CHAPTER II

SIZING AND DIMENSIONING

Objectives:

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to: identify the differences between
tolerance, allowance and fits; know the different types of fits and their classification; and solve
problems specifying allowance, and tolerances. Understand the basic principles of fits and
tolerances. Know the fundamental of the systems of fits

INTRODUCTION

A machine element, after design, requires to be manufactured to give it a shape of a

product. Therefore, in addition to standard design practices like, selection of proper material,
ensuring proper strength and dimension to guard against failure, a designer should have knowledge
of basic manufacturing aspects.
First and foremost is assigning proper size to a machine element from manufacturing view
point. As for example, a shaft may be designed to diameter of, say, 40 mm. This means, the
nominal diameter of the shaft is 40 mm, but the actual size will be slightly different, because it is
impossible to manufacture a shaft of exactly 40 mm diameter, no matter what machine is used. In
case the machine element is a mating part with another one, then dimensions of both the parts
become important, because they dictate the nature of assembly. The allowable variation in size for
the mating parts is called limits and the nature of assembly due to such variation in size is known
as fits.

SIZE DESIGNATIONS

1. Nominal Size /trade size - It is the designation used for general identification and is
usually expressed in common fractions. Not necessarily its actual size when finished. For
example for a screw thread, nominal size of 1/4” , 20 threads per inch UNC.

2. Basic Size or Basic Dimension - It is the theoretical size from which limits of size are
derived by the application of allowances and tolerances. ± 3 , ±5 and so on

3. Actual Size - is the measured size of the finished part.

4. Allowance - is the minimum clearance space (or maximum interference)intended

between the maximum material condition of mating parts.

Tolerance – permissible variation of the size of a dimension. It is the difference between the
maximum (upper) and the minimum(lower) limits for the dimension. In mechanical engineering,
the space between the bolt and a nut on a hole.

Tolerance maybe:

a. Bilateral – the size of a part is permitted to be either larger or smaller than the given
dimension. In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both sides of
the basic size, i.e. the limits of the tolerance lie on either side of the basic size, but may
not be necessary equally dispose about it.

1
 tolerance
tolerance

Basic size
Figure: Bilateral tolerance

b. Unilateral – the size of a part maybe larger only, or smaller only, than the given
dimension. Usually used in signifying fits for interchangeable parts.
In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side of the basic
size,i.e. tolerance lies wholly on one side of the basic size either above or below it.
tolerance

tolerance
basic size

Figure: Unilateral tolerance

BILATERAL UNILATERAL

+ 0.0025
1
¾ ± 64 2.875
- 0.0000

+ 0.0000
3.125± 0.0625 1.575
-0.010

Example: 1. A shaft of 25mm basic size is given 25±0.02. Find the tolerance.
Solution:
Maximum permissible size(upper) = 25.02
Permissible size (lower limit) = 24.98 Therefore: tolerance = 25.02 – 24.98 = 0.04mm

1. A 50mm diameter shaft is made to rotate in the bush. The tolerances for both shaft and
bush are 0.050mm. Determine the dimension of the shaft and bush to give a maximum
clearance of 0.075mm with the hole basis system.
Solution:
In the hole basis system, lower deviation of hole is zero, therefore low limit of hole =
50mm.

High limit of hole = low limit + tolerance

= 50.00 + 0.050
= 50.050mm
High limit of shaft = low limit of hole – allowance
= 50.00-0.075
= 49.925mm
Low limit of the shaft = high limit – tolerance
= 49.925-0.050
= 49.875mm

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Fit – general term refers to the relative looseness (clearance fit) or tightness (interference fit) of
mating parts, especially as it affects the motion of the parts or the force between them after
assembly.
. It is the dimensional relationship between mating parts like press shrink or sliding fit.

Three (3) Types of Fit:

1. Clearance fit – is one having limits of size so prescribed that a clearance always results
when mating parts are assembled. An internal member fits in an external member (as a
shaft in a hole) and always leaves a space or clearance between the parts.
- The difference between the sizes of the hole and the shaft, before assembly, when this
difference is±.
- Usually referred to as “sliding fit”.

