to the parameter in the function definition. Here is an
example:

def say_hi(name, message = "What’s up,"):

print(message + " " + name)

# Call the function with the default message

greet("Anakin")

# Call the function with a different message

greet("General Kenobi", "Hello there")

In this example, the say_hi() function has a default argument for the
message parameter, which is set to "Hello". This means that if we call the
say_hi() function without passing a value for the message parameter, it will
use the default value.

When we call the say_hi() function with only one argument, the default
value for message is used, and the output is "What’s up, Anakin".

However, if we call the say_hi() function with two arguments, the second
argument will be used as the value for the message parameter, and the
output will be "Hello there General Kenobi".

It is important to note that default arguments must be placed after any

non-default arguments in the function definition. In other words, in the
greet() function above, the name parameter must come before the message
parameter, because name does not have a default value. If you try to put a
default argument before a non-default argument, you will get a syntax error.

How do I make optional arguments in Python?

To create optional arguments in Python, you can use default values for
the arguments in the function definition. When an argument has a default
value, it is considered to be optional, and the caller of the function can
choose whether or not to provide a value for that argument.

Here is an example of how to define a function with optional arguments in

Python:

def cool_function(a1, a2=None):

# a1 is a required argument, while a2 is optional

# If a2 is not provided, it will default to None

 if a2 is not None:

# Do something with a2

pass

# Do something with a1

pass

# “pass” is a keyword that is a placeholder for future code

In this example, the cool_function() function is defined with two

arguments: a1 and a2. a1 is a required argument, which means that the
caller of the function must provide a value for it. a2, on the other hand, is an
optional argument, because it has a default value of None. This means that
the caller of the function can choose whether or not to provide a value for
a2.

To call the function with optional arguments, you can simply provide
values for the required arguments, and omit the optional arguments.

What is type hinting in Python?

Type hinting is a feature in Python that allows you to provide hints about
the data types of function parameters and return values. These hints can be
used by static type checkers, IDEs, and other tools to provide better code
completion, error checking, and other functionality.

In Python, type hints are optional, and they are specified using annotations
in the function signature. Here is an example of a function with type hints in
Python:

def sum(x: int, y: int) -> int:

 return x + y

In this example, the sum() function has two parameters, x and y, and a
return value. The type hints for these elements are specified using
annotations, which are placed after the name of the element and a colon (:).
The type hints for x and y are int, which indicates that these parameters
should be integers, and the type hint for the return value is int, which
indicates that the function should return an integer.

Type hints can be used to provide information about the data types of
function parameters and return values, and they can help static type
checkers, IDEs, and other tools to provide better code completion and error
checking. They are optional in Python, and they do not affect the runtime
behavior of the code.

How do I use with/as in Python?

In Python, the with statement is used to wrap the execution of a block of

code with methods defined by a context manager. The with statement
allows you to specify a block of code to be executed, and then
automatically takes care of cleaning up after the block of code has been
executed, even if an exception is raised.

For example, when you open a file stream to read in the contents of a file,
you are meant to close it after you are done so the system can clean up
resources. Using a with statement the stream will automatically be closed
for you.

Here is an example of how to use the with statement in Python:

with open('file.txt', 'r') as f:

# Read the file

 content = f.read()

# the file is automatically closed after the with block is exited

In this example, the open() function is used to open a file for reading, and
the file is automatically closed after the with block is exited, even if an
exception is raised within the block.

The as keyword is used to specify a name for the object being managed by
the context manager. In the example above, the file object returned by the
open() function is being managed by the context manager, and it is given
the name f within the with block.

You can also use the as keyword with other types of context managers,
such as those used for acquiring and releasing locks or for creating and
destroying database connections.

import threading

lock = threading.Lock()

# Acquire a thread lock

with lock:

# critical section of code

# lock is automatically released when the with block is exited

How do I use generic typing in Python?

Python has a mechanism for specifying generic types using the typing
module, which was introduced in Python 3.5.
The typing module provides a set of classes and decorators that can be
used to annotate the types of variables, function arguments, and return
values in your code. These annotations can be used by static type checkers
and IDEs to provide type hints and improve code completion and error
detection.

Here is an example of how to use generic types in Python:

from typing import List, Union

def concat(items: List[Union[str, int]]) -> str:

result = ''

for item in items:

result += str(item)

return result

print(concat(['a', 'b', 'c']))

> abc
print(concat([1, 2, 3]))

> 123
print(concat(['r', 2, 'd']))

> r2d

In this example, the concat() function takes a list of items and returns a
string by concatenating the string representations of the items. The List
and Union types from the typing module are used to specify that the items
argument is a list of elements that can be either strings or integers, and the
return type is a string.

Note that these type annotations are not checked at runtime and do not
affect the behavior of the code. They are purely for the benefit of static type
checkers and IDEs.

What are decorators in Python?

In Python, a decorator is a function that takes another function and

extends the behavior of the latter function without explicitly modifying its
code. Decorators are a powerful and useful feature of the Python language
that allow you to modify the behavior of functions or classes in a concise
and flexible way.

Here is an example of how to use a decorator in Python:

def my_decorator(func):

def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):

print("Before call")

result = func(*args, **kwargs)

print("After call")

return result

return wrapper

@my_decorator

def say_hi(name):

print(f"Hello there, {name}!")

 say_hi("General Kenobi")

In this example, the my_decorator() function is a decorator that takes a

function as an argument and returns a wrapper function that prints a
message before and after calling the decorated function. The
@my_decorator syntax above the say_hi() function is used to apply the
decorator to the greet() function.

When you call the say_hi() function, it will execute the code in the
wrapper() function, which will print the messages and then call the
say_hi() function. The output of this code will be:

> Before call

> Hello there, General Kenobi
> After call

Decorators can be used to add functionality to existing functions or classes

without modifying their code, and they can be composed together to create
more complex behaviors.

Comments
What is a comment?

In programming, a comment is a line of text in a program that is ignored by

the compiler or interpreter, and is intended to be read by humans who are
reading the code. Comments are used to explain and document the code,
and they are an essential part of writing readable and maintainable
programs.
Comments are typically used to provide information about the purpose or
behavior of a piece of code, or to explain why a particular decision was
made in the code. They can also be used to disable or "comment out"
sections of code that are no longer needed, but that the programmer wants
to keep for reference or future use.

In most programming languages, comments are indicated by using a

special symbol or sequence of characters. For example, in Python,
comments are indicated by using the # character, and anything following
the # character on a line is treated as a comment and ignored by the
interpreter. For example, consider the following code:

# This is a comment

answer = 42

# This is also a comment

In this code, the first line is a comment that is ignored by the interpreter,
and the second line is a statement that assigns 42 to the answer variable.
The last part of the line, # This is also a comment, is also a comment, and it
is ignored by the interpreter.

Comments are an essential part of writing readable and maintainable code.

It is good practice to use comments liberally in your code to help everyone
understand what the code is doing.

What is a docstring?

A docstring is a string literal that appears as the first statement in a Python

function, method, or module. It is used to provide a brief description of the
function, method, or module, and it is intended to make the code easier to
understand and use.
Docstrings are enclosed in triple quotes ("""), and they can span multiple
lines. Here is an example of a docstring in a Python function:

def add_numbers(x, y):

"""This function takes two numbers and returns their sum"""

return x + y

In this example, the add_numbers() function has a docstring that describes

what the function does. This docstring can be accessed using the __doc__
attribute of the function, and it can be useful for understanding how the
function works and what it is intended to do.

Docstrings are an important part of Python's documentation conventions,

and they are often used in combination with other tools, such as the pydoc
module, to generate more detailed documentation for Python programs.

In addition to providing useful information for other programmers,

docstrings can also help you remember what your code is intended to do,
and they can make it easier to maintain and update your code in the future.

What is PEP 8 style?

PEP 8 is a set of coding style guidelines for Python programs. It was

written by Guido van Rossum, the creator of Python, and it was first
published in 2001. PEP stands for Python Enhancement Proposal, and PEP
8 is the eighth proposal in the series.

The purpose of PEP 8 is to improve the readability and consistency of

Python code, and to make it easier for programmers to write and maintain
Python programs. PEP 8 provides guidelines for the use of whitespace,
indentation, and other coding conventions in Python programs. It also
covers the use of comments, docstrings, and other best practices for writing
clean and efficient Python code.
PEP 8 is not a strict set of rules, and not all Python programmers follow it
exactly. However, it is widely accepted as a good starting point for writing
well-organized and readable Python code. Many Python IDEs and code
editors have built-in support for PEP 8, and there are tools available that
can help you check your code for compliance with PEP 8 guidelines.

Modules
What is a Python module?

A Python module is a file that contains Python code and defines a set of
functions, classes, or variables that can be used in other Python programs.
Modules provide a way to organize and reuse Python code, and they are an
essential part of the Python language.

Modules are typically stored in files with the .py extension, and they can be
imported into other Python programs using the import statement. For
example, consider the following module named my_module.py, which
defines a function named my_function:

def my_function(x, y):

z=x+y

return z

This module defines a single function named my_function that takes two
arguments, x and y, and returns their sum. To use this function in another
Python program, you can import the module and call the function like this:

import my_module

result = my_module.my_function(5, 10)

In this code, the import statement is used to import the my_module
module, and then the my_module.my_function function is called with the
arguments 5 and 10. This calls the my_function function defined in the
my_module module, and the result of the function is stored in the result
variable.

Modules are an important part of the Python language, as they provide a

way to organize and reuse Python code. Modules allow you to split your
code into logical units, and they also provide a way to share code with
others, or to use code from other libraries and frameworks. Modules are
typically stored in files with the .py extension, and they can be imported
into other Python programs using the import statement.

What is pip?

The program pip is a package management system for Python, used to

install and manage software packages written in Python. It is the default
package manager for the Python programming language and is included
with most current Python distributions. With pip, you can search for,
download, and install packages from the Python Package Index (PyPI) and
other package indexes.

Using pip, you can install packages from the command line by running the
following command:

pip install [package-name]

This will install the specified package, along with any other required
dependencies. You can also use pip to uninstall packages, upgrade installed
packages to the latest version, and manage package installations from
multiple sources.
What is the Python standard library?

The Python standard library is a collection of modules that are included

with the Python language, and that provide a wide range of functionality
and capabilities. The Python standard library is an essential part of the
Python language, and it is included with every installation of Python.

The Python standard library includes modules for a wide range of purposes,
including:

● handling input and output

● handling strings and text
● handling numbers and math
● handling dates and time
● handling files and directories
● handling data structures, such as lists and dictionaries
● handling networks and sockets
● handling threads and concurrency
● much more

The Python standard library is organized into several sub-libraries, each

of which provides a specific set of functionality. For example, the string
module in the standard library provides a wide range of functions and
classes for working with strings and text, while the math module provides
functions and constants for working with numbers and math.

To use a module from the Python standard library in a Python program,

you can use the import statement to import the module, and then use the
dot . operator to access the functions, classes, and variables defined in the
module. For example, to use the math module in a Python program, you
could do this:

import math
 x = math.sin(math.pi / 2)
In this code, the math module is imported, and then the math.sin and
math.pi functions are used to calculate the sine of pi/2. The result of this
calculation is stored in the x variable.

The Python standard library is an essential part of the Python language,

and it provides a wide range of functionality and capabilities. The standard
library includes modules for a wide range of purposes, and it is organized
into several sub-libraries. To use a module from the standard library in a
Python program, you can import it using the import statement, and then use
the dot . operator to access the functions, classes, and variables defined in
the module.

In Python, how do I import a class from another file?

To import a class from another file in Python, you can use the import
keyword. For example, let's say you have a file called my_module.py that
contains a class called MyClass. To use this class in another file, you would
first need to import it like this:

# Import the class from the my_module.py file

from my_module import MyClass

Then, you can use the MyClass class in your code by creating an instance
of it, like this:

# Create an instance of the MyClass class

my_object = MyClass()

You can then call methods on your my_object instance, or access its
attributes, just like you would with any other object in Python.
Chapter Review
● What is a function?
● What is a method? How is it different from a function?
● What is an argument?
● What is a docstring?
● What is pip?
● What is a module?
● What is a comment?
● Can a comment ever affect your code?
● What is the standard library?
● What is PEP 8?
 Chapter 7
Data Structures

In programming, what is a data structure?

In programming, a data structure is a way of organizing and storing data

in a computer so that it can be accessed and modified efficiently. Different
types of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and
some are highly specialized to specific tasks. Some common data structures
include arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues, and trees.

A data structure is typically implemented as a collection of related data

values, and the operations that can be performed on the data structure are
defined by its interface. For example, an array is a data structure that stores
a sequence of values, and it provides operations for accessing, inserting,
and deleting elements from the array. A linked list, on the other hand, is a
data structure that stores a sequence of nodes, each of which contains a
value and a reference to the next node in the sequence. A linked list
provides operations for inserting and deleting nodes, as well as traversing
the list to access the values it contains.

Data structures are an important part of many computer algorithms and

data processing systems, as they provide efficient ways of storing and
manipulating data. Different data structures have different time and space
complexity characteristics, so choosing the right data structure for a given
task can have a significant impact on the performance of an algorithm or
system. For example, a stack is a data structure that provides constant-time
insert and delete operations, making it well-suited to applications that
require last-in, first-out (LIFO) access to data. A queue, on the other hand,
provides constant-time insert and delete operations, making it well-suited to
applications that require first-in, first-out (FIFO) access to data.

Overall, data structures are an essential part of programming and computer

science, and they provide the building blocks for many algorithms and
systems that manipulate and process data.

Lists
What is a list?

In programming, a list is a data structure that is used to store a collection

of items. Lists are an essential part of many programming languages, and
they are often used to store and manipulate collections of data.

A list is typically implemented as an array, which is a contiguous block of

memory that is used to store the items in the list. Each item in a list has a
corresponding index, which is a numerical value that indicates the position
of the item in the list.

In most programming languages, lists are zero-indexed, which means that

the first item in the list has an index of 0, the second item has an index of 1,
and so on.

This allows items in a list to be accessed and manipulated using their index,
and it also allows the size of a list to be determined by checking the index
of the last item in the list.

For example, in Python, you could define a list like this:

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
In this code, the numbers list is defined with the values 1 through 5, and it
can be accessed and manipulated using the indices 0 through 4. For
example, you could access the third item in the list like this:

third_number = numbers[2]

# third_number is now set to 3

In this code, the numbers[2] expression is used to access the item at index
2 in the numbers list, which is the third item in the list. This value is then
assigned to the third_number variable, which is now set to 3.
Lists are an essential part of many programming languages, and they are
often used to store and manipulate collections of data. Lists are typically
implemented as arrays, and they allow items to be accessed and
manipulated using their indices.

Different programming languages have different syntax and behavior for

lists, but they all provide a way to store and manipulate collections of data.

Does Python have arrays?

In Python, arrays are not a built-in data type like they are in some other
languages. However, Python does have a list data type, which is similar to
an array in some other languages.

How do I sort a list in Python?

In Python, you can sort a list of values using the sorted() function. This
function takes a list as input and returns a new list containing the same
values in a sorted order. By default, the sorted() function sorts the values in
ascending order, but you can also specify the reverse=True keyword
argument to sort the values in descending order.
Here's an example of how to use the sorted() function to sort a list of
numbers in ascending order:

numbers = [3, 1, 4, 2, 5]

sorted_numbers = sorted(numbers)

print(sorted_numbers)

> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

In this example, the sorted() function is used to sort the numbers list in
ascending order. The result is a new list called sorted_numbers that
contains the same values as the original list, but in a sorted order. The
print() statement is used to print the sorted list to the screen, and the output
is [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].

You can also use the sorted() function to sort a list of strings or other types
of values in a similar way.

How do I slice a list in Python?

To slice a list in Python, you can use the list[start:end] syntax, where start
is the index of the first element you want to include in the slice and end is
the index of the first element you want to exclude from the slice. For
example, if you have a list my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] and you want to create a
slice that includes the elements at index 1 through 3 (that is, the elements 2,
3, and 4), you would do the following:

my_slice = my_list[1:4]

This would create a new list, my_slice, that contains the elements [2, 3, 4].
You can also omit the start or end index if you want to include all the
elements from the beginning or end of the list, respectively. For example, if
you want to create a slice that includes all the elements from the beginning
of the list up to (but not including) the element at index 3, you can do the
following:

my_slice = my_list[:3]

This would create a new list, my_slice, that contains the elements [1, 2, 3].

Alternatively, if you want to create a slice that includes all the elements
from the element at index 2 to the end of the list, you can do the following:

my_slice = my_list[2:]

This would create a new list, my_slice, that contains the elements [3, 4, 5].

Overall, slicing a list in Python is a simple and powerful way to extract

specific elements from a list and create a new list from those elements.

How do I remove duplicates from a list in Python?

To remove duplicates from a list in Python, you can use the set data type,
which is a collection of unique elements. Here is an example of how you
can use a set to remove duplicates from a list:

my_list = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4]

# Convert the list to a set, which will remove the duplicates

my_set = list(my_list)
 # Convert the set back to a list

my_list = list(my_set)

# Print the resulting list

print(my_list)

> [1, 2, 3, 4]

Alternatively, you can use the in keyword and a for loop to iterate over the
elements of the list and add each element to a new list if it is not already
present in the new list. Here is an example of how you can do this:

my_list = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4]

# Create an empty list to store the unique elements

unique_list = []

# Iterate over the elements of the list

for element in my_list:

# Check if the element is not already in the new list

if element not in unique_list:

# If it is not, add it to the new list

unique_list.append(element)

# Print the resulting list

 print(unique_list)

> [1, 2, 3, 4]

Both of these methods will produce the same result: a new list with the
duplicate elements removed. The method you choose will depend on your
preferences and the specific requirements of your application.

What are the map, filter, and reduce functions in Python?

In Python, the map(), filter(), and reduce() functions are built-in functions
that allow you to apply a function to a sequence of elements and produce a
new sequence. These functions are often used to perform operations on
lists, tuples, and other sequences of elements.

The map() function applies a function to each element of a sequence, and

returns a new sequence that contains the results of the function applied to
each element. For example, you can use the map() function to square each
element of a list of numbers:

# Define a list of numbers

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

# Use the map() function to apply a lambda function to each element of the list

# The lambda function takes an element, x, and returns its square

squares = map(lambda x: x**2, numbers)

 # Print the squared numbers

print(list(squares))

> [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

The filter() function applies a function to each element of a sequence, and

returns a new sequence that contains only the elements for which the
function returns True. For example, you can use the filter() function to
select only the even numbers from a list of numbers:

# Define a list of numbers

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

# Use the filter() function to apply a lambda function to each element of the list

# The lambda function takes an element, x, and returns True if it is even, and False
otherwise

evens = filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, numbers)

# Print the even numbers

print(list(evens))

> [2, 4]

The reduce() function applies a function to each element of a sequence, and

returns a single result. The function is applied to the first two elements of
the sequence, and the result is then used as the first argument for the next
iteration, along with the third element of the sequence. This process
continues until all elements have been processed, and a single result is
produced. For example, you can use the reduce() function to calculate the
sum of a list of numbers:

# Import the reduce() function from the functools module

from functools import reduce

# Define a list of numbers

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

# Use the reduce() function to apply a lambda function to the elements of the list

# The lambda function takes two arguments, x and y, and returns their sum

total = reduce(lambda x, y: x + y, numbers)

# Print the total

print(total)

> 15

How do I make a lambda in Python?