Sub-classified as follows:

a. Loose- fit – It is used between those mating parts where no precision is required.
It provides minimum allowance and is used on loose pulleys, agricultural
machineries.

b. Running fit – The dimension of the shaft should be smaller enough to maintain a
film of oil for lubrication. It is used in bearing pair. An allowance of 0.025 mm
per 25mm of diameter of boaring may be used.

c. Slide-fit or medium fit – It is used in those mating parts where great precision is
required. It provides medium allowance and is used in tool slides, slide valves,
automobile parts.

Example. A spindle slides freely in a bush. The basic size of the fit is 50 x10-3mm. If the
+62 -80
tolerances quoted are for the holes and for the shaft, find the upper limit and lower limit
0 -180
Of the shaft and the minimum clearance.

Solution. Tolerances are given in units of one thousandth of millimeter, so the upper limit of the
hole will be 50.062 mm and the lower limit for the hole is the same as the basic size of 50.000mm.
The shaft upper limit will be (50.000 -0.080)x10-3 = 49.92x10-3 mm
The shaft lower limit will be (50.000 -0.180)x10-3 = 49.82x10-3 mm
The minimum clearance or allowance is (50.000 – 49.82)x10-3 = 8x10-3 mm

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 2. Interference fit - is one having limits of size so prescribed that an interference always
results when mating parts are assembled. “ When a pin is larger than the hole, the
allowance is as before the difference in sizes for the tightest fit, a difference is called
interference of metal or negative allowance”.

- The difference between the sizes of the hole and the shaft before assembly, when the
difference is negative.

Sub-classified as follows:

a. Shrink fit or heavy force fit – It is used in fitting of rims. It refers to maximum negative
allowance

b. Medium force fit – used in car wheels, armature of dynamos. It refers to medium negative
allowance

c. Tight fit or press fit - used on a keyed pulley and shaft, rocker arm. One part can be assembled
into t he other with a hand hammer or by light pressure

3. Transition fit - is one having limits of size so prescribed that either a clearance or an
interference may result when mating parts are assembled.
- It is between clearance and interferences, where the tolerance zones of the holes and
shaft overlap.

Sub-classified as follows:

a. Snug fit/push fit – refers to a zero allowances and a light pressure is required in
assembling the hole and the shaft.

b. Force fit/shrink fit – used when the two mating parts are to be rigidly fixed so that one
cannot move without the other.. It either requires high pressure to force the shaft in to the
holes by heating.

c. Wringing fit – a slight negative allowance exists between two mating parts in wringing fit. It
requires pressure to force the shaft into the hole and gives a light assembly. It is used in fixing
keys, pins.

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Classification of Fit:

RC 1 : Close sliding fit

RC 2 : Sliding fit
RC 3 : Precision-running fits
RC 4 : Close-running fits
RC 5 & 6 : Medium running fits
RC 7 : Free-running
RC 8 & 9 : Loose-running

Classes of Interference Fits: five classes of force fits are defined in ANSI Standard

FN 1 : For light drive fits

FN 2 : For medium drive fits
FN 3 : For heavy drive fits, heavy steel
FN 4 : Force fit
: Used for high-strength assemblies where high resulting pressures
are required.
FN5 : (force fit)
: Similar to FN4 for higher pressures.
Running Fit – is the minimum specified difference between the dimensions of the pin (male part)
and the hole (female part).

5
 REFERENCES

Books

Khurmi, R.S. & Gupta, J.K. (200)5. A Textbook of Machine Design (SI
Units).14th Edition. Eurasia Publishing House (PVT) Ltd. New Delhi

Faires, Virgil Moring. (1969). Design of Machine Elements. 4th Edition. McMillan
Company New York.

Spotts, M.F. (1985). Design of Machine Elements, 6th Edition. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, Inc.

Shigley, J.E. & Mischke, C.R. (1989). Mechanical Engineering Design, 5th
Edition. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Co.

6
 MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Objectives:

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to: know the important properties of
a material; understand the different heat kinds of treatment practices; enumerate the different uses
and classification of alloy steels; and familiarize the commonly used metal.