In Python, a lambda function is a single-line, anonymous function that is

defined using the lambda keyword. Lambda functions are used to perform
simple operations, and they are often used in conjunction with other built-in
functions, such as map(), filter(), and reduce().
Here is an example of how you can define a lambda function in Python:

# Define a lambda function that takes two arguments, x and y, and returns their sum

my_lambda = lambda x, y: x + y

# Use the lambda function

result = my_lambda(3, 4)

print(result)

>7

In this example, the my_lambda function is defined using the lambda

keyword, followed by the function arguments, a colon, and the function
body. The function body is a single expression that specifies what the
function should return. In this case, the function returns the sum of its two
arguments, x and y.

Lambda functions are often used in combination with other built-in

functions, such as map() and filter(). Here is an example of how you can
use a lambda function with the map() function:

# Define a list of numbers

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

# Use the map() function to apply a lambda function to each element of the list

# The lambda function takes an element, x, and returns its square

 squares = map(lambda x: x**2, numbers)

# Print the squared numbers

print(list(squares))

> [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

In this example, the map() function applies the lambda function to each
element of the numbers list. The lambda function takes an element, x, and
returns its square. This results in a list of squared numbers.

In Python what is an iterable?

In Python, an iterable is an object that can be used in a for loop, or with

other functions and constructs that expect an iterable. An iterable is an
object that defines the __iter__ method, which returns an iterator, or an
object that defines the __getitem__ method, which allows the object to be
indexed like a list.

Iterables are an essential part of Python, and they are used to represent a
sequence of values that can be iterated over in a for loop, or passed to
functions and constructs that expect an iterable. Examples of iterables in
Python include lists, tuples, strings, and dictionaries.

For example, in Python, you could use a for loop to iterate over a list of
numbers like this:

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

for number in numbers:

print(number)
In this code, the numbers list is defined with the values 1 through 5, and
then a for loop is used to iterate over the elements of the list. The number
variable is used to refer to each element of the list in turn, and the code
inside the loop is executed once for each element. This code would print the
numbers 1 through 5 to the screen, one number per line.

The numbers list is an iterable, because it defines the __getitem__

method, which allows it to be indexed like a list. This means that the
numbers list can be used in a for loop, or with other functions and
constructs that expect an iterable.

Sets
In programming, what is a set?

In programming, a set is a data structure that stores a collection of unique

elements. Sets are commonly used in many programming languages,
including Python, to store data that needs to be accessed quickly and
efficiently.

Sets are similar to other collection data types, such as lists and tuples, but
they have some key differences. Unlike lists and tuples, sets only store
unique elements, so you can't have duplicates in a set. Additionally, sets are
unordered, which means that the elements in a set are not stored in any
particular order. This makes sets faster and more efficient for certain
operations, such as checking whether an element is in a set, or computing
the intersection or union of two sets.

Here's an example of how you can create and use a set in Python:
 # Define a set of numbers

numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

# Add a new element to the set

numbers.add(6)

# Check if an element is in the set

if 4 in numbers:

print("4 is in the set")

# Remove an element from the set

numbers.remove(3)

# Print the set to the console

print(numbers)

> 4 is in the set

> {1, 2, 4, 5, 6}

This code will create a set of numbers and then add and remove elements
from the set. When you run it, it will print 4 is in the set and then {1, 2, 4, 5,
6} to the console.
As you can see, sets are a useful data structure for storing and working with
collections of unique elements in your programs. You can use them to
efficiently store and manipulate data in many different scenarios.

Tuples
In programming, what is a tuple?

In programming, a tuple is a data structure that consists of an ordered

sequence of elements. Tuples are similar to lists, but they are immutable,
which means that the elements of a tuple cannot be changed once the tuple
is created. In Python, tuples are written with round brackets, and the
elements of a tuple are separated by commas. For example, the following
code creates a tuple containing the three strings "apple", "banana", and
"cherry":

my_tuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

Tuples have several advantages over lists. Because they are immutable,
tuples are generally considered to be safer and more predictable than lists.
This can be especially useful in situations where you need to ensure that the
data in your tuple remains unchanged. Additionally, tuples are often faster
and more efficient than lists, because their immutability allows the
interpreter to make certain optimisations when working with them. Finally,
tuples are useful for creating data structures that have a fixed number of
elements, or that consist of multiple elements of different types. For
example, you could use a tuple to store the coordinates of a point in space,
or to represent a record with fixed fields, such as a person's name and age.

Dictionaries
In programming, what is a dictionary?
In programming, a dictionary is a data structure that is used to store a
collection of key-value pairs. Dictionaries are an essential part of many
programming languages, and they are often used to store and manipulate
collections of data where each item has a unique key associated with it.

A dictionary is typically implemented as a hash table, which is a data

structure that uses a hash function to map keys to their corresponding
values efficiently. Each key-value pair in a dictionary is called an entry,
and the keys in a dictionary are typically unique and immutable.

In most programming languages, dictionaries are unordered, which means

that the order in which the entries are added to the dictionary is not
preserved. This means that the entries in a dictionary cannot be accessed
using an index like in a list or array, but must be accessed using the keys
associated with the entries.

Dictionaries are an essential part of many programming languages, and

they are often used to store and manipulate collections of data where each
item has a unique key associated with it. Dictionaries are typically
implemented as hash tables, and they allow entries to be accessed using the
keys associated with the entries. Different programming languages have

How do I use dictionaries in Python?

To use dictionaries in Python, you can create a dictionary using the dict
class, or you can use the curly braces {} to define a dictionary literal. Once
you have created a dictionary, you can add entries to it by assigning values
to keys, like this:

ages = {}

# create an empty dictionary

 ages["Alice"] = 22

# add an entry with key "Alice" and value 22

ages["Bob"] = 25

# add an entry with key "Bob" and value 25

ages["Charlie"] = 31

# add an entry with key "Charlie" and value 31

In this code, an empty dictionary is created using the dict class, and then
three entries are added to the dictionary using assignment statements. The
keys in a dictionary must be unique and immutable, and the values can be
of any type.

Once you have created and populated a dictionary, you can access the
entries in the dictionary using the keys associated with the entries. For
example, you could access the entry with key "Bob" like this:

age = ages["Bob"]

# age is now set to 25

In this code, the ages["Bob"] expression is used to access the entry in the
ages dictionary with the key "Bob", and the corresponding value (25) is
assigned to the age variable.

You can also use the in keyword to check if a key is in a dictionary, like
this:

if "Bob" in ages:
 print("Bob is in the dictionary")

In this code, the "Bob" in ages expression is used to check if the key "Bob"
is in the ages dictionary. Since the key "Bob" was added to the dictionary
in the previous examples, this condition evaluates to true, and the code
inside the if statement is executed. This code would print "Bob is in the
dictionary" to the screen.

Chapter Review
● What is a data structure?
● What is a list?
● How is a list different from a tuple?
● How is it different from a set?
● What is a dictionary?
● What is the slice operator?
● What do map and reduce do? Filter?
 Chapter 8
Object Oriented Programming

What is object-oriented programming?

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that is

based on the concept of "objects", which can contain data and code that
manipulates that data. OOP is designed to make it easy to create and
maintain large and complex software systems, and it is used in many
different programming languages.

In OOP, objects are created from templates called classes, which define the
properties and behavior of the objects. Objects can inherit characteristics
from their parent classes, and they can be extended and modified to create
new objects.

OOP has several key features, including encapsulation, polymorphism,

and inheritance. Encapsulation refers to the idea that the internal details
of an object should be hidden from the outside world, and only the object's
public interface should be visible. Polymorphism refers to the ability of
objects to take on different forms, depending on the context in which they
are used. Inheritance refers to the ability of objects to inherit
characteristics from their parent classes.

Overall, OOP is a powerful programming paradigm that is used to create

large and complex software systems. It allows for the modularization and
organization of code, and it makes it easier to manage and maintain
software programs.
In programming, what is a class?

In object-oriented programming (OOP), a class is a template or blueprint

that is used to create objects. It defines the properties and behavior of the
objects that are created from it, and it provides a common structure for the
objects to follow.

A class typically consists of a set of data fields (or attributes) and a set of
methods (or functions) that operate on those data fields. The data fields
define the characteristics of the objects that are created from the class, and
the methods define the behavior of the objects.

Classes are an important part of object-oriented programming, and they

are used to organize and structure code. They allow for the modularization
of code, and they make it easier to create and maintain large and complex
software systems.

How do you use classes in Python?

To use classes in Python, you first need to define the class using the class
keyword, followed by the name of the class. You can then define the data
fields and methods of the class, and you can use the self keyword to refer to
the current object within the class methods.

Here is an example of how to define and use a simple class in Python:

# Define the class

class Person:
 def __init__(self, name, age):

self.name = name

self.age = age

def say_hello(self):

print("Hello, my name is " + self.name)

# Create an object from the class

p1 = Person("John", 30)

# Access the object's data fields

print(p1.name)

> John
John print(p1.age)

> 30

# Call the object's method

p1.say_hello()

> Hello, my name is John

In this example, the Person class is defined with two data fields, name and
age, and one method, say_hello(). An object is then created from the
Person class, and its data fields and methods are accessed and called.
This example shows the basic steps for defining and using classes in
Python. You can use classes to organize and structure your code, and you
can create as many objects as you need from a single class.

What are public and private attributes in Python?

In Python, the terms "public" and "private" refer to the visibility of class
attributes. Public attributes are attributes that can be freely accessed from
anywhere, while private attributes are attributes that are only accessible
from within the class itself.

In Python, there is no explicit syntax for defining public and private

attributes. Instead, the convention is to use a leading underscore (_)
character for private attributes and no leading underscore for public
attributes. For example:

class MyClass:

def __init__(self):

self._private_attribute = 1

self.public_attribute = 2

In this example, the _private_attribute attribute is a private attribute,

because it has a leading underscore in its name. The public_attribute
attribute is a public attribute, because it does not have a leading underscore
in its name.

While this convention is not enforced by the Python interpreter, it is a

widely-followed convention that helps to prevent accidental access to
private attributes from outside the class.
It's important to note that, even though private attributes are not directly
accessible from outside the class, they can still be accessed through
methods within the class. For example:

class MyClass:

def __init__(self):

self._private_attribute = 1

def get_private_attribute(self):

return self._private_attribute

In this example, the _private_attribute attribute is private, but it can still

be accessed through the get_private_attribute method. This is because the
method is part of the class and has access to the self instance, which
includes the private attribute.

In general, it is considered good practice to use private attributes to

encapsulate implementation details of a class, and to provide public
methods for accessing and modifying the state of the object. This helps to
prevent accidental modification of the object's state and makes the class
easier to use and maintain.
What is "self" in Python?

In Python, the keyword self is used to represent the instance of an object in

a class method. It is automatically passed as the first argument to a class
method when the method is called, but you don't have to specify it when
calling the method.

Here is an example of how self is used in a class method:

class MyClass:

def my_method(self):
 # Code for the method goes here

# You can access instance attributes and methods

# using the self keyword

self.attribute = 1

self.other_method()

In this example, the my_method method is a class method that takes the
self argument. This argument is automatically passed to the method when
it is called, and it refers to the instance of the class on which the method is
called.

In the body of the method, the self keyword is used to access the instance
attributes and methods of the object. For example, the self.attribute line
sets the value of the attribute attribute for the instance, and the
self.other_method() line calls the other_method method for the instance.

It's important to note that you don't have to specify the self argument when
calling a class method. For example, if you have an instance of MyClass
called my_object, you can call the my_method method like this:

my_object.my_method()

In this case, the self argument will be automatically passed to the

my_method method, and it will refer to the my_object instance.

Does Python have interface blueprints like other languages?

No, Python does not have a traditional interface construct like other
languages, such as Java and C#. In Python, you can use the concept of an
abstract base class to define the methods and attributes that a subclass
should implement, but this is not the same as an interface.

An abstract base class in Python is a class that contains one or more

abstract methods, which are methods that are declared but not
implemented. When you define a subclass of an abstract base class, the
subclass must implement all of the abstract methods from the base class, or
it will be an abstract class itself.

Here is an example of how to define and use an abstract base class in

Python:

from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

# Define an abstract base class

class Shape(ABC):

@abstractmethod

def area(self):

pass

# Define a subclass of the abstract base class class Circle(Shape):

def __init__(self, radius):

self.radius = radius

def area(self):

return 3.14 * self.radius ** 2

 # Create an instance of the Circle class

circle = Circle(10)

# Call the area() method

print(circle.area())

> 314.0

In this example, the Shape class is defined as an abstract base class, and it
contains an abstract method called area(). The Circle class is defined as a
subclass of Shape, and it implements the area() method to calculate the
area of a circle.

When you create an instance of the Circle class and call the area() method,
the area() method from the Circle class is called, rather than the abstract
method from the Shape class. This allows you to enforce a common
interface for subclasses of the Shape class, without using a traditional
interface construct.

In Python, what is a dunder method?

In Python, a dunder method is a method with a double underscore

(dunder) in its name. These methods are also known as magic methods,
and they are used to define the behavior of certain operations in Python.

Dunder methods are special methods that are defined within a class, and
they have a specific signature and behavior. They are called automatically
by Python when certain operations are performed on an object, and they
allow you to customize the behavior of those operations.

Here is an example of a dunder method in Python:

 class Person:

def __init__(self, name, age):

self.name = name

self.age = age

def __str__(self):

return "Person: " + self.name + ", " + str(self.age)

In this example, the Person class has a __str__() dunder method. The
__str__() method is called automatically when the str() function is called
on an object, and it defines how the object should be represented as a string.
In this case, the __str__() method returns a string that includes the object's
name and age.

Here is an example of how to use the __str__() dunder method using the
above class definition:

# Create an object from the class

p1 = Person("John", 30)

# Call the str() function on the object

print(str(p1))

# Output: Person: John, 30

In this example, the str() function is called on the p1 object, and the
__str__() method is automatically called. The __str__() method returns a
string that includes the object's name and age, and that string is printed by
the print() function.

Dunder methods are special methods in Python that have double

underscores in their names. They are called automatically by Python when
certain operations are performed on an object, and they allow you to
customize the behavior of those operations.

What does the __init__ method do in Python?

In Python, the __init__() method is a special method that is called when an

object is created from a class. It is used to initialize the data fields of the
object, and it is automatically called when an object is created.

The __init__() method is defined within the class definition, and it has a
specific signature that includes the self keyword. Here is an example of a
class that has an __init__() method:

class Person:

def __init__(self, name, age):

self.name = name

self.age = age

def say_hello(self):

print("Hello, my name is " + self.name)

In this example, the __init__() method is defined with two parameters,

name and age, which are used to initialize the data fields of the object. The
self keyword is used to refer to the current object, and it is used to set the
values of the name and age data fields.
When an object is created from the Person class, the __init__() method is
automatically called, and it sets the initial values of the object's data fields.
Here is an example of how to create an object from the Person class and
call the __init__() method:

# Create an object from the class

p1 = Person("Ben Kenobi", 30)

# The __init__() method is automatically called,

# and the object's data fields are initialized

print(p1.name)

> Ben Kenobi

print(p1.age)

> 30

In this example, the __init__() method is automatically called when the p1

object is created, and it sets the initial values of the name and age data
fields.

Can I docstring Python classes?

Yes, you can use docstrings to document Python classes. Docstrings are
string literals that appear as the first statement in a Python function,
method, or class, and they are used to provide a brief description of the
function, method, or class.
To create a docstring for a Python class, you can add a string literal as the
first statement in the class definition. The string can span multiple lines, and
it should provide a brief description of the class and its purpose. Here is an
example of a class with a docstring:

class Person:

"""This class represents a person, with a name and an age"""

def __init__(self, name, age):

self.name = name

self.age = age

def say_hello(self):

print("Hello, my name is " + self.name)

In this example, the Person class has a docstring that describes what the
class is for and what it does. The docstring is enclosed in triple quotes
("""), and it appears as the first statement in the class definition.

You can access the docstring of a class using the __doc__ attribute of the
class. Here is an example of how to access the docstring of the Person
class:

# Access the docstring of the class

print(Person.__doc__)

# Output: This class represents a person, with a name and an age

In this example, the __doc__ attribute of the Person class is accessed, and
the class's docstring is printed.

Docstrings are an important part of Python's documentation conventions.

In programming, what is class inheritance?

In object-oriented programming (OOP), class inheritance is a

mechanism that allows one class (the child class) to inherit the
characteristics of another class (the parent class). The child class can use
the attributes and methods of the parent class, and it can override or
extend those attributes and methods to provide its own behavior.

Class inheritance is a powerful feature of OOP that allows for code reuse
and modularization. It allows you to create a hierarchy of classes, where
child classes inherit the attributes and methods of their parent classes. This
can make it easier to manage and maintain large and complex software
systems.

Here is an example of class inheritance in Python:

# Define the parent class

class Animal:

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name

def make_sound(self):

print("Grrrr")
# Define the child class

class Dog(Animal):

def __init__(self, name, breed):

# Call the parent’s __init__() method

super().__init__(name)

self.breed = breed

def make_sound(self):

# Override the parent’s make_sound() method

print("Woof!")

# Create an object from the child class

dog1 = Dog("Buddy", "Labrador")

# Call the child’s make_sound() method

dog1.print()

> Woof!

In this example, the Animal class is defined with a __init__() method and a
make_sound() method. The Dog class is defined as a child of the Animal
class, and it inherits the __init__() and make_sound() methods from the
parent class.
The Dog class overrides the make_sound() method of the parent class, and
it defines its own behavior for this method. It also calls the __init__()
method of the parent class using the super() function, and it passes the
name parameter to that method.

Class inheritance is a powerful feature of OOP that allows one class to

inherit the characteristics of another class. It allows for code reuse and
modularization, and it makes it easier to manage and maintain large and
complex software systems.
In programming, what is a static method?

In programming, a static method is a method that belongs to a class rather

than an instance of the class. This means that the method is associated with
the class itself, rather than with any particular instance of the class.

A static method can be called on the class itself, rather than on an instance
of the class. This is different from a regular method, which can only be
called on an instance of a class.

Static methods are often used as factory methods, which are methods that
create and return new instances of a class. They are also often used to
define utility functions that are related to a class, but don't require access to
instance-specific state.

It's important to note that static methods do not have access to the instance
of the class. This means that they can't modify object state, but they can be
called on the class itself, rather than on an instance of the class.
How do I make a static method in Python?

To create a static method in Python, you can use the @staticmethod

decorator. Here is an example of how to do this:

class MyClass:

@staticmethod
 def my_static_method():

# Code here!

pass

To call the static method, you would use the following syntax:

MyClass.my_static_method()

It's important to note that static methods are different from regular methods
in that they don't have access to the instance of the class, and therefore they
don't have access to self. This means that they can't modify object state, but
they can be called on the class itself, rather than on an instance of the class.

Here is an example of how you might use a static method to create a

factory method, which is a common use case for static methods in
Python:

class MyClass:

@staticmethod

def create_object(x, y):

# Create and return an object using x and y

return MyClass(x, y)

In this example, the create_object method is a static method that can be

called on the MyClass class itself, rather than on an instance of the class.
This allows you to create new instances of MyClass without having to first
create an instance of the class.

Chapter Review
● What is a class?
● What is the difference between an object and a class?
● What are the key important parts of OOP?
● How does inheritance work?
● What’s a static method?
 Chapter 9
Errors When Things Go Wrong

What is an exception in Python?

An exception is an error that occurs during the execution of a Python

program. Exceptions can be raised when a program tries to perform an
invalid operation, such as dividing a number by zero or trying to access an
element in a list using an index that is out of bounds. When an exception
occurs, it interrupts the normal flow of the program and causes it to
terminate, unless the exception is handled by the program.

In Python, exceptions are represented by objects that are instances of the

Exception class or one of its subclasses. When an exception is raised, it
creates an Exception object that contains information about the error, such
as the type of the exception and a detailed error message. This Exception
object can be caught and handled by the program, allowing the program to
continue executing even in the presence of an error.

Exceptions are an important mechanism in Python for handling errors and

allowing a program to gracefully recover from unexpected situations. By
using try and except statements, you can write Python programs that are
able to handle exceptions and continue running even in the face of errors.

What is "try except" in Python?

"Try catch" is a common programming construct that is used to handle

errors or exceptions that may occur in a program. In Python, the "try" and
"except" keywords are used to implement this construct.
The "try" keyword is used to enclose a block of code that may throw an
error or exception. If an error occurs within this block of code, the
interpreter will immediately stop executing the code and move on to the
"except" block, which is used to handle the error.

Here is an example of how the "try" and "except" keywords are used in
Python:

try:

# This code may throw an error or exception

result = some_function()

except:

# This code will be ran if there’s an error

print("An error occurred!”)

In this example, the code inside the "try" block calls the some_function()
function, which may throw an exception. If an exception is thrown, the
interpreter will immediately stop executing the "try" block and move on to
the "except" block, which is used to handle the error. In the "except" block,
the error message is printed to the screen using the print() function.

The "try catch" construct is useful because it allows you to gracefully

handle errors or exceptions in your code, without the need to abruptly stop
the program or crash the interpreter. This can help to improve the reliability
and stability of your program, and can make it easier to debug and
troubleshoot any problems that may occur.

What is code debugging?

Code debugging is the process of identifying and fixing errors or bugs in a
computer program. When a program contains errors, it will not run
correctly, and may produce incorrect or unexpected results, or crash
altogether. Debugging is an essential part of the software development
process, and it involves finding and fixing these errors so that the program
can run correctly.

There are many different techniques and tools that can be used for
debugging, depending on the specific needs and goals of the project. Some
common techniques include adding print statements or other debugging
messages to the code, using a debugger to step through the code line by
line, or using automated testing tools to find and isolate errors.

The goal of debugging is to identify and fix the errors in a program as

quickly and efficiently as possible. This can require a combination of
technical skills, problem-solving abilities, and a thorough understanding of
the program's code and its intended behavior. Debugging can be a
challenging and time-consuming process, but it is an essential part of
creating high-quality software.

How do I debug code in Python?

To debug code in Python, you can use a combination of techniques,

including adding print statements, using a debugger, and running
automated tests.

One of the simplest and most effective ways to debug code in Python is to
use the print() function to print out the values of variables or expressions at
different points in your code. This can help you to understand the state of
your program at different stages of execution, and can make it easier to
identify where errors are occurring and what might be causing them.

Another useful tool for debugging Python code is the pdb module, which
provides a command-line debugger that allows you to step through your
code line by line, inspect the values of variables, and control the execution
of the program. This can be especially helpful for understanding the flow of
control in your code, and for identifying errors that are difficult to detect
using print statements alone.

In addition to these techniques, you can also use automated testing tools,
such as unittest or pytest, to write and run test cases for your code. This
can help you to identify and fix errors more quickly and systematically, and
can also help to ensure that your code continues to work correctly as you
make changes to it.

Is there a visual debugger for Python?

Yes, there are several visual debuggers for Python. A visual debugger is a
type of debugging tool that provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for
stepping through and inspecting the code of a program. This can make it
easier to understand the flow of control in your code, and to identify and fix
errors.

One popular visual debugger for Python is the pdb module, which is
included in the standard library. The pdb debugger provides a command-
line interface (CLI) for stepping through and inspecting your code, and it
also includes a pdb.run() function that allows you to run the debugger in a
separate window. This can make it easier to see the code and the values of
variables as you step through your program.

Another popular visual debugger for Python is ipdb, which is a fork of pdb
that adds additional features and improvements. ipdb includes support for
tab-completion, syntax highlighting, and inline debugging, which can make
it even easier to use and more powerful than pdb.

In addition to these options, there are also several third-party visual

debuggers for Python, such as PyCharm and Wing IDE, which provide
more advanced features and a more user-friendly interface.
What is a programming syntax error?

A syntax error is a type of error that occurs when the syntax of a

programming language is not followed correctly. In other words, it is an
error in the structure of the program's code that makes it impossible for the
interpreter to parse and execute the program.

Syntax errors are typically caused by missing or mismatched punctuation,

incorrect indentation, or incorrect use of reserved words or operators. For
example, a syntax error might occur if you forget to close a quotation
mark, or if you use a variable name that is not allowed in your
programming language.

Syntax errors are usually detected by the interpreter when you try to run
your program. The interpreter will display an error message that indicates
where the error occurred and what the problem is. For example, the error
message might say something like "SyntaxError: unexpected end of file", or
"SyntaxError: invalid syntax".

It is important to fix syntax errors in your code, as they will prevent your
program from running correctly. To fix a syntax error, you need to
carefully review your code and look for any mistakes in the syntax. Once
you have identified the error, you can make the necessary corrections and
run your program again to see if the error has been resolved.

What is a programming run-time error?

A runtime error, also known as a runtime exception, is a type of error

that occurs when a program is running. Unlike a syntax error, which is
detected by the interpreter when the program is first compiled, a runtime
error occurs during the execution of the program, when the interpreter is
trying to execute a specific line of code.
There are many different types of runtime errors, and they can be caused
by a wide range of issues. Some common examples of runtime errors
include trying to access an element of an array or list that does not

exist, dividing a number by zero, or calling a function with the wrong

number of arguments.

Runtime errors can be difficult to debug, because they often do not

produce an error message until the program is already running. When a
runtime error occurs, the interpreter will typically stop executing the
program and display an error message that indicates what the problem is
and where it occurred.

To fix a runtime error, you need to carefully review the code that caused
the error, and try to understand what went wrong. You may need to add
additional debugging statements or test cases to help identify the problem,
and then make the necessary changes to your code to fix the error. Once you
have fixed the error, you can run your program again to see if it works
correctly.

Chapter Review
● What is an exception?
● What is “try/except”? How do you use it?
● What is a debugger?
● What is a syntax error?
● What is a runtime error?
 Chapter 10
Math and Charts

How do I do basic math in Python?

To do basic math in Python, you can use the built-in mathematical

operators. For example, to add two numbers a and b you would use the +
operator like this:

result = a + b

Other mathematical operators in Python include - for subtraction, * for

multiplication, / for division, and % for modulo (remainder). For example,
to compute the remainder of a divided by b you would write:

remainder = a % b

Python also has built-in functions for more complex mathematical

operations, such as pow for exponentiation, sqrt for square root, and log for
logarithms. For example, to compute the square root of a you would write:

sqrt_a = sqrt(a)

You can also use the math module to access a wide range of mathematical
functions. To use the math module, you need to import it first, like this:

import math
Once you have imported the math module, you can access its functions
using the dot notation, like this:

sqrt_a = math.sqrt(a)

To find the minimum and maximum of two numbers in Python, you can use
the min and max functions, respectively. For example, to find the minimum
of a and b, you would write:

minimum = min(a, b)

To find the maximum of a and b, you would write:

maximum = max(a, b)

The min and max functions can also be used with more than two numbers.
For example, to find the minimum of three numbers a, b, and c, you would
write:

minimum = min(a, b, c)

To find the maximum of three numbers a, b, and c, you would write:

maximum = max(a, b, c)

How can I get a random number in Python?

To get a random number in Python, you can use the random module and
its function randint(). Here's an example:

import random
# Get a random integer between 1 and 10 (inclusive) random_number =
random.randint(1, 10)

print(random_number)

> (A random number between 1 and 10)

This will print a random integer between 1 and 10 (inclusive) to the

console. You can adjust the lower and upper bounds of the range by
changing the arguments to randint(). For example, if you want a random
number between 0 and 100, you would call randint(0, 100).

How do I round numbers in Python?

To round numbers in Python, you can use the round() function. This
function takes a number as input and returns the number rounded to the
nearest integer. Here's an example:

# Define a number to round

number = 3.14159

# Round the number to the nearest integer

rounded_number = round(number)

print(rounded_number)
This code will print 3 to the console. As you can see, the round() function
rounds the input number down to the nearest integer.

You can also use the round() function to round a number to a specific
number of decimal places. To do this, you need to pass an additional
argument to the round() function specifying the number of decimal places
you want. Here's an example:

# Define a number to round

number = 3.14159

# Round the number to two decimal places

rounded_number = round(number, 2)

print(rounded_number)

This code will print 3.14 to the console. As you can see, the round()
function rounds the input number to two decimal places, as specified by the
second argument.

How do I calculate exponents in Python?

To calculate exponents in Python, you can use the ** operator. This

operator raises the number on the left side of the operator to the power of
the number on the right side. For example, to calculate 2 to the power of 3,
you would write:

result = 2 ** 3

This would return 8, since 2 to the power of 3 is equal to 8.

Alternatively, you can use the pow function from the math module to
calculate exponents. To use the pow function, you need to import the math
module first, like this:

import math

Once you have imported the math module, you can use the pow function
to calculate exponents like this:

result = math.pow(2, 3)

This would also return 8.

Note that the pow function returns a floating-point number, even if the
result is an integer (whole number). So if you want to get an integer result,
you need to convert the result to an integer using the int function, like this:

result = int(math.pow(2, 3))

This would return 8 as an integer, rather than as a floating-point number.

How do I calculate the radius and area of a circle in Python?

To calculate the radius and area of a circle in Python, you can use the math
module to access the value of pi and the pow() function to calculate the
radius and area.

Here is an example of how you could calculate the radius and area of a
circle in Python:

import math
 # Define the radius of the circle

r=5

# Calculate the area of the circle using the formula

A = pi * r^2

A = math.pi * pow(r, 2)

# Print the radius and area of the circle

print("The radius of the circle is", r)

print("The area of the circle is", A)

In this example, the pow() function is used to calculate the radius raised to
the second power, which is then multiplied by the value of pi from the
math module to calculate the area of the circle.

How do I use trigonometry functions in Python?

In Python, the math module provides functions for working with

trigonometric functions. For example, to use the sine function, you would
first need to import the math module, and then call the sin() function like
this:

import math x = math.sin(1)

The sin() function takes an angle as its argument, specified in radians, and
returns the sine of that angle. You can use the other trigonometric functions
in the same way, by calling the corresponding function from the math
module. For example, to use the cosine function, you would call the cos()
function like this:

import math x = math.cos(1)

Similarly, you can use the tangent function by calling the tan() function,
and the inverse sine, cosine, and tangent functions by calling the asin(),
acos(), and atan() functions, respectively.

Here is an example that demonstrates how to use these functions to

calculate the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle:

import math

# Calculate the sine of the angle

angle = 1

sin = math.sin(angle)

# Calculate the cosine of the angle

cos = math.cos(angle)

# Calculate the tangent of the angle

tan = math.tan(angle)

# Print the results

print("The sine of the angle is", sin)

 print("The cosine of the angle is", cos)

print("The tangent of the angle is", tan)

How do I do calculus in Python?

Python has several libraries that provide functions for working with
calculus. The sympy library is one option that allows you to perform
symbolic calculus in Python.

To use the sympy library, you first need to install it by running “pip install
sympy” in your terminal. Once you have installed the library, you can use it
in your Python code by importing it and using the provided functions.

Here is an example that shows how to use the sympy library to calculate the
derivative of a function:

import sympy

# The function you want a derivative of

f = x**2 + 2*x + 1

# Use the diff() function to calculate the derivative

df = sympy.diff(f, x)

# Print the result

print("The derivative of f(x) is", df)

In this example, the diff() function is used to calculate the derivative of the
function f(x) with respect to the variable x. The diff() function takes two
arguments: the function that you want to take the derivative of, and the
variable with respect to which you want to take the derivative.

In addition to the diff() function, the sympy library also provides functions
for calculating integrals, limits, and other common operations in calculus.
You can learn more about the sympy library and its features by reading the
documentation at https://www.sympy.org/.

Charting with Matplotlib

What is Matplotlib?

Matplotlib is a popular Python library for creating visualizations of data. It

provides a variety of functions and classes that make it easy to plot data in a
wide range of formats, including line plots, scatter plots, bar charts, and
histograms.

Matplotlib is often used in conjunction with other scientific computing

libraries, such as NumPy and Pandas, to create powerful visualizations of
large and complex datasets. It is also a powerful tool for creating
publication-quality figures for scientific papers, reports, and other
documents.

To use Matplotlib in a Python program, you will first need to import the
library. You can do this using the following code:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

This imports the pyplot submodule from the matplotlib library and gives
it the alias plt. You can then use the functions and classes in the pyplot
submodule to create and customize your plots.

Here's an example of how you can use Matplotlib to create a simple line
plot:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Define some data

x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

y = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

# Use the plot() function to create a line plot

plt.plot(x, y)

# Show the plot

plt.show()

This code will create a line plot with the data x and y and display it to the
screen. You can customize the plot in many different ways, such as
changing the line style, adding labels and titles, and changing the axis
limits.

For more information on how to use Matplotlib and all the different
features it provides, please check out the Matplotlib documentation.

How do I make a scatter plot with Matplotlib?

To make a scatter plot with Matplotlib, you can use the scatter() method
from the pyplot module. The scatter() method takes the x and y values of
the points to plot as arguments, and it allows you to specify various
attributes, such as the marker style, color, and size, to customize the
appearance of the scatter plot.

Here is an example of how to make a scatter plot with Matplotlib:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Define the x and y values of the points to plot

x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

y = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

# Create a scatter plot

plt.scatter(x, y, marker="x", color="red")

# Add a title and labels to the axes

plt.title("Squares")

plt.xlabel("x")

plt.ylabel("y")

# Show the plot

plt.show()

In this example, the scatter() method is used to create a scatter plot of the x
and y values, using a red "x" marker for the points. The title(), xlabel(), and
ylabel() methods are then used to add a title and labels to the axes of the
plot. Finally, the show() method is used to display the plot.

How can I make a histogram with Matplotlib?

To make a histogram with Matplotlib, you can use the hist() method from
the pyplot module. The hist() method takes the data to plot as an argument,
and it allows you to specify various attributes, such as the number of bins
and the range of values to plot, to customize the appearance of the
histogram.

Here is an example of how to make a histogram with Matplotlib:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Define the data to plot

data = [1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4]

# Create a histogram

plt.hist(data, bins=4, range=(1, 4), edgecolor="black")

# Add a title and labels to the axes

plt.title("Histogram")

plt.xlabel("x")

plt.ylabel("y")

# Show the plot

 plt.show()

In this example, the hist() method is used to create a histogram of the data,
using 4 bins and a range of values from 1 to 4. The title(), xlabel(), and
ylabel() methods are then used to add a title and labels to the axes of the
plot. Finally, the show() method is used to display the plot.
Note that the hist() method automatically calculates the bin edges and
frequencies for the data, and it plots the histogram using the specified
attributes. You can also use the hist() method to plot multiple

How can I make a bar chart with Matplotlib?

To make a bar chart with Matplotlib, you can use the bar() method from
the pyplot module. The bar() method takes the x and y values of the bars to
plot as arguments, and it allows you to specify various attributes, such as
the bar width and color, to customize the appearance of the bar chart.

Here is an example of how to make a bar chart with Matplotlib:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Define the x and y values of the bars to plot

x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

y = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

# Create a bar chart

plt.bar(x, y, width=0.5, color="red")

 # Add a title and labels to the axes

plt.title("Squares")

plt.xlabel("x")

plt.ylabel("y")

# Show the plot

plt.show()

In this example, the bar() method is used to create a bar chart of the x and y
values, using a bar width of 0.5 and a red color for the bars. The title(),
xlabel(), and ylabel() methods are then used to add a title and labels to the
axes of the plot. Finally, the show() method is used to display the plot.

How can I make a Pie chart with Matplotlib?

To make a pie chart with Matplotlib, you can use the pie() method from the
pyplot module. The pie() method takes the data to plot as an argument, and
it allows you to specify various attributes, such as the labels and colors of
the slices, to customize the appearance of the pie chart.

Here is an example of how to make a pie chart with Matplotlib:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Define the data to plot

data = [1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4]

# Create a pie chart

 plt.pie(data, labels=["1", "2", "3", "4"], colors=["red", "orange", "yellow", "green"])

# Add a title

plt.title("Pie Chart")

# Show the plot

plt.show()

What are some advanced uses of Matplotlib?

Matplotlib is a powerful library for creating visualizations of data, and

there are many advanced uses for the library. Here are a few examples of
advanced uses for Matplotlib:

● Creating custom plot types: Matplotlib provides a wide range of

built-in plot types, such as line plots, scatter plots, and bar charts,
but you can also create your own custom plot types using
Matplotlib's object-oriented API. This allows you to create
specialized plots that are tailored to your specific data and needs.
● Creating 3D plots: Matplotlib includes functions and classes for
creating 3D plots of data. You can use these functions to create 3D
scatter plots, surface plots, and contour plots, among other types of
3D plots. This can be useful for visualizing data in three
dimensions, such as scientific or engineering data.
● Creating animations: Matplotlib includes a submodule called
animation that allows you to create animations of your data. You
can use this submodule to create videos or GIFs that show how
your data changes over time, which can be a powerful way to
convey information and highlight trends in your data.
● Creating interactive plots: Matplotlib can be used to create
interactive plots that allow the user to explore and manipulate the
 data. For example, you can use Matplotlib's event handling
functions to create plots that respond to mouse clicks or keyboard
input, or you can use the widgets submodule to create plots with
interactive controls, such as sliders and buttons. This can be a
powerful way to create interactive visualizations of your data that
allow users to explore and understand it in more depth.