INTRODUCTION

The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great significance for a design
engineer. The machine elements should be made of such a material which has properties suitable
for the conditions of operation. In addition to this, a design engineer must be familiar with the
effects which the manufacturing processes and heat treatment have on the properties of the
materials. In this chapter the commonly used engineering materials and their properties are
discussed.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS:

The engineering materials are mainly classified as :

1. Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium, etc.

2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.

The metals may be further classified as :

(a) Ferrous metals, and (b) Non-ferrous metals.

Ferrous Metals - are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as cast iron, wrought
iron and steel.

Non-FerrousMetals = are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent, such
as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, zinc, etc.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:
The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of
the material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical properties of the metal include
strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience,
creep and hardness. We shall now discuss these properties as follows:

1. Strength - It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking
or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied force is called *stress.
2. Stiffness - It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.

3. Elasticity - ability of a material to be deformed and to return to its original shape It is the property
of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when the external forces are removed.
This property is desirable for materials used in tools and machines. It may be noted that steel is
more elastic than rubber.

4. Plasticity -– ability of a metal to be deformed considerably without rupture. It is property of a

material which retains the deformation produced under load permanently. This property of the
material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on coins and in ornamental work.

5. Ductility - a property that permits permanent deformation before fracture in tension It is the
property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application of a tensile force. A
ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The ductility is usually
measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area. The ductile
material commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing ductility) are mild steel,
copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.

7
Note : The ductility of a material is commonly measured by means of percentage elongation and
percentage reduction in area in a tensile test.

6. Brittleness - tendency to fracture without appreciable deformation. It is the property of a

material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking of a material with little permanent
distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads, snap off without giving any sensible
elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.

7. Malleability - susceptibility to extreme deformation in rolling and hammering . It is a special

case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets. A malleable
material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong. The malleable materials commonly
used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought
iron, copper and aluminium.

8. Toughness - It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is measured by the
amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being stressed up to
the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact loads.

9. Machinability - relative ease with which a material can be cut. It is the property of a material
which refers to a relative case with which a material can be cut. The machinability of a material
can be measured in a number of ways such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials
or thrust required to remove the material at some given rate or the energy required to remove a
unit volume of the material. It may be noted that brass can be easily machined than steel.

10. Resilience - It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock
and impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within
elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials.

11. Creep - When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of
time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is considered
in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.

12. Fatigue- When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield
point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as *fatigue. The failure is caused by
means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of microscopic size. This
property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.

13. Hardness - resistance to indentation. It is a very important property of the metals and has a
wide variety of meanings. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear,
scratching, deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another
metal. The hardness is usually expressed in numbers which are dependent on the method of making
the test. The hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests :
(a) Brinell hardness test,
(b) Rockwell hardness test,
(c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test, and
(d) Shore scleroscope.
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS
The term heat treatment may be defined as an operation or a combination of operations,
involving the heating and cooling of a metal or an alloy in the solid state for the purpose of
obtaining certain desirable conditions or properties without change in chemical composition. The
aim of heat treatment is to achieve one or more of the following objects :

1. To increase the hardness of metals.

2. To relieve the stresses set up in the material after hot or cold working.

3. To improve machinability.

4. To soften the metal.

8
 5. To modify the structure of the material to improve its electrical and magnetic properties.

6. To change the grain size

7. To increase the qualities of a metal to provide better resistance to heat, corrosion and
wear.

HEAT TREATMENT PRACTICES

1. Annealing – heating above the transformation range , usually 1300 to 1350°F, and cooling
slowly to soften the metal and increase ease in machining.

2. Hardening – heating above the transformation temperature and quenching usually in oil,
for the purpose of increasing the hardness.

3. Normalizing – heating to some 1000°F above the transformation range with subsequent
cooling to below that range in still air at room temperature to produce uniform structure of
the material.

4. Stress Relieving – heating to subcritical temperature, about 1100 to 1300°F and holding at
that temperature for a suitable time for the purpose of reducing internal residual stresses.

5. Tempering – reheating to a temperature below the transformation range, followed by any

desired rate of cooling to attain the desired properties of the metal.

6. Case Hardening – process of hardening the surface or case of a metal to provide a hard,
wear resistant surface while retaining toughness of the core.