Pyplot

What is Pyplot?

Pyplot is a submodule of the Matplotlib library in Python, which provides

tools for creating visualizations of data in the form of plots and charts. The
pyplot module is commonly used to create line plots, scatter plots,
histograms, bar charts, and other types of plots, and it provides functions for
customizing the appearance of the plots and for adding annotations, such as
titles and labels.

The pyplot module is commonly imported with the alias plt, which is used
as a namespace for the functions and methods provided by the pyplot
module. Here is an example of how to import the pyplot module and use it
to create a simple line plot:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Define the x and y values of the points to plot

x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

y = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

# Create a line plot

 plt.plot(x, y)

# Add a title and labels to the axes

plt.title("Squares")

plt.xlabel("x")

plt.ylabel("y")

# Show the plot

plt.show()

In this example, the plot() method from the pyplot module is used to create
a line plot of the x and y values. The title(), xlabel(), and ylabel() methods
are then used to add a title and labels to the axes of the plot. Finally, the
show() method is used to display the plot.

Chapter Review
● How do you do basic math in Python?
● What are some of the advanced math operators?
● How do you do trig functions?
● How do you do calculus functions?
● What is Matplotlib?
● What type of plots can you make with Pyplot?
 Chapter 11
Dates and Times

How do I work with Dates in Python?

In Python, the datetime module provides classes for working with dates
and times. To use the datetime module, you first need to import it, like
this:

import datetime

Once the datetime module is imported, you can use its classes to create
date and time objects, which you can then manipulate and format in various
ways.

Here are some examples of how you can work with dates and times in
Python:

● To create a date object representing the current date, you can use
the date.today() method, like this:

import datetime

today = datetime.date.today()

● To create a date object representing a specific date, you can use the
datetime.date() constructor, which takes the year, month, and day
as arguments, like this:
import datetime

my_birthday = datetime.date(1997, 2, 3)

● To create a time object representing the current time, you can use
the datetime.time() constructor with no arguments, like this:

import datetime

now = datetime.time()

● To create a time object representing a specific time, you can use the
datetime.time() constructor with the hour, minute, second, and
microsecond as arguments, like this:

import datetime

lunch_time = datetime.time(12, 30, 0)

● To create a datetime object representing the current date and time,

you can use the datetime.datetime.now() method, like this:

import datetime

now = datetime.datetime.now()

● To create a datetime object representing a specific date and time,

you can use the datetime.datetime() constructor, which takes the
year, month, day, hour, minute, second, and microsecond as
arguments, like this:

import datetime

my_birthday = datetime.datetime(1997, 2, 3, 12, 30, 0)

Once you have created date and time objects, you can use various methods
to manipulate and format them in different ways. For example, you can use
the strftime() method to convert a date or datetime object to a string, using
a specific format string, like this:

import datetime

today = datetime.date.today()

now = datetime.datetime.now()

# format the date as a short date (e.g. "02/03/97")

date_str = today.strftime("%m/%d/%y")

# format the datetime as a long date and time (e.g. "February 3, 1997 12:30:00 PM")

datetime_str = now.strftime("%B %d, %Y %I:%M:%S %p")

For a full list of format codes that you can use with the strftime() method,
see the Python documentation.

How do I work with timezones in Python?

To work with timezones in Python, you can use the pytz library. The pytz
library provides functions and classes for working with timezones and
handling timezone-aware datetimes.

To use the pytz library, you first need to install it using the pip package
manager. To do this, you can use the following command:
 pip install pytz

Once pytz is installed, you can import it into your Python scripts and use its
functions and classes. To do this, you can use the import statement to
import the pytz library, and then use the pytz namespace to access its
functions and classes.

Here is an example of how to use the pytz library to work with timezones in
Python:

# import the pytz library and the datetime class

import pytz from datetime

import datetime

# create a timezone object for the Pacific time zone

pacific = pytz.timezone("US/Pacific")

# get the current time in the Pacific time zone

now = datetime.now(pacific)

# print the current time in the Pacific time zone

print(now)

How do I get the current time in Python?

To get the current time in Python, you can use the datetime module and the
datetime.now() method. The datetime module provides classes and
functions for working with dates and times, and the datetime.now() method
returns the current date and time as a datetime object.

Here is an example of how to use the datetime.now() method to get the

current time in Python:

from datetime import datetime

# get the current time

now = datetime.now()

# print the current time

print(now)

In this example, the datetime.now() method is used to get the current time,
and the datetime object is printed to the console.

By default, the datetime.now() method returns the current time in the local
timezone. If you want to get the current time in a specific timezone, you can
use the pytz library and the datetime.now() method's tzinfo argument.

How do I get the current date in Python?

To get the current date in Python, you can use the datetime module and the
datetime.today() method.

Here is an example of how to use the datetime.today() method to get the

current date in Python:
 from datetime import datetime

# get the current date

today = datetime.today()

# print the current date

print(today)

In Python what is the strftime method?

The strftime method is a method in the datetime module in Python that

allows you to specify a format for a date/time and return it as a string. For
example, you could use it to format a date/time in a specific way, such as
"%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S" to get a string like "2022-12-10 12:30:45".
Here, the %Y indicates the year as a four-digit number, the %m indicates
the month as a two-digit number, and so on.

How do I use the timedelta class in Python?

The timedelta class is part of the datetime module in Python, and it

represents a duration of time rather than a specific date or time. You can use
timedelta objects to perform basic arithmetic on date and time objects, such
as adding or subtracting time intervals.

To use the timedelta class, you first need to import the datetime module,
like this:
import datetime

Once the datetime module is imported, you can create a timedelta object
by calling the timedelta() constructor and passing in the number of days,
seconds, and microseconds that the duration should represent, like this:

import datetime

# create a timedelta that represents one day

one_day = datetime.timedelta(days=1)

# create a timedelta that represents two hours

two_hours = datetime.timedelta(hours=2)

# create a timedelta that represents thirty minutes thirty_minutes =

datetime.timedelta(minutes=30)

You can then use these timedelta objects to perform arithmetic on date and
datetime objects. For example:

import datetime

today = datetime.date.today()

# add one day to the current date

tomorrow = today + datetime.timedelta(days=1)

# subtract thirty minutes from the current time

time_thirty_minutes_ago = datetime.datetime.now() -
datetime.timedelta(minutes=30)

You can also use the timedelta class to find the difference between two
dates or times by subtracting one from the other. For example:

import datetime

# find the difference between two dates

date1 = datetime.date(1997, 2, 3)

date2 = datetime.date(2020, 5, 6)

date_difference = date2 - date1

# find the difference between two times

time1 = datetime.time(12, 30, 0)

time2 = datetime.time(14, 45, 0)

time_difference = time2 - time1

After this code has been executed, the date_difference variable will hold a
timedelta object representing the difference between the two dates (in this
case, 8557 days), and the time_difference variable will hold a timedelta
object representing the difference between the two times (in this case, 2
hours and 15 minutes).
You can then use the various attributes of the timedelta object, such as
days, seconds, and microseconds, to retrieve specific parts of the duration.
For example:

import datetime

date1 = datetime.date(1997, 2, 3)

date2 = datetime.date(2020, 5, 6)

date_difference = date2 - date1

# print the total number of days between the two dates

print(date_difference.days)

# print the total number of seconds between the two dates

print(date_difference.total_seconds())

This code will print the following output:

> 8557 736834400.0

Chapter Review
● How do you get today’s date with Python?
● How do you get the current time?
● How do you get the current time zone?
● How do you find the difference between two times?
 Chapter 12
Networking and JSON

Networking
What is HTTP?

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is a protocol for sending and

receiving data on the internet. It is the foundation of how data is exchanged
on the web, and is used by web browsers and web servers to communicate
with each other. In general, when you enter a URL into your web browser,
your browser sends an HTTP request to the appropriate web server, and
the server responds by sending back the requested data. This data is then
displayed in your browser. HTTP is a key component of the net, and allows
for the retrieval of data from the web, such as web pages, images, and
videos.

How do I make an HTTP request in Python?

To make an HTTP request in Python, you can use the request module from
the urllib package. Here is an example of how to use this module to make
a GET request to a web server:

import urllib.request

# Set the URL you want to send the request to

url = "http://www.example.com"

# Create a request object

request = urllib.request.Request(url)

# Send the request and retrieve the response

response = urllib.request.urlopen(request)

# Print the response

print(response.read())

This example will send a GET request to the specified URL and print the
response that the server sends back. You can also use the
urllib.request.urlretrieve() function to download the data from the
response and save it to a file on your local machine.

How do I make a POST request in Python?

To make a POST request in Python, you can use the request module from
the urllib package. Here is an example of how to use this module to make a
POST request:

import urllib.request

# Set the URL you want to send the request to

url = "http://www.example.com"
 # Set the data you want to send in the request

data = { "key1": "value1", "key2": "value2", }

# Encode the data as a URL query string

data = urllib.parse.urlencode(data)

# Create a request object

request = urllib.request.Request(url, data=data.encode())

# Send the request and retrieve the response

response = urllib.request.urlopen(request)

# Print the response

print(response.read())

This example will send a POST request to the specified URL with the
specified data, and print the response that the server sends back. Like
above, you can also use the urllib.request.urlretrieve() function to save it.

How can I host a webserver in Python?

To host a webserver in Python, you can use the http.server module. This
module provides classes for implementing HTTP servers, also informally
known as web servers. With the help of these classes, you can easily create
a basic web server to serve static files and handle HTTP requests.
Here is an example of how you can use the http.server module to create a
simple webserver:

# Import the necessary modules

import http.server

import socketserver

# Define the server address and port

SERVER_ADDRESS = ("localhost", 8000)

# Create a request handler class

class RequestHandler(http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler):

# Handle GET requests

def do_GET(self):

self.send_response(200)

self.send_header(

"Content-type",

"text/plain"

self.end_headers()

self.wfile.write("Hello there!".encode())

# Create a server object

 server = http.server.HTTPServer(SERVER_ADDRESS, RequestHandler)

# Start the server

server.serve_forever()

This example creates a server that listens for incoming connections on

localhost port 8000. When the server receives a GET request, it sends a
"Hello there!" response to the client.

You can run this script using the following command:

python server.py

This will start the server, which will listen for incoming connections on the
specified address and port. You can then access the server using a web
browser or a tool like curl:

curl http://localhost:8000/

What is a server socket?

A server socket is a type of network socket that is used by a server to

communicate with clients. In a client-server architecture, the server listens
for incoming connections from clients, and creates a new socket for each
client that connects. The server can then use the socket to send and receive
data with the client.

Server sockets are typically created using the socket module in Python,
and they use the bind(), listen(), and accept() methods to start listening for
incoming connections. Once a connection is established, the server can use
the socket to communicate with the client using the send() and recv()
methods.

In general, server sockets are useful for creating network applications that
need to listen for incoming connections from clients, such as web servers,
chat servers, and file servers.

Can a server socket be used to make a simple chat app?

Yes, a server socket can be used to create a simple chat app. To do this, you
would create a server socket that listens for incoming connections from
clients, and then creates a new socket for each client that connects.

Once a connection is established, the server and client can use their
respective sockets to send and receive messages with each other. For
example, the server could send a message to the client using the send()
method, and the client could receive the message using the recv() method.

To make the chat app more interactive, you could use a separate thread to
handle each client connection, which would allow the server to handle
multiple clients simultaneously. You could also implement additional
features, such as allowing clients to send private messages to each other, or
displaying a list of all connected clients.

JSON
What is JSON?
JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) is a lightweight, text-based,
language-independent data interchange format that is used for exchanging
data between servers and web applications. JSON is a very common format
for transmitting data over the web, and it is natively supported by many
programming languages, including Python, JavaScript, and Ruby.

JSON is based on a subset of the JavaScript programming language, and it

has a simple, human-readable syntax for representing data as collections of
key-value pairs. Here's an example of a simple JSON object:

{ "name": "Alice",

"age": 25,

"languages": ["English", "French", "Spanish"]

In this example, the JSON object has three keys: "name", "age", and
"languages". The "name" and "age" keys have string and numeric values,
respectively, while the "languages" key has an array value that contains a
list of strings. JSON supports many other data types, including objects,
arrays, and booleans.

JSON is commonly used for transmitting data over the web because it is
easy to read and write, and it is easy to parse and generate using
programming languages. Many web APIs use JSON as their primary data
format for transmitting data between servers and web applications.

How do I convert something to JSON in Python?

To convert something to JSON in Python, you can use the json.dumps()

function, which is part of the built-in json module in Python. This function
takes an object (such as a Python dictionary) and returns a string that
represents the object as a JSON object. Here's an example:
 import json

data = {

"name": "Alice",

"age": 25,

"languages": ["English", "French", "Spanish"]

json_str = json.dumps(data)

print(json_str)

In this example, the data dictionary is converted to a JSON string using the
json.dumps() function. The resulting JSON string is then printed to the
console. Here's how the output would look:

"name": "Alice",

"age": 25,

"languages": ["English", "French", "Spanish"]

As you can see, the JSON string is a valid representation of the original
data, and it can be easily parsed and processed by other programming
languages or tools.
You can also specify additional options when using the json.dumps()
function, such as the indentation level or the encoding of the resulting
JSON string. You can learn more about these options in the Python
documentation.

How do I convert JSON to a Python object?

To convert JSON to a Python object, you can use the json.loads() function,
which is part of the built-in json module in Python. This function takes a
string that represents a JSON object and converts it into a Python object
(such as a dictionary or list) that can be used in your Python code. Here's
an example:

import json

json_str = '{"name": "Alice", "age": 25, "languages": ["English", "French",

"Spanish"]}'

data = json.loads(json_str)

print(data)

In this example, the json_str variable contains a JSON string that

represents a dictionary with three keys: "name", "age", and "languages".
This JSON string is then converted to a Python dictionary using the
json.loads() function. The resulting dictionary is then printed to the
console. Here's how the output would look:

> {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25, 'languages': ['English', 'French',

'Spanish']}
As you can see, the JSON string has been successfully converted to a
Python dictionary, and you can now use this dictionary in your Python
code just like any other dictionary.

You can also use the json.loads() function to convert JSON arrays to
Python lists, and JSON booleans and numbers to Python booleans and
numbers, respectively.

Django
What is Django?

Django is a popular web framework written in Python. It is designed to

help developers build secure, scalable, and maintainable web applications
quickly and easily. Django provides a really awesome declarative interface
for creating database-driven web applications. It is built on top of the
Python language, and it includes many features such as authentication, URL
routing, templating, and object-relational mapping to make it easier to build
sites.

Django was initially released in 2005, and since then, it has become one of
the most popular web frameworks for Python. It is used by many well-
known companies, including Instagram, Pinterest, and The Washington
Times.

One of the key important features of Django is its “batteries-included”

approach. This means that Django comes with a lot of built-in libraries so
you don't have to spend time and effort on building common components
from scratch. For example, Django includes a built-in authentication
system, a powerful ORM for working with databases, and a suite of tools
for creating and sending emails.

Django is also highly customizable. It uses a pluggable architecture, so you

can easily swap out any of the built-in components with your own custom
implementations. This allows you to tailor Django to your specific needs
and preferences.

How do I install Django?

To install Django, you will need to have Python installed on your system.
Django is a Python web framework, so you will need to have Python
installed to use it.

Afterward you can use the pip command to install Django. pip is a package
manager for Python as you should know by now!

To install Django using pip, open a terminal or command prompt, and

run the following command:

pip install Django

This will install the latest version of Django on your system. Once the
installation is complete, you can verify that Django was installed
successfully by running the following command:

python -m django --version

This will print the version of Django that was installed on your system. If
the installation was successful, you should see the version number printed
to the terminal.

How do I make a web app with Django?

To create a web app with Django, you will need to follow these steps:
 1. Install Django: as mentioned above, you will need to have Django
installed on your system to create a web app with it.
2. Create a new Django project: the next step is to create a new
Django project. To do this, open a terminal or command prompt
and run the following command: django-admin startproject
myproject.
3. Create a new app: in Django, an app is a self-contained module
that contains the code for a specific feature or functionality. To
create a new app, run the following command: python manage.py
startapp myapp.
4. Define your models: in Django, models are Python classes that
represent the data in your database. To create a model, open the
models.py file within your app directory, and define a new class that
extends the django.db.models.Model class.
5. Create and run migrations: After you have defined your models,
you will need to create the database tables that will store your data.
In Django, this is done using migrations.
6. Register your app: After you have created your app, you need to
register it with your Django project.
7. Create views: Views in Django are Python functions that handle
web requests and return HTTP responses. To create a view, open
the views.py file within your app directory, and define a new
function that takes a request parameter.
8. Define URL patterns: In Django, URL patterns are used to map
URLs to views. To define URL patterns, open the urls.py file
within your app directory, and add a new urlpatterns list.
9. Test your app! After you have defined your views and URL
patterns, you can start the Django development server to test your
app using the following command: python manage.py runserver.
This will start the development server, and you can access your app
at http://127.0.0.1:8000/.

These are the basic steps for creating a web app with Django. Of course,
your app will likely have more features and functionality than the simple
example above, but this should give you a good starting point. Please check
the Django documentation for the full steps to find what will best suit your
specific needs!

Chapter Review
● What is a web request?
● What is a web server?
● What is JSON?
● What is a web socket?
● What is Django for?
 Chapter 13
Files, Video, Audio, and More

Files
How do I read from a file in Python?

To read from a file in Python, you first need to open the file in reading
mode. This is done using the open() function, which takes the file name
and the mode ("r" for reading) as arguments.

Here is an example of how to open a file in reading mode:

# open the file "myfile.txt" in reading mode

file = open("myfile.txt", "r")

Once the file is open, you can use the read() method to read the entire
contents of the file as a string. You can also use the readline() method to
read a single line from the file, or the readlines() method to read all lines of
the file as a list of strings.

Here is an example of how to use the read() method to read the entire
contents of a file:

# open the file "myfile.txt" in reading mode

file = open("myfile.txt", "r")

 # read the entire contents of the file as a string

contents = file.read()

# print the contents of the file

print(contents)

In this example, the read() method is used to read the entire contents of the
file "myfile.txt" as a string. The contents of the file are then printed to the
screen.

After you have finished reading from a file, you should always remember to
close the file using the close() method. This is important because it frees up
system resources that are associated with the file.

Here is an example of how to close a file after reading from it:

# open the file "myfile.txt" in reading mode

file = open("myfile.txt", "r")

# read the entire contents of the file as a string

contents = file.read()

# print the contents of the file

print(contents)

# close the file

 file.close()

In this example, the file is first opened in reading mode, the contents are
read and printed to the screen, and then the file is closed.

How do I write to a file in Python?

To write to a file in Python, you first need to open the file in writing mode.
This is done using the open() function, which takes the file name and the
mode ("w" for writing) as arguments.

Here is an example of how to open a file in writing mode:

# open the file "myfile.txt" in writing mode

file = open("myfile.txt", "w")

Once the file is open, you can use the write() method to write a string to the
file. This method takes the string to be written as an argument and writes it
to the file.

Here is an example of how to use the write() method to write a string to a

file:

# open the file "myfile.txt" in writing mode

file = open("myfile.txt", "w")

# write the string "Hello there!" to the file

file.write("Hello there!")

In this example, the write() method is used to write the string "Hello there!"
to the file "myfile.txt".
After you have finished writing to a file, you should always remember to
close the file using the close() method. This is important because it ensures
that any remaining data is flushed to the file and frees up system resources
that are associated with the file.

Here is an example of how to close a file after writing to it:

file = open("myfile.txt", "w")

file.write("Winter is coming!")

# close the file

file.close()

In this example, the file is first opened in writing mode, the string is
written to the file, and then the file is closed.

How do I delete files in Python?

To delete a file in Python, you can use the os module and the os.remove()
method. The os module provides functions for interacting with the
operating system, and the os.remove() method can be used to delete a file.

Here is an example of how to use the os.remove() method to delete a file:

import os

# delete the file "myfile.txt"

os.remove("myfile.txt")
In this example, the os.remove() method is used to delete the file
"myfile.txt". If the file does not exist, an error will be raised.

It is important to note that the os.remove() method only deletes the file, and
it does not remove any directories. If you want to delete a directory and all
of its contents, you can use the shutil module and the shutil.rmtree()
method.

Here is an example of how to use the shutil.rmtree() method to delete a

directory and all of its contents:

import shutil

# delete the directory "mydir" and all of its contents

shutil.rmtree("mydir")

In this example, the shutil.rmtree() method is used to delete the directory

"mydir" and all of its contents, including any files or subdirectories.

Video
Can Python be used to edit videos?

Yes, Python can be used to edit videos. Python provides several libraries
and modules that allow you to manipulate and edit video files, such as the
OpenCV library, which provides tools for video capture, analysis, and
processing, and the moviepy library, which provides tools for video editing,
cutting, concatenation, and compositing.

To edit a video with Python, you can use the OpenCV library to read and
decode the video frames, and to apply various image processing operations,
such as cropping, resizing, and filtering, to the frames. You can then use the
moviepy library to encode the edited frames into a new video file, using a
specified codec and frame rate.

How do I edit a video with OpenCV using Python?

To edit a video with OpenCV using Python, you can use the VideoCapture
class from the cv2 module to read and decode the video frames, and the
VideoWriter class to encode and write the edited frames to a new video
file. The VideoCapture and VideoWriter classes allow you to specify
various options, such as the codec and frame rate, to customize the input
and output video files.

Here is an example of how to edit a video with OpenCV using Python:

import cv2

video = cv2.VideoCapture("in.mp4")

# Create a new video file using OpenCV

output = cv2.VideoWriter("out.mp4", cv2.VideoWriter_fourcc(*"MP4V"), 30,

(1920, 1080))

# Iterate over the frames in the video

while video.isOpled():

# Read a frame from the video

success, frame = video.read()

# Check if there are no more frames

 if not success:

break

# Apply image processing operations to the frame

frame = cv2.cvtColor(frame, cv2.COLOR_BGR2GRAY)

frame = cv2.resize(frame, (1920, 1080))

# Write the edited frame to the output video

output.write(frame)

# Close the video files

video.release()

output.release()

In this example, the VideoCapture class is used to read the input video file,
and the VideoWriter class is used to create the output video file. The
VideoCapture class returns a VideoCapture object, which provides
methods for reading and decoding the frames of the video, and the
VideoWriter class returns a VideoWriter object, which provides methods
for writing and encoding the frames of the video.

The example iterates over the frames in the input video, using the read()
method of the VideoCapture object to read and decode the frames. The
read() method returns a tuple of two values, the first of which is a Boolean
value that indicates whether the frame was successfully read, and the
second of which is the frame itself, as a numpy array.
The example applies some image processing operations to the frame, such
as converting the frame to grayscale and resizing the frame, using the
appropriate methods from the cv2 module. The edited frame is then written
to the output video using the write() method of the VideoWriter object.

Finally, the example calls the release() method on the VideoCapture and
VideoWriter objects to close the input and output video files. This is
important to ensure that the video files are properly saved and closed, and
that the associated resources are released.

Can I use ffmpeg with Python to edit videos?

Yes, you can use ffmpeg with Python to edit videos. ffmpeg is a popular
and powerful open-source command-line tool for transcoding and
manipulating multimedia files, such as audio and video files. ffmpeg
provides a rich set of command-line options and arguments that allow you
to perform various operations on multimedia files, such as resizing, cutting,
concatenating, and transcoding.

To use ffmpeg with Python, you can use the subprocess module, which
provides tools for running and interacting with external command-line
programs from Python. The subprocess module allows you to run ffmpeg
as a separate process, and to pass the appropriate command-line options and
arguments to ffmpeg to perform the desired operations on the video file.

Here is an example of how to use ffmpeg with Python to edit a video:

# Import the subprocess module

import subprocess

# Define the command to run ffmpeg

 command = [ "ffmpeg", "-i", "input.mp4", "-vf", "scale=640:-1", "-c:v", "libx264",
"-crf", "18", "-preset", "veryfast", "-c:a", "copy", "output.mp4", ]

# Run the ffmpeg command using the subprocess module subprocess.run(command)

In this example, the subprocess.run() method is used to run the ffmpeg

command, which is defined as a list of strings that specify the command-
line options and arguments to pass to ffmpeg. The subprocess.run()
method runs ffmpeg as a separate process, and it waits for ffmpeg to finish
executing before returning the result of the ffmpeg command.

The ffmpeg command in this example specifies the input and output video
files, as well as various options and arguments to apply to the input video,
such as the video filter to use to resize the video, the codec to use to encode
the output video, and the quality and speed settings to use for the encoding
process.

Audio
Can I edit audio with Python?

Yes, you can edit audio with Python. Python provides several libraries and
modules that allow you to manipulate and edit audio files, such as the
librosa library, which provides tools for audio analysis, processing, and
synthesis, and the pydub library, which provides tools for audio editing,
cutting, and concatenation.

To edit an audio file with Python, you can use the librosa library to load
and decode the audio file, and to apply various signal processing operations,
such as filtering, resampling, and normalization, to the audio signal. You
can then use the pydub library to encode the edited signal into a new audio
file, using a specified codec and sample rate.
Here is an example of how to edit an audio file with Python and the librosa
and pydub libraries:

# Import the librosa and pydub libraries

import librosa from pydub

import AudioSegment

# Load the audio file using librosa

audio, sr = librosa.load("input.mp3", sr=None)

# Apply signal processing operations to the audio signal

audio = librosa.resample(audio, sr, 16000)

audio = librosa.util.normalize(audio)

# Convert the edited signal to a pydub audio segment

segment = AudioSegment( audio.tobytes(), frame_rate=sr, sample_width=2,

channels=1, codec="pcm_s16le" )

# Save the edited audio segment to a new file segment.export("output.mp3",

format="mp3")
In this example, the librosa.load() function is used to load the input audio
file, and the librosa.resample() and librosa.util.normalize() functions are
used to apply various signal processing operations to the audio signal. The
edited audio signal is then converted to an mp3 file and saved.

Can I make music with Python?

Yes, you can make music with Python. Python provides several libraries
and modules that allow you to create and generate music, such as the
music21 library, which provides tools for musical notation, analysis, and
composition, and the pretty_midi library, which provides tools for
generating and manipulating MIDI data.

To make music with Python, you can use the music21 library to create and
manipulate musical scores, using the appropriate classes and methods
provided by the library. The music21 library allows you to represent and
manipulate musical elements, such as notes, chords, melodies, and rhythms,
and to combine them into complex musical structures, such as phrases,
measures, and movements.

You can then use the pretty_midi library to convert the musical score
created with music21 into a MIDI file, which can be played and edited
using a MIDI editor or synthesizer. The pretty_midi library allows you to
specify various options, such as the tempo, instrument, and dynamics, to
customize the MIDI file generated from the musical score.

Here is an example of how to make music with Python and the music21
and pretty_midi libraries:

# Import the libraries

from music21 import *

import pretty_midi
# Create a new musical score using music21

score = stream.Score()

part = stream.Part()

# Add some notes

part.append(note.Note("B4", quarterLength=1.0)) part.append(note.Note("A4",

quarterLength=1.0)) part.append(note.Note("F4", quarterLength=1.0))

# Add to the score

score.insert(0, part)

# Convert the score to a MIDI file using pretty_midi

midi_file = pretty_midi.PrettyMIDI()
midi_file.instruments.append(pretty_midi.Instrument(0, program=0))

midi_file.timeSignature = meter.TimeSignature("3/4") midi_file.tempo = 110

# Add the notes to the MIDI file

for note in part.notes:

midi_note = pretty_midi.Note( start=note.offset, end=note.offset +

note.duration.quarterLength, pitch=note.pitch.midi, velocity=90 )

midi_file.instruments[0].notes.append(midi_note)
 # Save your new MIDI file

midi_file.write("output.mid")

In this example, the music21 library is used to create a new musical score,
and to add some notes to the score. The music21 library provides a rich
and flexible API that allows you to represent and manipulate various
aspects of music, such as notes, pitches, rhythms, and chords, using the
appropriate classes and methods.

Desktop Apps
How do I make a desktop app in Python?

To create a desktop application with Python, you will need to use a GUI
library to handle the graphical user interface. Some popular choices for
building Python desktop applications include Tkinter, PyQt, and
wxPython. These libraries provide a simple way to create a graphical
interface for your application, allowing you to add widgets such as buttons,
labels, and text input fields.

To get started, you will need to install the chosen GUI library using pip. For
example, to install Tkinter, you would run the following command:

pip install tkinter

Once you have installed the library, you can use it to create a new window
and add widgets to it. For example, the following code creates a simple
window with a text label and a button using Tkinter:

import tkinter as tk
# Create the main window

root = tk.Tk()

# Add a label with some text

label = tk.Label(root, text="Hello there!")

label.pack()

# Add a button with a callback function

def on_click():

print("Button clicked!")

button = tk.Button(

root,

text="Click me!",

command=on_click

button.pack()

# Start the main event loop

root.mainloop()
This code creates a window with a label and a button. When the button is
clicked, it will print a message to the console. You can modify this code to
add more widgets and functionality to your application.

What kind of widgets are there in tkinter?

Tkinter is a built-in GUI library for the Python programming language. It

provides a variety of standard GUI widgets, including buttons, labels, and
text input fields. Some of the common Tkinter widgets include:

● Button is a simple button widget that can display text or an image

● Label is a widget that displays text or an image
● Entry is a single-line text input field
● Radiobuttons are buttons that can be part of a group of buttons,
where only one button in the group can be selected at a time
● Text is a multi-line text input widget
● Checkbutton is a button that can be in one of two states, selected or
unselected
● Listbox is a list of selectable items
● ComboBox is a combination of a drop-down list and an editable
text field
● Menubutton for displaying menus on a button

Tkinter also provides a variety of layout managers that can be used to

arrange widgets in the main window, such as pack, grid, and place. These
layout managers allow you to specify the position and size of each widget
in the window.

How do I use layout managers in tkinter?

Tkinter provides several layout managers to arrange the widgets in the

main window of your application. The three most commonly used layout
managers in Tkinter are pack, grid, and place.

The pack layout manager organizes widgets in horizontal and vertical

boxes. You can use the pack() method to add a widget to a container, and
specify options such as the side of the container to which the widget will be
packed (e.g. tk.TOP, tk.BOTTOM, tk.LEFT, tk.RIGHT), and whether
the widget should expand to fill the available space.

import tkinter as tk

# Create the main window

root = tk.Tk()

# Create a frame to hold the widgets

frame = tk.Frame(root)

frame.pack()

# Create a button and pack it to the top of the frame

button1 = tk.Button(frame, text="Button 1") button1.pack(side=tk.TOP)

# Create another button and pack it to the bottom of the frame

button2 = tk.Button(frame, text="Button 2") button2.pack(side=tk.BOTTOM)

# Start the main event loop

root.mainloop()
The grid layout manager arranges widgets in a grid, allowing you to
specify the row and column numbers for each widget. You can use the
grid() method to add a widget to a container, and specify options such as
the row and column numbers, and whether the widget should expand to fill
the available space.

import tkinter as tk

# Create the main window

root = tk.Tk()

# Create a frame to hold the widgets

frame = tk.Frame(root)

frame.pack()

# Create a button and place it in the first row and first column

button1 = tk.Button(frame, text="Button 1")

button1.grid(row=0, column=0)

# Create another button and place it in the first row and second column

button2 = tk.Button(frame, text="Button 2")

button2.grid(row=0, column=1)

# Start the main event loop

root.mainloop()

The place layout manager allows you to specify the exact position and
size of each widget in the main window, using absolute coordinates. You
can use the place() method to add a widget to a container, and specify
options such as the coordinates and size of the widget.

import tkinter as tk

# Create the main window

root = tk.Tk()

# Create a frame to hold the widgets

frame = tk.Frame(root)

frame.pack()

# Create a button and place it at the top left corner of the frame

button1 = tk.Button(frame, text="Button 1")

button1.place(x=0, y=0, width=100, height=50)

# Create another button and place it at the bottom right corner of the frame

button2 = tk.Button(frame, text="Button 2")

button2.place(x=200, y=200, width=100, height=50)

 # Start the main event loop

root.mainloop()

You can choose the layout manager that best suits your needs.

Gaming
Can I make games in Python?

Yes, you can make games in Python. Python is a popular and versatile
programming language that provides a rich set of libraries and modules for
developing various types of applications, including games. Python is well-
suited for game development, thanks to its simplicity, expressiveness, and
flexibility, as well as the availability of powerful libraries and frameworks
for game development.

To make games in Python, you can use a game development framework

or library, such as Pygame, Pyglet, or Kivy, which provides the necessary
tools and components for building and running games in Python. These
frameworks and libraries provide various features and capabilities, such as
graphics, audio, input, and networking, that allow you to create and develop
games in Python.

Chapter Review
● How do you read/write files in Python?
● What are two ways to edit videos with Python?
● How easy is it to edit and make music/audio with Python?
● What are some of the widget types in Tkinter?
● What are some of the layout managers in Tkinter and what are their
differences?
 Chapter 14
Images and Threads

Images
Can Python do image manipulation?

Yes, Python can be used for image manipulation. Python has several built-in
modules and third-party libraries that provide tools for working with
images, such as the Pillow library.

With these libraries, you can perform a variety of image manipulation tasks
in Python, such as resizing, cropping, and rotating images, as well as
applying filters and other transformations. You can also use Python to
create and manipulate complex images, such as digital art, using techniques
such as drawing shapes and text, and blending multiple images together.

Overall, Python provides a powerful and flexible platform for working with
images, and it is widely used in fields such as computer vision and graphic
design.

How do I resize an image with Python?

To resize an image with Python, you can use the Pillow library, which is a
fork of the Python Imaging Library (PIL). To resize an image with
Pillow, you can use the resize() method, which takes the desired size as
arguments, and returns a new Image object with the resized image.
Here is an example of how to resize an image with Python using Pillow:

from PIL import Image

# Open the image

image = Image.open("my_image.jpg")

# Resize the image

resized_image = image.resize((200, 200))

# Save the resized image

resized_image.save("resized_image.jpg")

In this example, the resize() method is used to resize the image to a width
of 200 pixels and a height of 200 pixels. The resized image is then saved to
a new file called resized_image.jpg.

Note that the resize() method takes the new size as a tuple of width and
height values in pixels, and it preserves the aspect ratio of the original
image by default. You can also use the resize() method to scale the image
by a specific factor, or to crop the image to a specific size.

How do I flip an image with Python?

To flip an image with Python, you can use the transpose() method from the
Pillow library. The transpose() method allows you to flip, rotate, and
transform images in various ways, and it takes a constant value as an
argument to specify the type of transformation to apply.
To flip an image with Python using Pillow, you can use the
Image.FLIP_LEFT_RIGHT or Image.FLIP_TOP_BOTTOM constant
to flip the image horizontally or vertically, respectively. Here is an example
of how to flip an image with Python using Pillow:

from PIL import Image

# Open the image

image = Image.open("my_image.jpg")

# Flip the image horizontally

flipped_image = image.transpose(Image.FLIP_LEFT_RIGHT)

# Save the flipped image

flipped_image.save("flipped_image.jpg")

In this example, the transpose() method is used to flip the image

horizontally, using the Image.FLIP_LEFT_RIGHT constant. The flipped
image is then saved to a new file called flipped_image.jpg.

Note that the transpose() method creates a new Image object with the
transformed image, so you need to save the transformed image to a new file
or overwrite the original image if you want to keep the changes. You can
also use the transpose() method to rotate the image, or to apply other
transformations, by using different constant values.

How do I rotate images with Python?

To rotate an image with Python, you can use the transpose() method from
the Pillow library.

To rotate an image with Python using Pillow, you can use the
Image.ROTATE_90, Image.ROTATE_180, or Image.ROTATE_270
constant to rotate the image by 90, 180, or 270 degrees, respectively. Here
is an example of how to rotate an image with Python using Pillow:

from PIL import Image

# Open the image

image = Image.open("my_image.jpg")

# Rotate the image by 90 degrees

rotated_image = image.transpose(Image.ROTATE_90)

# Save the rotated image

rotated_image.save("rotated_image.jpg")

In this example, the transpose() method is used to rotate the image by 90

degrees, using the Image.ROTATE_90 constant. The rotated image is then
saved to a new file called rotated_image.jpg.

How can I draw on an image in Python?

To draw on an image with Python, you can use the ImageDraw module
from the Pillow library. Here is an example of how to draw on an image
using the ImageDraw module:
 from PIL import Image, ImageDraw

# Open the image

image = Image.open("my_image.jpg")

# Create an ImageDraw object

draw = ImageDraw.Draw(image)

# Draw a rectangle on the image

draw.rectangle((100, 100, 200, 200), fill="red")

# Save the modified image

image.save("modified_image.jpg")

In this example, the ImageDraw.Draw() method is used to create an

ImageDraw object, which is used to draw shapes on the image. The
rectangle() method is then used to draw a rectangle on the image, using the
specified coordinates and fill color. Finally, the modified image is saved to
a new file called modified_image.jpg.