METAL FORMING PROCESS

Rolling – process of forming metal parts by the use of dies after the metal is heated to its plastic
range.

Forging – process of forming metal parts by the use of powerful pressure from a hammer or press
to obtain the desired shape, after the metal has been heated to its plastic range.

AGENCIES MOST WIDELY USED SPECIFICATION

1. American Iron and Iron Institute (AISI)

2. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
3. American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)

AISI and SAE DESIGNATION of STEEL

AISI Y XXX SAE XXXX

Y- is a letter, used in AISI only

- Indicate the method of manufacturing
First number (or first two numbers) – represents the class/types of steel
Second number – indicates the approximate percentage of the principal alloying element
Last two numbers - indicate 100 times the approximate percentage of carbon present in the
metal

9
STEEL

Plain Carbon 10XX

Free cutting 11XX
Manganese 13XX
Boron 14XX
Nickel 2XXX
Nickel-Chromium 3XXX
Heat and corrosion resistant 303XX
Molybdenum 4XXX
Molybdenum-Chromium 41XX
Molybdenum-Chromium-Nickel 43XX
Molybdenum-Nickel 46XX
Chromium 5XXX
Heat and Corrosion 514XX
Resistant 515XX
Chromium-Vanadium 6XXX
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum 8XXX
Silicon-Manganese 92XX
Nickel-Chromium-molybdenum 9XXX

COMMONLY USED METAL

METAL DESCRIPTION USES

Iron formed by hammering and Rivets, welded steam, and

Wrought Iron
rolling operations water pipes
Cylinder blocks, brake drums,
Cast iron Iron formed by casting
gears, machine tool ways
Heat treated cast iron which is strong,
Malleable iron gears
ductile and easily machined
Cast iron added with magnesium and
Casings, crankshaft, hubs,
Nodular cast iron cerium to become stronger and more
rolls, forming die
ductile
Gears, crankshafts, cylinder
Cast Steel Steel formed by casting
barrels
Steel formed by hammering, rolling
Wrought Steel Bar, tubes
or drawing
Steel obtained by addition of
Stainless Steel Steam turbine blades, valves
chromium
Propeller shafts, piston rods,
Brass Alloy copper and zinc
screw
Clutch disks, pump rods,
Bronze Alloy of copper, tin and phosphorus
shafts, valve stem

USES OF ALLOY STEELS

AISI 2330 Bolts, studs, tubing subjected to torsional stress

AISI 2340 Quenched and tempered shafting, connecting rods, very highly stressed
bolts, forgings
AISI 2350 High capacity gears ,shafts, heavy duty machine parts
AISI 3130 Shafts, bolts, steering knuckles
AISI 3140 Aircraft and truck engine crankshafts, oil well tool joints, spline shafts
AISI 3150 Wear resisting parts in excavating and farm machinery, gears, forgings
AISI 3240 Shafts,highly stressed pins and keys, gears

10
 AISI 3300 series For heavy parts requiring deep penetration of the heat treatment and high
fatigue strength per unit weight
AISI 4063 Leaf and coil spring
AISI 4130, 4140 Automotive connecting rod and axles, aircraft parts and tubing
AISI 4340 Crankshafts, axles, gears, landing gear parts, perhaps the best general
purpose AISI sreel
AISI 4640 Gears, splined shafts, hand tools, heavy duty machine parts
AISI 8630 Connecting rods, bolts,shapes, air hardens after welding
AISI 8640, 8740 Gears, propeller shafts, knuckles, shapes

Steel - It is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content up to a maximum of 1.5%. The carbon
occurs in the form of iron carbide, because of its ability to increase the hardness and strength of
the steel. These steels are carbon and low alloy steels where the main criterion in the selection and
inspection of steel is the tensile strength or yield stress.