How can I write text on an image using Python?

Here is an example of how to write text on an image with Python using the
ImageDraw module:

from PIL import Image, ImageDraw

 # Open the image

image = Image.open("my_image.jpg")

# Create an ImageDraw object

draw = ImageDraw.Draw(image)

# Write text on the image

draw.text((100, 100), "Hey there!", fill="red")

# Save the modified image

image.save("modified_image.jpg")

Note that the text() method takes the position of the text as a tuple of x and
y coordinates, and it allows you to specify the font, font size, and other text
attributes as optional arguments. You can also use the ImageDraw module
to draw other shapes and objects on the image, and to apply transformations
and other effects to the image.

How can I draw an image on another image in Python?

Here is an example of how to draw one image on top of another image with
Python using the Pillow library:

from PIL import Image

 # Open the two images

image1 = Image.open("image1.jpg")

image2 = Image.open("image2.jpg")

# Draw image2 on top of image1

image1 = Image.alpha_composite(image1, image2)

# Save the resulting image

image1.save("result.jpg")

Note that the Image.alpha_composite() method allows you to control the

transparency of the images by specifying their alpha values, and it allows
you to specify the position of the second image relative to the first image.
You can also use the Image.alpha_composite() method to blend multiple
images together, by calling it multiple times with different images.

Threads
In programming, what are threads?

In programming, a thread is a separate flow of execution within a program.

This means that a program can have multiple threads running concurrently,
each of which can execute a different task or set of tasks. Threads are
useful for running multiple tasks simultaneously, such as downloading a file
from the internet while also rendering a user interface, or performing
multiple calculations at the same time.

Using threads can improve the performance and responsiveness of a

program, since it allows the program to perform multiple tasks at the same
time instead of having to execute them one after the other. However,
managing threads can also be complex, and if not done correctly, can lead
to errors or unexpected behavior in a program.

How do I make multiple threads in Python?

To create multiple threads in Python, you can use the threading module.
Here is an example of how to create multiple threads and start them
simultaneously:

import threading

def task1():

# Do something here

print("Hello from thread 1!")

def task2():

# Do something here

print("Hello from thread 2!")

# Create the first thread

thread1 = threading.Thread(target=task1)

# Create the second thread

thread2 = threading.Thread(target=task2)
 # Start the first thread

thread1.start()

# Start the second thread

thread2.start()

In this example, we define two functions, task1 and task2, which represent
the tasks we want the threads to perform. We then create two Thread
objects, passing each function as the target argument. Finally, we call the
start() method on each Thread object to start the threads. Once the start()
method is called on a Thread object, the function passed to the target
argument will be executed in a separate thread.

Note that the order in which the threads are started does not necessarily
reflect the order in which they will be executed. In this example, the two
threads may be executed simultaneously, or one may be executed before the
other depending on various factors such as the system's resources and the
time it takes for each thread to complete its task.

How do I wait for threads to finish in Python?

To wait for threads to finish in Python, you can use the join() method on the
Thread objects. The join() method blocks the execution of the calling
thread until the thread that it is called on finishes its execution. Here is an
example of how to use the join() method to wait for threads to finish:

import threading

def task1():

print("Hello from thread 1!")

def task2():

print("Hello from thread 2!")

# Create the first thread

thread1 = threading.Thread(target=task1)

# Create the second thread

thread2 = threading.Thread(target=task2)

# Start the first thread

thread1.start()

# Start the second thread

thread2.start()

# Wait for the first thread to finish

thread1.join()

# Wait for the second thread to finish

thread2.join()

# Do something here after the threads have finished

print("Both threads have finished!")

In this example, we create two Thread objects and start them using the
start() method. We then call the join() method on each Thread object to
wait for the threads to finish. Once the join() method returns, we know that
the thread has finished its execution and we can continue with the rest of
the program.

Note that calling the join() method on a thread will block the execution of
the calling thread until the thread that it is called on finishes its execution.
This means that if you call the join() method on a thread from the main
thread of your program, your program will not be able to do anything else
until the thread finishes its execution. For this reason, it is usually a good
idea to use threads only for tasks that take a long time to complete, so that
the main thread of your program is not blocked for an extended period of
time.

Chapter Review
● What’s the best library for editing images in Python?
● How do you rotate or resize an image?
● How do you composite images?
● What is a thread?
● How do you wait for your threads to all finish?
 Chapter 15
Databases

MySQL
What is MySQL?

MySQL is a popular open-source relational database management system.

It is typically used for web application development and is known for its
speed, reliability, and ease of use. MySQL is used by many different types
of organizations, from small businesses to large enterprises, to store and
manage their data.

What is SQL?

SQL is a programming language that is used to manage and manipulate

data stored in relational databases. It stands for Structured Query
Language and is used to communicate with databases to perform various
operations, such as inserting, updating, and deleting data. SQL is the
standard language for interacting with relational databases, and is used by a
wide range of systems, including MySQL.

What is a relational database?

A relational database is a type of database that stores data in a structured
format, using tables and relationships between the data. The data in a
relational database is organized into separate tables, with each table
containing a specific set of data. Tables can be related to each other through
a common field, allowing data from multiple tables to be combined and
accessed in a single query. This makes it easy to manage and access large
amounts of data, and to perform complex queries on the data to extract
useful information. Relational databases are widely used in a variety of
applications, including business and financial systems, e-commerce
websites, and online social networks.

How do I connect to MySQL with Python?

To connect to a MySQL database from Python, you need to first install the
appropriate Python package for MySQL. The recommended package for
this is mysql-connector-python, which is a well done Python
implementation of the MySQL client-server protocol. Once you have
installed this you can use the mysql.connector.connect() function to
connect to a MySQL server. This function takes a number of parameters,
including the hostname of the server, the user name and password to use for
authentication, and the name of the database to connect to. For example:

import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(

host="localhost",

user="yourusername",

password="yourpassword",

database="yourdatabase"

)
Once you have established a connection to the MySQL server, you can use
the cursor() method of the mydb object to create a cursor that can be used
to execute SQL queries and retrieve the results. For example:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("SELECT * FROM yourtable")

myresult = mycursor.fetchall()

for x in myresult:

print(x)

This code will execute a SELECT query on the specified table, retrieve the
results, and print them to the console. You can then use the cursor object to
execute other SQL queries as needed.

How do I make tables in MySQL using Python?

To create tables in a MySQL database from Python, you can use the
CREATE TABLE statement in an execute() method of a cursor object.
This statement takes the name of the table and a list of column definitions,
as well as any other options such as primary keys and constraints. For
example:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("CREATE TABLE customers (name VARCHAR(255), address

VARCHAR(255))")
This code will create a table named customers with two columns: name and
address. The data type for each column is specified using the SQL syntax
for defining column types. You can add additional columns to the table by
including them in the list of column definitions, separated by commas. You
can also specify primary keys and constraints, as well as other options, in
the CREATE TABLE statement.

Once you have created the table, you can use other SQL statements such as
INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE to add, modify, and remove data from
the table. You can also use the SELECT statement to retrieve data from the
table and perform various operations on it.

How do I make conditional queries in MySQL using Python?

To make conditional queries in MySQL from Python, you can use the
WHERE clause in the SELECT statement. The WHERE clause allows
you to specify conditions that must be met for the query to return the
specified rows. For example:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("SELECT * FROM customers WHERE name='John'")

myresult = mycursor.fetchall()

for x in myresult:

print(x)

This code will execute a SELECT query that retrieves all rows from the
customers table where the name column is equal to 'John'. The query will
only return rows that meet this condition, and the results will be printed to
the console.
You can use other operators in the WHERE clause to specify different
conditions, such as <, >, <=, and >= for comparing values, and AND and
OR for combining multiple conditions. You can also use wildcard
characters such as % and _ to match patterns in the data. For more
information on the syntax and usage of the WHERE clause, you can refer
to the MySQL documentation.

How do I join tables in MySQL using Python?

To join tables in MySQL from Python, you can use the JOIN clause in the
SELECT statement. The JOIN clause allows you to combine rows from
two or more tables based on a common field between them. For example:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("SELECT * FROM customers INNER JOIN orders ON

customers.id=orders.customer_id")

myresult = mycursor.fetchall()

for x in myresult:

print(x)

This code will execute a SELECT query that retrieves all rows from the
customers and orders tables, and combines the rows based on the id field in
the customers table and the customer_id field in the orders table. This will
create a result set that contains all the data from both tables, with the rows
being combined based on the matching values in the common fields.

There are several different types of JOIN clauses that you can use,
depending on the specific requirements of your query. For example, you
can use an INNER JOIN to only return rows that have matching values in
the common field, or a LEFT JOIN to return all rows from the left table
(customers in this case) and only the matching rows from the right table
(orders). For more information on the different types of JOIN clauses and
their usage, you can refer to the MySQL documentation.

How do I update a row in MySQL from Python?

To update a row in a MySQL table from Python, you can use the UPDATE
statement in an execute() method of a cursor object. The UPDATE
statement allows you to modify the values of one or more columns in a
specified row. For example:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("UPDATE customers SET name='Storm Trooper' WHERE id=1")

mydb.commit()

This code will execute an UPDATE statement that modifies the value of the
name column in the row with id equal to 1, setting it to 'Storm Trooper'. The
WHERE clause is used to specify the row that should be updated, and the
SET clause is used to specify the new values for the columns.

Once the UPDATE statement has been executed, you can use the commit()
method of the mydb object to save the changes to the database. It is
important to remember to call this method, as any changes made to the
database through SQL statements are not permanent until they are
committed.

You can also use the UPDATE statement to modify multiple rows at once
by omitting the WHERE clause. This will cause the statement to update all
rows in the table, so it should be used with caution. For more information
on the UPDATE statement and its usage, you can refer to the MySQL
documentation.

How do I insert a row in MySQL using Python?

To insert a row into a MySQL table from Python, you can use the INSERT
INTO statement in an execute() method of a cursor object. The INSERT
INTO statement takes the name of the table and a list of values to be
inserted, and inserts a new row into the table with those values. For
example:
mycursor = mydb.cursor()

sql = "INSERT INTO customers (name, address) VALUES (%s, %s)"

val = ("Luke", "Jedi Temple")

mycursor.execute(sql, val)

mydb.commit()

This code will execute an INSERT INTO statement that inserts a new row
into the customers table, with the values 'Luke' and 'Jedi Temple' for the
name and address columns, respectively. The values to be inserted are
specified as a tuple in the VALUES clause, and are passed as a second
argument to the execute() method.

Once the INSERT INTO statement has been executed, you can use the
commit() method of the mydb object to save the changes to the database.
Remember that any changes made to the database through SQL statements
are not permanent until committed.

You can also use the INSERT INTO statement to insert multiple rows at
once by specifying a list of tuples containing the values to be inserted.
How do I delete a row in MySQL using Python?

To delete a row from a MySQL table from Python, you can use the
DELETE FROM statement in an execute() method of a cursor object. The
DELETE FROM statement takes the name of the table and a WHERE
clause to specify the rows that should be deleted. For example:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("DELETE FROM customers WHERE id=1")

mydb.commit()

This code will execute a DELETE FROM statement that deletes the row
with id equal to 1 from the customers table. The WHERE clause is used to
specify the row that should be deleted.

You can also use the DELETE FROM statement to delete multiple rows at
once by omitting the WHERE clause. This will cause the statement to
delete all rows in the table, so it should be used with caution.

How do I sort results from a MySQL query?

To sort the results of a MySQL query from Python, you can use the
ORDER BY clause in the SELECT statement. The ORDER BY clause
allows you to specify the order in which the rows should be returned, based
on the values in one or more columns. For example:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()
 mycursor.execute("SELECT * FROM customers ORDER BY name")

myresult = mycursor.fetchall()

for x in myresult:

print(x)

This code will execute a SELECT query that retrieves all rows from the
customers table and sorts the rows by the values in the name column. The
rows will be returned in ascending alphabetical order based on the values in
the name column.

You can specify multiple columns in the ORDER BY clause to sort the
rows based on multiple criteria. You can also use the ASC and DESC
keywords to specify whether the rows should be sorted in ascending or
descending order. For example:

mycursor.execute("SELECT * FROM customers ORDER BY name ASC, address

DESC")

This code will sort the rows first by the name column in ascending order,
and then by the address column in descending order.

MongoDB
What is MongoDB?

MongoDB is a popular and powerful open-source database management

system (DBMS) that is based on the NoSQL (not only SQL) data model.
NoSQL databases are designed to store and manage data in a non-
relational, distributed, and scalable way, and they are often used to support
modern web and mobile applications that require high performance and
flexible data storage.

MongoDB is known for its high scalability and performance, as well as its
rich and expressive query language, which allows developers to easily and
efficiently access and manipulate the data stored in the database. MongoDB
also provides support for various data types and data structures, such as
arrays and objects, and it offers built-in mechanisms for replication,
sharding, and indexing, which help to improve the availability and
performance of the database.

MongoDB is often used in combination with other technologies, such as the

Node.js runtime and the Express web framework, to create modern web
and mobile applications that require fast, flexible, and scalable data storage.
Many companies and organizations, including Fortune 500 companies and
government agencies, use MongoDB to power their critical business
applications and services.

Overall, MongoDB is a powerful and popular database management system

that is well-suited for modern web and mobile applications, and it offers
many benefits and features that make it a valuable tool for developers and
data professionals.

Can I connect to MongoDB using Python?

Yes, you can connect to MongoDB using Python. MongoDB provides

drivers and libraries for various programming languages, including Python,
that allow you to connect to the database and perform operations on the data
stored in the database.

To connect to MongoDB from Python, you can use the pymongo library,
which is the official Python driver for MongoDB. The pymongo library
provides classes and methods for connecting to the MongoDB server, and
for accessing and manipulating the data stored in the database.
Here is an example of how to connect to MongoDB using Python and the
pymongo library:

# Import the pymongo library

import pymongo

# Connect to the MongoDB server

client = pymongo.MongoClient("mongodb://localhost:27017/")

# Select the database to use

db = client["mydatabase"]

# Select the collection to use

collection = db["mycollection"]

In this example, the MongoClient class from the pymongo library is used
to connect to the MongoDB server, which is running on the localhost at
port 27017. The MongoClient class returns a client object, which is used
to select the database and collection to use for the subsequent operations.

Note that the MongoClient class allows you to specify various options,
such as the authentication credentials and the server connection timeout, as
optional arguments. You can also use the MongoClient class to connect to a
remote MongoDB server, or to a cluster of MongoDB servers, by
specifying the appropriate connection string.

How do I update my MongoDB database using Python?

To update a MongoDB database using Python, you can use the
update_one() or update_many() method from the pymongo library, which
is the official Python driver for MongoDB. These methods allow you to
update one or more documents in the database that match a specified filter,
using the MongoDB update operators to specify the update operations to
apply to the matching documents.

Here is an example of how to update a MongoDB database using Python

and the pymongo library:

# Import the pymongo library

import pymongo

# Connect to the MongoDB server

client = pymongo.MongoClient("mongodb://localhost:27017/")

# Select the database and collection to use

db = client["mydatabase"]

collection = db["mycollection"]

# Define the filter to match the documents to update

filter = {"name": "John Doe"}

# Define the update operations to apply to the matching documents

update = {"$set": {"age": 42}}

# Update the documents in the database

 result = collection.update_one(filter, update)

# Print the number of updated documents print(result.modified_count)

In this example, the update_one() method is used to update the documents

in the collection that match the specified filter, using the $set operator to
update the age field of the matching documents. The update_one() method
returns a UpdateResult object, which includes the modified_count property
that indicates the number of updated documents.

Note that the update_one() method updates only the first document that
matches the filter, while the update_many() method updates all the
documents that match the filter. You can also use the update_one() and
update_many() methods to specify additional options, such as the upsert
option, which determines whether to insert a new document if no
documents match the filter.

Are relational databases better than NoSQL databases?

It is not accurate to say that relational databases are inherently better than
NoSQL databases, or vice versa. Both types of databases have their own
strengths and weaknesses, and the appropriate choice of a database
management system depends on the specific requirements and goals of a
project or application.

Relational databases, such as MySQL, Oracle, and SQL Server, are

based on the relational data model, which organizes data into tables, rows,
and columns, and uses structured query language (SQL) to access and
manipulate the data. Relational databases are well-suited for applications
that require high data integrity and consistency, and that involve complex
queries and transactions.
NoSQL databases, on the other hand, are based on the non-relational
(NoSQL) data model, which allows for the storage and management of data
in a flexible and distributed way. NoSQL databases are often used for
applications that require high scalability and performance, and that involve
large and complex data sets, such as web and mobile applications, social
media platforms, and IoT systems.

In the end, the choice between a relational database and a NoSQL

database depends on the specific requirements and goals of a project or
application, and it should be based on a thorough analysis of the strengths
and weaknesses of each type of database. In some cases, it may be
appropriate to use a combination of both types of databases, depending on
the needs of the application.

Chapter Review
● What is a relational database?
● What is a NoSQL database?
● Which type is MySQL?
● Which type is MongoDB?
● What are the pros and cons of each type?
 Chapter 16
Advanced Math and Science

Can I do physics calculations in Python?

Yes, you can do physics calculations in Python using a variety of different

tools and libraries. Python has a rich ecosystem of scientific computing
libraries that make it a powerful platform for physics calculations and
simulations.

One popular library for physics calculations in Python is NumPy, which

provides a set of functions and data structures for working with large arrays
and matrices of data. NumPy makes it easy to perform mathematical
operations on large datasets, such as computing the dot product of two
vectors or solving systems of linear equations.

Another popular library for physics calculations in Python is SciPy, which

provides a wide range of numerical algorithms and functions for scientific
computing. SciPy includes many functions that are useful for physics, such
as functions for computing distances between points in space, calculating
forces and accelerations, and solving differential equations.

There are also many other libraries and frameworks available for physics
calculations in Python, such as SymPy for symbolic mathematics,
PyParticles for particle simulations, and VPython for creating 3D
visualizations. With these tools, you can perform a wide range of physics
calculations and simulations in Python.
NumPy
What is NumPy?

NumPy is a library for the Python programming language, adding support

for large, multi-dimensional arrays and matrices, along with a large
collection of high-level mathematical functions to operate on these arrays. It
is a fundamental package for scientific computing with Python, and many
other packages in the Python ecosystem make use of NumPy's
functionality.

What can I do with NumPy?

NumPy is a Python library that is widely used for scientific computing and
data analysis. It provides tools and functions for working with large and
complex arrays of numerical data. Some of the things that you can do with
NumPy include the following:

● Perform mathematical operations on arrays, such as element-wise

addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
● Use its functions like mean, median, min, and max to compute
statistical properties of arrays.
● Use vectorized operations to speed up computations on large
arrays.
● Generate random numbers and arrays using functions like rand,
randn, and randint.
● Use functions like sort, unique, and intersect1d to manipulate and
analyze arrays.
● Perform linear algebra operations on arrays, such as matrix
multiplication, inverse, and determinant.
● Use functions like load and save to read and write arrays to and
from files.
 ● Use functions like fft and ifft to perform fast Fourier transforms on
arrays.

Overall, NumPy is a powerful tool for working with numerical data in

Python. It provides a wide range of functions and capabilities that make it
easy to perform complex computations on arrays of data.

How can I get started with NumPy?

To get started with NumPy, you first need to install the NumPy library.
This is typically done using the pip package manager. You can use the
following command:

pip install numpy

Once NumPy is installed, you can import it into your Python scripts and
use its functions and methods.

Here is an example of how to import and use NumPy in a Python script:

import numpy as np

# create a NumPy array with random values

arr = np.random.rand(5, 5)

# print the array

print(arr)
# compute the mean of the array

mean = np.mean(arr)

# print the mean

print(mean)

In this example, the NumPy library is imported using the import statement,
and the numpy namespace is used to access its functions and methods. The
np.random.rand() function is used to create a NumPy array with random
values, and the np.mean() function is used to compute the mean of the
array.

What are good places to learn more about NumPy?

There are many good places to learn more about NumPy, including the
following:

1. The official NumPy documentation

(https://numpy.org/doc/stable/). This is an excellent resource for
learning about the various features of NumPy and how to use them.
The documentation includes tutorials, guides, and API reference
materials for all versions of NumPy.
2. NumPy tutorials on websites like DataCamp
(https://www.datacamp.com/courses/intro-to-numpy). These type of
websites offer interactive tutorials that can help you learn NumPy
step by step. The tutorials include exercises and quizzes to help you
practice and test your knowledge.
3. There are many books available that can help you learn NumPy,
both for beginners and experienced data scientists. Some of the best
 books for learning NumPy include "Python for Data Analysis" by
Wes McKinney or "NumPy Beginner's Guide" by Ivan Idris.
4. There are many online forums and communities where you can ask
questions and get help with your NumPy code. Some of the best
forums and communities for NumPy include reddit and Stack
Overflow

By using these resources, you can learn a lot about NumPy and how to use
it effectively for data analysis and scientific computing. Remember to
always ask for help if you are stuck on a problem, and don't be afraid to try
new things and experiment with different approaches.
What math functions can NumPy do?

In terms of math functions, NumPy provides many functions that can be

used to perform mathematical operations on arrays. These include functions
for basic arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division, as well as functions for more advanced operations like
trigonometric functions, logarithms, and exponentials.

Here is a list of some of the math functions that NumPy provides:

● abs, fabs, and sqrt: Functions for computing the absolute value,
floating-point absolute value, and square root of an array.
● sin, cos, tan, arcsin, arccos, and arctan: Trigonometric functions
for computing the sine, cosine, tangent, arcsine, arccosine, and
arctangent of an array.
● sinh, cosh, tanh, arcsinh, arccosh, and arctanh: Hyperbolic
trigonometric functions for computing the hyperbolic sine,
hyperbolic cosine, hyperbolic tangent, hyperbolic arcsine,
hyperbolic arccosine, and hyperbolic arctangent of an array.
● exp and log: Functions for computing the exponential and natural
logarithm of an array.
● log10 and log2: Functions for computing the base-10 and base-2
logarithm of an array.
● ceil, floor, and trunc: Functions for computing the ceiling, floor,
and truncated value of an array.
 ● degrees and radians: Functions for converting angles from
degrees to radians and vice versa.

In addition to these functions, NumPy also provides many other functions

for working with arrays and much more.

What is NumPy ufunc?

NumPy ufuncs are designed to be fast and efficient, and they can perform
operations on arrays of data much more quickly than if you were to perform
the same operations using loops in pure Python. For example, you can use a
NumPy ufunc to add together all the elements in a large array, or to
compute the square root of every element in an array, or to apply any other
mathematical function to every element in an array.

Here's an example of using a NumPy ufunc to add two arrays together

element-wise:

import numpy as np

# Define two arrays

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

b = np.array([6, 7, 8, 9, 10])

# Use a NumPy ufunc to add the arrays element-wise

c = np.add(a, b)

print(c)

> [7, 9, 11, 13, 15]

As you can see, the add() function takes two arrays as input and returns a
new array where each element is the sum of the corresponding elements in
the input arrays.

There are many different ufuncs available in NumPy, and you can use
them to perform a wide variety of mathematical operations on arrays of
data. For more information, you can check out the NumPy documentation.

What are some advanced uses of NumPy?

NumPy is a powerful library for working with large arrays and matrices of
data, and there are many advanced uses for the library. Here are a few
examples of advanced uses for NumPy:

● NumPy includes a set of functions and classes for performing

linear algebra operations, such as matrix multiplication, solving
systems of linear equations, and computing the determinant of a
matrix. This can be useful for many applications, such as machine
learning, data analysis, and scientific computing.
● NumPy includes functions for computing discrete Fourier
transforms and inverse Fourier transforms, which are important
tools for signal processing and other applications. With these
functions, you can perform operations such as filtering,
convolution, and correlation on signals and other data.
● NumPy includes functions for generating random numbers and
arrays of random data. This can be useful for many applications,
such as simulating physical systems, testing algorithms, and
creating random data for machine learning models.
● NumPy provides a wide range of functions and methods for
manipulating arrays of data, such as reshaping, transposing, and
concatenating arrays. This can be useful for many different tasks,
such as preprocessing data for machine learning models or
performing mathematical operations on large datasets.
SciPy
What is SciPy?

SciPy is a popular Python library for scientific computing. It provides a

wide range of numerical algorithms and functions for scientific and
engineering applications. SciPy builds on the NumPy library, which
provides data structures and functions for working with large arrays and
matrices of data, and adds a wide range of algorithms and functions for
scientific computing tasks.

SciPy includes many different submodules that cover a wide range of

scientific computing tasks. For example, the scipy.optimize submodule
includes functions for optimizing parameters in a model or function, the
scipy.interpolate submodule includes functions for interpolating data, and
the scipy.integrate submodule includes functions for numerically
integrating functions.

In addition to these submodules, SciPy also provides a number of high-

level functions and classes that make it easy to perform common scientific
computing tasks in Python. For example, the scipy.signal module includes
functions for working with signals, such as filtering and convolution, and
the scipy.sparse module includes functions for working with sparse
matrices.

Overall, SciPy is a powerful and versatile library for scientific computing in

Python, and it is widely used in many different fields, such as physics,
engineering, and data science. For more information, you can check out the
SciPy documentation.

How can I get started with SciPy?

To get started with SciPy, you will first need to install the library on your
system. You can install SciPy using pip, which is the Python package
manager. Run the following command:

pip install scipy

This will install SciPy and all its dependencies on your system. Once SciPy
is installed, you can start using it in your Python programs.

To use SciPy in a Python program, you will first need to import the library.
You can import the entire SciPy library using the following code:

import scipy

Alternatively, you can import only the specific submodules or functions you
need, which can make your code more efficient and easier to read. For
example, if you only need the optimize submodule, you can import it like
this:

from scipy import optimize

Once you have imported the SciPy library or submodule you need, you can
start using the functions and classes it provides in your code. For example,
if you have imported the optimize submodule, you can use the minimize()
function to find the minimum of a function. Here's an example:

# Import the optimize submodule

 from scipy import optimize

# Define a function to minimize

def my_function(x):

return x**2

# Use the minimize() function to find the minimum of the function

result = optimize.minimize(my_function)

print(result)

This code will find the minimum of the function my_function() and print
the result to the console.

What are some good resources for learning how to use SciPy?

There are many good resources available for learning how to use SciPy,
including online tutorials, books, and the official SciPy documentation.

One good place to start learning about SciPy is the official SciPy tutorials,
which provide a series of Jupyter notebooks that cover the basics of using
SciPy for scientific computing. The tutorials cover a wide range of topics,
including optimization, interpolation, signal processing, and solving
differential equations.

Also, the official SciPy documentation is an excellent resource for learning

about the different functions and classes that SciPy provides. The
documentation includes detailed descriptions of all the functions and classes
in SciPy, as well as examples of how to use them in your own code.
What are some advanced uses of SciPy?

SciPy is a popular Python library for scientific computing, and there are
many advanced uses for the library. Here are a few examples of advanced
uses for SciPy:

● Optimization, functions for optimizing parameters in a model or

function. This can be useful for many applications, such as fitting a
curve to data, minimizing the error of a machine learning model, or
finding the maximum of a function.
● Interpolation, functions for interpolating data. This can be useful
for many tasks, such as filling in missing data points, smoothing
noisy data, or estimating values at intermediate points.
● Signal processing, functions for working with signals, such as
filtering, convolution, and correlation. This can be useful for many
applications, such as filtering noise from a signal, detecting patterns
in data, or estimating the frequency of a signal.
● Differential equations, functions for numerically solving
differential equations. This can be useful for many applications,
such as modeling physical systems, simulating systems over time,
or analyzing the behavior of systems that change over time.

Pandas
What is Pandas?

Pandas is a popular Python library for working with data. It provides a set
of data structures and functions that make it easy to manipulate, analyze,
and visualize large and complex datasets.

Pandas builds on the NumPy library, which provides data structures and
functions for working with large arrays and matrices of data. Pandas adds a
higher-level set of abstractions and functions that make it easier to work
with tabular, structured data, such as data that is stored in tables or
spreadsheets.

Pandas includes two main data structures for working with data: the Series
and the DataFrame. A Series is a one-dimensional array of data with an
associated index, and a DataFrame is a two-dimensional array of data with
row and column labels. These data structures make it easy to store and
manipulate large datasets in a consistent and organized way.

In addition to these data structures, Pandas also includes a wide range of

functions and methods for performing common data manipulation tasks,
such as selecting and filtering data, merging and joining datasets, and
grouping and summarizing data. Pandas also integrates seamlessly with
other scientific computing libraries, such as Matplotlib and SciPy, which
makes it easy to create powerful visualizations and perform complex
analyses of your data.

Pandas is a powerful and versatile library for working with data in Python,
and it is widely used in many different fields, such as data science, finance,
and statistics. For more information, you can check out the Pandas
documentation.

How do I get started with Pandas?

To get started with Pandas, you will first need to install the library on your
system.

pip install pandas

This will install Pandas and all its dependencies on your system. Once
Pandas is installed, you can start using it in your Python programs. You
know the drill!
To use Pandas in a Python program, you will first need to import the library.
You can do this using the following code:

import pandas as pd

This imports the pandas library and gives it the alias pd. You can then use
the functions and classes in the pandas library to work with data in your
programs.

How would I use Pandas to work with a CSV?

To use Pandas to work with a CSV (Comma-separated values) file, you

can use the pandas.read_csv() function to load the data from the file into a
DataFrame. Here's an example of how you can use this function to load a
CSV file and access the data it contains:

import pandas as pd

# Load the CSV file into a DataFrame

df = pd.read_csv("my_data.csv")

# Print the first five rows of the DataFrame

print(df.head())

# Access the values in a specific column

values = df["my_column"]

# Access the values in a specific row

values = df.loc[0]
 # Access a specific value in the DataFrame

value = df.loc[0, "my_column"]

This code loads the CSV file into a DataFrame, prints the first five rows of
the DataFrame, and then shows how to access specific values in the
DataFrame. Once you have the data in a DataFrame, you can use the
other functions and methods in the pandas library to perform operations on
the data, such as selecting and filtering data, grouping and aggregating data,
and visualizing the data.

What is a CSV?

A CSV (Comma-separated values) file is a type of text file that stores

tabular data in a simple, human-readable format. CSV files are commonly
used for storing data in a tabular format, such as data from a database or a
spreadsheet program.

A CSV file consists of a series of lines, each of which contains a row of

data. The data in each row is separated by a comma, which is why the
format is called "comma-separated values". For example, a CSV file might
look like this:

name,age,height

Ben Kenobi,38,173

Anakin Skywalker,27,182

In this example, the CSV file contains three rows of data, each of which has
three values. The first row contains the names of the columns, and the
subsequent rows contain the data for each row.
CSV files are simple and easy to read and write, which makes them a
popular format for storing and exchanging data. Many different programs
and languages support reading and writing CSV files, including Python.

Chapter Review
● Is Python good for complex math operations?
● What is NumPy?
● What is SciPy?
● What is Pandas?
● What is a CSV file?
 Chapter 17
Machine Learning

What is machine learning?

Machine learning is a type of artificial intelligence that allows software

applications to become more accurate in predicting outcomes without being
explicitly programmed. It is a method of teaching computers to learn and
make decisions based on data, without being explicitly programmed to
perform a specific task. Machine learning algorithms use statistical
methods to enable computers to improve their performance on a specific
task over time. This allows the computer to automatically improve its
performance on that task by learning from the data.

Is Python good for machine learning / AI?

Yes, Python is a good language for machine learning or AI. It is a high-

level, interpreted language that is easy to read and write, and it has a large
and active community of users who contribute a variety of useful libraries
and frameworks for machine learning. Python also has a number of
powerful libraries for numerical computing, such as NumPy and Pandas,
which are useful for working with data in machine learning applications.
Additionally, many popular machine learning frameworks, such as
TensorFlow and PyTorch, are written in Python, which makes it a
convenient language to use for developing machine learning models.
Overall, Python's simplicity, flexibility, and strong support for data science
and machine learning make it a good choice for many applications in this
field.
What is Tensorflow?

TensorFlow is an open-source software library for machine learning and

artificial intelligence. It was developed by Google and is used by many
companies, organizations, and researchers worldwide for a wide range of
tasks, such as training and deploying machine learning models, natural
language processing, and image and video analysis.

TensorFlow is based on the concept of tensors, which are multi-

dimensional arrays of data that represent the input, output, and intermediate
computations of a machine learning model. TensorFlow provides a set of
APIs and libraries that allow you to define and manipulate tensors, and to
apply various mathematical operations and transformations to them, such as
linear algebra, calculus, and probability.

TensorFlow also provides a runtime environment that allows you to

execute tensor computations on various hardware platforms, such as CPUs,
GPUs, and TPUs, and to optimize and parallelize them for maximum
performance and efficiency. TensorFlow also provides tools and libraries
for training, evaluating, and deploying machine learning models, and for
exporting them to various formats and platforms, such as TensorFlow Lite
for mobile and embedded devices, and TensorFlow.js for web browsers.

TensorFlow is a powerful and widely-used library for machine learning and

artificial intelligence that provides a comprehensive and flexible set of tools
and features for building and deploying machine learning models with
Python and other programming languages.

How do I get started with Tensorflow using Python?

To get started with TensorFlow using Python, you can follow these steps:

1. Make sure you have Python installed on your computer.

2. Install TensorFlow by following the instructions on the
TensorFlow website. TensorFlow can be installed using pip, which
is the Python package manager, or using conda, which is the
package manager for the Anaconda Python distribution.
3. Once TensorFlow is installed, you can start using it by importing it
in your Python code. You can do this by adding the following line
at the top of your Python file:

import tensorflow as tf

4. To verify that TensorFlow is working correctly, you can try

running a simple example, such as creating a constant tensor and
printing its value:

x = tf.constant([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

print(x)

5. If the code runs without any errors and prints the expected output,
you have successfully installed and started using TensorFlow.

To learn more about TensorFlow and how to use it for building and training
machine learning models, you can refer to the official TensorFlow
documentation, which includes tutorials and other useful resources.
Additionally, there are many online tutorials and courses that can help you
learn TensorFlow and apply it to solve real-world problems.

Where can I find the Tensorflow documentation?

You can find the official TensorFlow documentation

at https://www.tensorflow.org/docs. The documentation includes detailed
information about the TensorFlow API, tutorials, and examples to help you
get started with TensorFlow and understand how to use it for building and
training machine learning models. It also includes information about the
different features and capabilities of TensorFlow, such as support for
distributed training and integration with other popular Python libraries for
data science and machine learning. The documentation includes resources
for more advanced users.

What is PyTorch?

PyTorch is an open-source machine learning library for Python. It is

developed by Facebook's artificial intelligence research group, and is used
for applications such as natural language processing and computer vision.
PyTorch provides a flexible, high-performance environment for building
and training deep learning models, and it is widely used by researchers and
practitioners in the field of machine learning. PyTorch is known for its
simplicity and flexibility, as well as its support for dynamic computation
graphs, which allow for more efficient and flexible modeling of complex
neural networks. It also integrates well with other popular Python libraries
for data science and machine learning, such as NumPy and Pandas.

How do I get started with PyTorch?

To get started with PyTorch, you can follow these steps:

1. Make sure you have Python installed on your computer. If you

don't have Python, you can download it from the official Python
website.
2. Install PyTorch on your computer by following the instructions on
the PyTorch website. You can choose to install PyTorch using pip
or you can install it using conda
 3. Once PyTorch is installed, you can start using it by importing it in
your Python code

import torch

4. To verify that PyTorch is working correctly, you can try running a

simple example, such as creating a tensor (a multidimensional
array) and performing some operations on it:

x = torch.ones(3, 3)

y=x+2

z=y*y*3

print(z)

5. If the code runs with no errors and prints the expected output, you
have successfully installed and started using PyTorch.

To learn more about PyTorch and how to use it for building and training
machine learning models, you can refer to the official PyTorch
documentation which includes tutorials and other helpful resources. There
are many online tutorials and courses that can help you learn PyTorch and
apply it to real-world problems.

Where can I read the official PyTorch documentation?

You can read the official PyTorch documentation

at https://pytorch.org/docs/. The documentation includes tons of
information on the PyTorch API including tutorials and examples to help
you get started. It will also show you how to use it for building and training
machine learning models.
Is Tensorflow better than PyTorch?

It is difficult to say definitively whether TensorFlow or PyTorch is better,

as both are powerful and widely-used libraries for deep learning.
TensorFlow and PyTorch have many similarities, such as their support for
dynamic computation graphs, which allow for efficient and flexible
modeling of complex neural networks. However, they also have some
important differences, such as the way they handle memory and the level of
flexibility and control they offer to users. Ultimately, the choice between
TensorFlow and PyTorch will depend on the specific needs and
preferences of the user. Some users may prefer TensorFlow for its strong
support for production and deployment, while others may prefer PyTorch
for its simplicity and flexibility. It is also worth noting that both
TensorFlow and PyTorch are constantly evolving, with new features and
improvements being added regularly, so the relative strengths and
weaknesses of the two libraries may change over time.

What is Stable Diffusion?