Alloy Steel - defined as a steel to which elements other than carbon are added in sufficient amount
to produce an improvement in properties. The alloying is done for specific purposes to increase
wearing resistance, corrosion resistance and to improve electrical and magnetic properties, which
cannot be obtained in plain carbon steels.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEELS

1. Low-alloy structural steels – were developed for structural uses where light weight is
important.

2. Low-carbon allot steel - (0.10-0.25% C) used chiefly for carburizing

3. Medium-carbon alloy steel – (0.25 – 0.50% C) usually quenched and tempered to hardness
between 250to 400 Brinell.

4. High-carbon alloy steel – (0.50 – 0.70% C or more) ordinarily heat treated to hardness
between 375 and 500 Brinell, for use as springs, wear resisting parts.

5. High- alloy steel – such as stainless steels.

Non-ferrous Metals - are usually employed in industry due to the following characteristics :

1. Ease of fabrication (casting, rolling, forging, welding and machining),

2. Resistance to corrosion,

3. Electrical and thermal conductivity, and

4. Weight.

The various non-ferrous metals used in engineering practice are aluminium, copper, lead,
tin, zinc, nickel, etc. and their alloys

VARIOUS NON-FERROUS METALS:

1. Aluminium - It is white metal produced by electrical processes from its oxide (alumina),
which is prepared from a clayey mineral called bauxite. It is a light metal having specific
gravity 2.7 and melting point 658°C. The tensile strength of the metal varies from 90
MPa to 150 MPa.

11
 2. Copper - It is one of the most widely used non-ferrous metals in industry. It is a soft,
malleable and ductile material with a reddish-brown appearance. Its specific gravity is 8.9
and melting point is 1083°C. The tensile strength varies from 150 MPa to 400 MPa under
different conditions. It is a good conductor of electricity. It is largely used in making
electric cables and wires for electric machinery and appliances, in electrotyping and
electroplating, in making coins and household utensils.

3. Lead - It is a bluish grey metal having specific gravity 11.36 and melting point 326°C. It is
so soft that it can be cut with a knife. It has no tenacity. It is extensively used for making
solders, as a lining for acid tanks, cisterns, water pipes, and as coating for electrical cables.

4. Tin - It is brightly shining white metal. It is soft, malleable and ductile. It can be rolled into
very thin sheets. It is used for making important alloys, fine solder, as a protective coating
for iron and steel sheets and for making tin foil used as moisture proof packing.
NON-METALLIC MATERIALS:
The non-metallic materials are used in engineering practice due to their low density, low
cost, flexibility, resistant to heat and electricity. Though there are many non-metallic materials, yet
the following are important from the subject point of view.

2. Plastics - The plastics are synthetic materials which are moulded into shape under
pressure with or without the application of heat. These can also be cast, rolled, extruded,
laminated and machined. Following are the two types of plastics :

(a) Thermosetting plastics, and

(b) Thermoplastic.

The thermosetting plastics are those which are formed into shape under heat and pressure
and results in a permanently hard product. The thermoplastic materials do not become hard with
the application of heat and pressure and no chemical change occurs. They remain soft at elevated
temperatures until they are hardened by cooling. These can be remelted repeatedly by successive
application of heat.
The plastics are extremely resistant to corrosion and have a high dimensional stability.
They are mostly used in the manufacture of aeroplane and automobile parts. They are also used
for making safety glasses, laminated gears, pulleys, self-lubricating bearing, etc. due to their
resilience and strength.

2. Rubber - It is one of the most important natural plastics. It resists abrasion, heat, strong
alkalis and fairly strong acids. Soft rubber is used for electrical insulations. It is also used
for power transmission belting, being applied to woven cotton or cotton cords as a base.
The hard rubber is used for piping and as lining for pickling tanks.

3. Leather - It is very flexible and can withstand considerable wear under suitable
conditions. It is extensively used for power transmission belting and as a packing or as
washers.

4. Ferrodo - It is a trade name given to asbestos lined with lead oxide. It is generally used
as a friction lining for clutches and brakes.

12
 REFERENCES

Books

Black, P.H. & Adams, E. (1968). Machine Design. 3rd Edition. Tokyo:Mc Graw
Hill Book Company Inc.

Khurmi,R.S. & Gupta, J.K. (2005). A Textbook of Machine Design (SI Units).
th
14 Edition. Eurasia Publishing House (PVT) Ltd. New Delhi

Faires, Virgil Moring. (1969). Design of Machine Elements. 4th Edition. McMillan
Company New York.

13