Stable Diffusion is a text-to-image AI model that can create many different

image types and perform lots of types of image processing based on given
text prompts. Stable Diffusion can be run locally with Python or run in one
of many online interfaces. Python can be used to script and manipulate the
image creation as not only can it call the Stable Diffusion Python methods
used to generate images, but it can also script the generation using
traditional control structures like loops and conditional statements.
 An image generated entirely using Stable Diffusion AI

Python and Stable Diffusion are a match made in heaven. Learn more at
https://stability.ai/

Chapter Review
● What is machine learning?
● Is machine learning the same as AI?
● What is TensorFlow?
● What is PyTorch?
● What is Stable Diffusion?
 Glossary

__doc__
A method that provides documentation for an object

__getitem__
A method to get an item from an invoked instance

__init__
A method to initialize an object

__iter__
A method that returns an iterator object that goes
through all the elements in the object

__str__
A method that returns a string representing the
object

.py
The file extension for Python code files

@staticmethod
A decorator marking a method as static
**kwargs
A dictionary of key-value arguments passed to a
Python program

*args
A list of arguments passed to a Python program

#
The symbol used to start a comment line

%
The modulo operator which returns the remainder
of a division operation

==
The equality operator which checks if two things
are equal

abstract
A blueprint for a method or class that doesn’t have
a function otherwise

abstract base class

A blueprint for a class

AI
Artificial intelligence
alias
Using a name in place of another name, for example
giving an imported module a shorter name

Anaconda
A package manager for Python

and
A keyword used to compare if two things are both
true

Android
A mobile phone operating system by Google

annotations
Decorators added to code that describe more about
its properties

API
Application Programmer Interface. A contract for
how computer programs can communicate

apt
A package management system on some versions
of the Linux operating system

argument
A value passed into a function
Arithmetic operators
Operators that perform math, like + for addition

array
A data structure that holds a group of items in slots,
like an egg carton

artificial intelligence
A term for a computer program that seems
intelligent

as
A keyword to create an alias

ASC
A SQL keyword for ascended sorting

assignment operator
The operator to give a variable its value, =

attribute
A property or variable within an object

automated tests
Tests that run automatically to test your program
bar()
A Matplotlib function to make a bar chart

BeeWare
A multiplatform library for exporting Python apps
to different operating systems

bool
Short for Boolean

bool()
A conversion function to turn something into a
Boolean

Boolean
A true or false value

break
A keyword to exit a loop early

Buildozer
A tool for creating application packages

C
A programming language made in the 1970s
C#
A high-level language designed by Microsoft

C++
A “sequel” language to C first appearing in 1985

call
Making a function execute

casting
Turning a variable into a different data type

child classes
An object that has inherited traits and methods
from a parent class

class
A definition for an object with defined properties
and methods

class attributes
The properties inside a class definition

class inheritance
Where a child class can take on the properties and
methods from a parent class
CLI
A Command Line Interface such as a terminal or
command prompt

close()
A function for closing the reading or writing of a file

Code debugging
Working through problems in your code to find
how to best fix it

codec
An algorithm that decodes a video or audio stream

columns
Fields in a SQL row

Comma-separated values
A type of file format where values are separated
between comma characters

command prompt
The terminal command line interface program on
Windows
command-line interface
A text-based interface for interacting with a
computer

comment
A line in a code file describing what the code does
without changing its functionality

commit()
A function to commit database changes to memory

Comparison operators
Operators to compare two things, like less than (<)

compiler
A program that turns code into another form,
usually to make it faster to execute

composite
Overlaying two images on top of each other

concat()
A function for concatenating Pandas objects

concatenate
To combine together, like “a” + “bc” = “abc”
conda
The executable name of the Anaconda package
manager

constant variable
An immutable variable that does not change

Cordova
A cross platform framework for making apps

cos()
Performs the trigonometric cosine operation

CREATE TABLE
A SQL command to create a Table

CSV
A Comma Separated Value file

cv2 module
The import module for the OpenCV library

Cython
A superset of Python that supports C functions
data structure
A way to store and structure data that can help
coders organize their data

data type
The type of a variable such as integer or string

database
A system of storing structured data

datetime
An object for storing dates and times

datetime module
The module for importing datetime objects

DBMS
Short for DataBase Management System

Debian
A flavor of the Linux operating system

debug
Going through code to find and fix problems

debugger
A tool that can help you debug code

decorator
An annotation on a method or class to describe
properties about how it should function

def
The Python keyword for defining a function

default argument
A value supplied to be the value an argument will
have if its function isn’t called with an overriding
value

DELETE
A SQL command to delete a row or set of rows

DESC
A SQL keyword for descended sorting

desktop applications
Applications that typically run on a desktop computer
or desktop operating system

dictionary
A data structure that holds keys that map to values
diff()
A Pandas function that can return the difference
between a set of values

Django
A framework for making web apps in Python

do-while loops
A loop that executes once before deciding if it
should repeat

docstring
A string added to a class or method to help other
coders know how to use it or what its function is

dunder method
A special method type in Python for providing object
properties

elif
“Else if”, a way in an if statement to add another
conditional branch

else
A keyword in an if statement for code to execute
if the first condition isn’t true

encapsulation
A term for how variables can be wrapped together
in one unit

equality operator
The operator for checking if two things are equal,
==

except
The latter half of a try/except structure, code that
will execute if the try block had an error

exception
An error that occurs while running code

Express
A framework for writing web apps

expressions
A coding statement that can be evaluated to get
a value

extended
When an object has extended another object, as in
became a child of a parent class

extends
A term related to denoting a parent class of a child
class

f
A keyword used when formatting strings

factory method
A function pattern that creates new objects from
inputs

falsy
Objects that will default to false if evaluated as
booleans

Fedora
A flavor of the Linux operating system

ffmpeg
A library for editing video and audio

files
Computer documents that can be of various types

float
A number data type with decimals

for
The keyword to start a for loop
for loop
A loop that will generally run a certain number of
times before stopping

frameworks
Code libraries that help a developer make a certain
type of app

full-stack
A term referring to the whole stack of computer
software, from back-end servers to front end apps

function
A code block that takes in arguments and can
return a value

function arguments
The values passed into a function which it will
perform operations with

function call
The act of calling a function to get a value

function declaration
The code that defines a function, what arguments
it takes in, and what it does

game development framework

A framework for helping a developer make a game

generic types
The ability to make a function that doesn’t know
what type it will take in

GET
A HTTP method for getting data from a web server
endpoint using a url and query strings

global scope
Variables that can be accessed anywhere in a
program

graphical user interface

A visual interface to an app typically with widgets
like buttons and labels

grid layout manager

A Tkinter layout manager type

GUI
A graphical user interface
hist()
A Matplotlib function to make a histogram

Homebrew
A package manager to install new packages from a
CLI

HTTP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Hypertext Transfer Protocol

A method of getting data over the internet in
request and response calls

IDE
A program that assists a developer in writing code

Identity operators
Keywords like “is” that help determine the identity
or type of a variable

IDLE
An IDE for Python

if
The keyword used to start an if statement
if statement
A block of code that will only execute if the given
condition is true

if-elif-else statements
A coding structure with branches of code that will
execute under given conditions

immutable
Unable to be changed directly

import
Bringing in external code to be used and
referenced in a file

in
A keyword that checks inclusion of one variable in
a larger structure, like a list

inheritance
Receiving methods and properties from a parent
class

INNER
A join type in SQL

INSERT
A SQL keyword to add a row into the database

instance
A specific instantiation of a variable

int
A variable type of just whole numbers, short for
integer

integer
A whole number, represented by the variable type
int

Integrated Development Environment

An IDE, a program that assists developers in
writing code

interface
A blueprint that a class must follow, as in certain
methods and variables it must contain

interpreter
A program that executes code of an interpreted
language like Python

iOS
A mobile phone operating system by Apple
is operator
An operator that checks if a variable is of a certain
type

iterable
Something that can be iterated over to get
successive elements, like each element in a list

Jam
The best executive personal assistant who ever did live

JavaScript
A flexible language used mostly for logic on web
pages

JavaScript Object Notation

A data format similar to the object declaration
format used in JavaScript

JIT
Just In Time, a strategy for compiling repeated
interpreted code into machine code

JOIN
A SQL keyword for combining two tables in a query

JSON
See JavaScript Object Notation
json module
A Python module that helps you work with JSON

json.dumps()
A function that converts an object to a JSON string

json.loads()
A function that converts a JSON string to an object

Jupyter notebooks
A web platform for interacting with code and other
visualizations

just-in-time
A compilation strategy that compiles repeated
interpreted code into machine code

key
The key from a dictionary that defines where the
value will live

key-value pair
A key that maps to a value in a dictionary, like a
word to its definition
lambda function
A lightweight function defined in place without a
more formal function definition, that can be passed
as an argument and used by other functions

layout manager
A class in Tkinter that defines how widgets will be
laid out

LEFT
A type of JOIN in SQL

library
A set of code that has a purpose, that helps
developers write their code

librosa
A Python package for music and audio

linked list
A list where each item has a reference to the next
item in the list

Linux
A popular operating system used in phones and
desktops, and much more
list
A sequential ordering of objects

local scope
Items that only can be accessed inside their current
code block

localhost
An alias given to the web address of the user’s
machine

log
A function to get the logarithm of a number

Logical operators
Keywords like “and” and “or” that help write logic
statements

loop
A code structure that can execute multiple times

ls
A Unix or Linux command for listing the files and
folders in a folder

Mac
A computer by Apple
machine code
Bytes that can be ran by a processor that represent
instructions

machine learning
Algorithms for helping computer programs become
specialized at a given task

macOS
The operating system running on Mac computers

map()
A function that maps a list of one type to a list of
another

math module
A Python module with helpful math functions

math.pi
A variable in Python representing pi

Matplotlib
A powerful Python library for charting data

max
A Python function for getting the higher of two
numbers
method
A function of a class that can be executed

MIDI
A type of audio format

min
A Python function to get the lower of two numbers

module
A package that can be imported to provide more
functionality in your code

modulo
An operator for returning the remainder of a
division operation

MongoDB
A popular NoSQL database

moviepy
A Python library for editing videos

music21 library
A Python library for creating music

mutable
Something that can be changed

MySQL
A popular relational database framework

nano
A Linux and Unix utility for editing text documents
in a terminal

networking
Sharing data between computers

neural networks
A form of machine learning that seeks to structure
data similar to a brain

newline
A character that moves input or output to the next
line

Node.js
A framework for running JavaScript for a wide
variety of applications, like a web server

None
A keyword in Python representing that a variable
doesn’t have a usable value

NoSQL
A type of database named such because it doesn’t
use SQL like many databases do

null
A keyword in many programming languages
for denoting that a variable has no value

Numba
A high-performance Python compiler

NumPy
A Python library for a wide range of numerical
operations

object
A data type with properties and methods

Object Oriented Programming

A programming paradigm revolving around the
creation, inheritance, and use of objects

OOP
Acronym for Object Oriented Programming
open source
A library is open source if it is free to use and modify
by anyone

OpenCV
A popular library for image processing

operating system
Software that lets a user operate a computer

operator
A character that represents a mathematical or
logical action

optional arguments
Function arguments that don’t have to be provided
for the function to run

or
A logical operator that is true if at least one of two
values is true

Oracle
A software company that owns Java as well as many
other software products

ORDER BY
A SQL keyword that tells a query what field is should
sort the results by

os module
A Python module for interfacing with operating
system functions

os.remove()
A function in Python for deleting a file

out of bounds
Trying to access an array or list in an index that is
outside how many items the array has available

OUTER
A type of JOIN in SQL

overrides
A term for when a child class makes new
functionality for a method or property

pack layout manager

A layout manager type in Tkinter

package
A collection of code that can be imported to add
functionality to your code

Pandas
A Python library for dana analysis

parent class
A class that a child class has inherited from

PEP 8
The style guide standards for writing Python code

pie()
A function for making a pie chart in Matplotlib

PIL
The Python Imaging Library

Pillow
A fork of the PIL library with more features

pip
A popular package manager and installer for Python

place layout manager

A Tkinter layout manager type

polymorphism
The concept of using a class as one of its super
(parent) types
port
A channel for networking traffic

positional arguments
Arguments in a function that must be placed in a
specific order

POST
An HTTP request method where data is held in the
body of the request and not in the url

pow()
A function for calculating exponents

pretty_midi library
A library for making MIDI music

primitive
The lowest level data types of a language, like int
or boolean

print
Placing a message into a terminal or some other
location that can receive text

private attributes
Class attributes that can only be read or accessed by
the class that contains them

public attributes
Class attributes that can be read and accessed by
anyone

PyCharm
A popular Python IDE

pymongo
A Python library for interfacing with MongoDB

pytest
A Python library that helps with testing

python
The command used to run a Python code file with
the currently installed Python version

Python 2
The previous major version of Python. It is no longer
supported

Python 3
The current major version of Python!

Python Imaging Library

PIL, a Python library for processing images
python3
The command used to run a Python code file with
Python 3

Pythonista
An environment for writing Python code on iOS

PyTorch
A machine learning framework for Python based on
Torch

Qt
A framework for making GUI applications

query
A SQL command for performing operations on a
database

queue
A data structure where the earliest items added will
be the first to come out

randint()
A function to get a random integer

random module
A Python module for making random numbers
range()
A function for getting a range of numbers depending
on the arguments provided

re module
The Python module for regular expressions

read()
The function to open a file for reading

reading mode
A file opening mode that denotes the file is able to
be read from

Red Hat
A flavor of the Linux operating system

Regex
A ReGular EXpression, a way to match patterns on a
string that will return substrings

regular expression
See Regex above

relational database
A database type where Tables hold Rows of data,
whose fields are separated into columns
required arguments
Arguments of a function that must be provided for
the function to run

resize()
A method to resize an image using Pillow

return
A keyword that tells a function to stop executing
and give a value back to the caller

reversed()
A function that reverses a string

round()
A function to round a float to a specified amount of
decimal places or to a whole number

rows
Entries inside of a relational database

Ruby
A scripting language released in 1995

runtime error
An error that occurs while a program is running
runtime exception
An exception that is thrown while a program is running

scatter()
A Matplotlib function for making a scatter plot

SciPy
A popular Python framework for scientific
calculations

scope
Areas where variables can live in a program and
where those variables can be accessed from

scope nesting
Making a variable in an inner scope with the same
name as one in the outer scope

SELECT
A SQL keyword to get data from the database

self
A keyword referring to the current Python instance
that the code is being written in

server socket
A networking pipeline for client and server interaction

set
Similar to a list, but every element is unique

shutil module
A Python package for working with files

sin()
The trigonometric sine function

slice
An operator that can take a list or a string and split
it into smaller pieces

slicing
The act of using the slice operator to slice a list
or string or other sliceable object

sorted()
A function to sort a list

Spyder
A Python IDE focused on data science and
engineering
SQL
Structured Query Language, the language used
most often to interface with a relational database

SQL Server
A server that performs operations on a SQL
database

sqrt
A math function to get the square root of a number

Stable Diffusion
A machine learning platform that generates images
from text prompts using machine learning

stack
A data structure that returns the most recently
added item as the first one to leave

standard library
The functions and objects built into a programming
language

standard output
The output to the terminal the CLI application
is running in
statement
A sentence of programming code

static method
A function that is referenced from a class rather
than an instance of that class

str.find()
A function that finds a substring in a string

str.rfind()
A function that finds the last instance of a substring
in a string

str.split()
A function that splits a string into a list by a specified
separator

str.upper()
A function that converts a string to all uppercase
characters

str()
A function that converts a variable into a string

string
A sequence of characters
structured query language
SQL, a language used to interface with SQL relational
databases

subclass
A child class that has inherited from a parent class

Sublime Text
A popular text editing application

submodule
A module that exists inside another module

subprocess module
A Python module for creating and running new
processes

sum
A function to get the sum of a group of numbers

super()
A function call to the constructor of a class’ parent
class

switch statement
A structure for providing varied code branches for
a group of listed conditions

SymPy
A Python library for various math operations

syntax
The required structure that a language must be
typed in to be valid

syntax error
When the code entered does not match the
required syntax for the language

tan()
The mathematical tangent function

TensorFlow
An open source machine learning library from
Google

TensorFlow Lite
A more lightweight version of TensorFlow with less
features

TensorFlow.js
A JavaScript port of TensorFlow
terminal
A command line, text-based window used to
interface with a computer via CLI applications

test cases
Conditions that must be satisfied to ensure a piece
of code is running correctly

thread
A single sequential flow of code inside a program

threading module
A Python module to create and work with threads

Tkinter
A Python framework for making GUI applications

Toga
A cross platform GUI framework for Python

trees
A data structure where values are organized on
leaves and branches

trigonometric functions
Math functions used to calculate properties about
triangles
True
A Python keyword denoting a logical statement to
be true

truthy
A variable is truthy if when converted to a boolean,
it is converted to a true value

try
The keyword to being a try/except block to capture
errors that can occur during code execution

Try catch
The concept of running code and capturing errors
that occur. In Python this is called “try except”

tuple
Similar to a list, but its contents may not be
changed once created

type hints
Parts of code that give hints as to what data type
a function will return, or what data type function
arguments should accept

typecast
Casting a variable from one data type to another
Ubuntu
A popular and user-friendly Linux distribution

ufunc
A NumPy function that operates over a set of
NumPy arrays

Union
A way to work with generic typing in Python

unit test
A small unit of work encapsulated into a test

Unix
An operating system. MacOS is based on this and
Linux was created to be an open-source analog of
this

UPDATE
A SQL keyword to change the values in a set of rows

variable
A spot in memory that holds a value. It can be
assigned to, read from, and used in other
expressions
vim
An old command line text editing program known
widely for the difficulty exiting it

visibility
This refers to the scope of variables and where they
can be accessed and by whom

visual debuggers
A debugging program that displays debugging
info graphically to the developer

Visual Studio Code

A popular text editing program that can function
as a lightweight IDE

VSC
Acronym for Visual Studio Code

web applications
Applications that run over the internet with calls
made to them generating responses with data

web browsers
An application that can browse websites from servers

web frameworks
A library that can be used to network with other
servers
web server
A computer that will give data back to the caller
when a request is made to it

WHERE
A SQL statement denoting that there is a condition
to the query being made

while
The Python keyword to make a while loop

while loops
A loop that will run until a specified condition is met

Windows
A popular operating system by Microsoft

with statement
A code block that uses an object inside of it and then
automatically closes any resources that object may
be using after the block is done

write()
A function for writing text into a file

writing mode
A mode of opening a file denoting it’s to be written to
 About the Author

Nicholas Wilson has been programming for a very long time. He began his
grand coding adventure at the age of 8 and has been enjoying and crying
over it ever since.

After doing it all through school, he has worked at some of the largest
companies in the world as a programmer before deciding that torturing
students would be more entertaining. Now he still works in the industry and
shares his knowledge with anyone willing to learn.

The picture above is of his beloved cat Swiffer, who may or may not be the
true coding mastermind in the family. She can often be found on Nic’s
keyboard, “helping”.