Bioprinting 34 (2023) e00301

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Bioprinting
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/bioprinting

Experimental and finite element analysis on the effect of pores on

bio-printed polycaprolactone bone scaffolds
Senthil Maharaj Kennedy a, *, K. Amudhan b, R.B. Jeen Robert c, A. Vasanthanathan b,
A. Vignesh Moorthi Pandian a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, AAA College of Engineering and Technology, Sivakasi, 626005, Tamilnadu, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, 626005, Tamilnadu, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Krishna College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641042, Tamilnadu, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Bone scaffolds are three-dimensional biocompatible structure that mimics the properties of natural bone and is
Polycaprolactone used in tissue engineering applications to help repair or regenerate bone tissue. In addition to acting as a tem­
Scaffold porary framework for the growth of new bone, it permits the infiltration of cells, nutrients, and blood vessels to
Fused deposition modelling
speed up the healing process. The performance and use of bone scaffolds are greatly influenced by the design of
Finite element analysis
their pores.Pore shapes in bone scaffolds play a crucial role in determining their functionality and performance.
Bioprinting
Additive manufacturing In the current study, bone scaffolds were fabricatedusing 3D printing and polycaprolactone material with various
pore shapes, including circles, hexagons, squares, and triangles. SOLIDWORKS® 2023 was used to solid model
the scaffolds with various pore shapes. Compression tests and finite element analysis using ANSYS WORK­
BENCH® 2023 were used to assess the mechanical properties of these scaffolds. The findings show that the
circular pore shape performed better than its counter parts. This study advances our knowledge of the connection
between pore shape and scaffold functionality, facilitating the design of better bone scaffolds for a varied
applications.

1. Introduction result in discomfort, restricted mobility, and a lower quality of life.

Depending on the disease, there are several treatment options available,
The skeletal system of the human body is made up of stiff, dense such as medication, physical therapy, surgery, and lifestyle changes
components called human bones. The body is supported, safeguarded, [4–6].Medications like painkillers and anti-inflammatory drugs can
and the movements are done using the bones. Additionally, they are in provide temporary relief from bone-related pain and inflammation, but
charge of making red blood cells, keeping calcium and phosphorus in the they do not address the root cause of the bone defect. In cases of severe
form of yellow bone marrow, and storing fat [1–3]. Human bones can bone loss or non-union fractures, medications alone are insufficient to
develop defects as a result of hereditary conditions, infections, trauma, promote bone regeneration. Physical therapy can be helpful in restoring
or ageing. Some typical flaws include: Osteoporosis is a disorder that function and mobility after bone injuries or surgeries. However, it is not
makes bones brittle and flimsy, which raises the risk of fractures. A capable of regenerating bone tissue on its own. Severe bone defects may
hereditary disease called osteogenesis imperfecta makes bones fragile require extensive physical therapy, which can be time-consuming and
and prone to breakage. Bone tumors are unnatural growths that might expensive without guaranteeing complete recovery. Surgical in­
be malignant or benign. Joint inflammation known as arthritis can be terventions, such as bone grafts and metal implants, are commonly used
painful and stiffening. Spinal abnormalities include aberrant spine cur­ to treat severe bone defects. However, these approaches have limited
vatures such scoliosis and kyphosis. Osteomyelitis is an infection of the availability of autografts (bone from the patient’s own body) and asso­
bones that can result in swelling, fever, and bone discomfort. Paget’s ciated donor site morbidity. Allografts (bone from a donor) have a risk of
disease is a chronic condition that results in aberrant bone formation immune rejection and disease transmission. Metal implants may cause
and can cause abnormalities in the bones. Human bone defects may stress shielding, leading to bone resorption and long-term

* Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical Engineering, AAA College of Engineering and Technology, Sivakasi, 626005, Tamil Nadu, India.
E-mail address: maharaj@aaacet.ac.in (S.M. Kennedy).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bprint.2023.e00301
Received 13 July 2023; Received in revised form 31 July 2023; Accepted 1 August 2023
Available online 3 August 2023
2405-8866/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S.M. Kennedy et al. Bioprinting 34 (2023) e00301

complications. Certain lifestyle changes, such as weight-bearing exer­ process is one such use. The polymer filament used in FDM technology is
cises and dietary adjustments, can contribute to bone health. However, heated before being extruded through a nozzle. The required 3D item is
they may not be sufficient to repair severe bone defects or promote produced by the nozzle moving in the X, Y, and Z axis directions while
substantial bone regeneration.The limitations of traditional treatments depositing the filament layer by layer [26,27].When printing a polymer
emphasize the need for alternative approaches, such as the use of scaf­ bone scaffold, the procedure begins by using CAD software to create a
folds in bone tissue engineering.Scaffolds address some of the challenges 3D model of the necessary scaffold. Once complete, the model is loaded
faced by conventional treatments viz., Enhanced Bone Regeneration, into a 3D printer using an FDM extruder. After reading the 3D model, the
Biodegradability, Customization with reduced risk of Complications. printer builds the scaffold by layering on the polymer filament.This
Scaffolds can mimic the extracellular matrix of bone, providing me­ method of printing is used over and over until the entire scaffold is
chanical support and signalling cues to promote cell proliferation and printed. The scaffold must cool and firm after printing is finished before
tissue formation. Bioresorbable scaffolds gradually degrade as new bone it can be used.The final scaffold has linked voids of a particular size and
tissue forms, eliminating the need for a second surgery to remove the is porous, mimicking the structure of bone naturally. This allows nu­
implant. Scaffolds can be designed to match the patient’s specific bone trients and oxygen to pass through, promoting cell proliferation and
defect, ensuring a personalized and precise approach to treatment. tissue regeneration. Obtaining a 3D model, extruding biodegradable and
Scaffolds have the potential to reduce the risk of immune rejection and biocompatible polymer filaments, layer-by-layer deposition and solidi­
disease transmission compared to allografts. Moreover, they minimize fication are the steps involved in creating a polymer bone scaffold uti­
stress shielding, preventing bone resorption around the implant. lizing the FDM technology. FDM is an appealing choice for producing
A bone scaffold is a three-dimensional structure that is designed to scaffolds for tissue engineering applications because the resulting scaf­
mimic the structure and function of natural bone tissue. It is typically fold serves as an ideal template for bone tissue regeneration and repair
made from biocompatible materials that can support the growth of new [28].
bone tissue. Bone scaffold is used in a variety of medical applications, There has been very minimal work on PCL based materials used for
including bone regeneration, tissue engineering, and drug delivery [7, scaffolds. Moreover, the existing literatures of the past research work
8]. It can be used to repair bone defects caused by trauma, disease, or deals mainly with the PLA material filament for scaffold fabrication. The
congenital abnormalities. Bone scaffold can also be used to regenerate integration of 3D printing techniques with tissue engineering offers a
bone tissue after a surgical procedure [9,10]. The materials used for cutting-edge approach to create complex structures with controlled ar­
fabricating bone scaffold can vary depending on the specific application. chitecture, mimicking the native bone tissue. The paper delves into the
Some of the common materials used include ceramics, polymers, and effect of different pore sizes and their distribution patterns on the
metals. A three-dimensional structure called a bone scaffold is created to properties of PCL bone scaffolds. The study systematically analyzes how
look and act like actual bone tissue. Typically, it is constructed of altering pore shape impacts the mechanical properties.
biocompatible substances that can aid in the development of new bone
tissue. Medical applications for bone scaffold include bone regeneration, 2. Materials and methods
tissue engineering, and medication delivery. It can be used to fix bone
damage brought on by illness, trauma, or congenital anomalies. After The present work includes fabrication, Finite element analysis (FEA)
surgery, bone tissue can potentially be rebuilt using a bone scaffold. and experimental testing of bone scaffolds by comparing different pore
Depending on the particular purpose, a bone scaffold’s construction shapes. Fig. 1 represents the scheme of Scaffold fabrication and appli­
materials can change [11,12]. cation in curing the bone damage.
Bone scaffolds are skeletal frameworks that support and direct
regenerating tissue’s cellular population. These constructions are pro­ 2.1. Polycaprolactone filament
duced using additive manufacturing techniques and 3D printing fila­
ments [13–15]. The following are some of the filaments that are most The biocompatible and biodegradable property, which has drawn
frequently utilized to create bone scaffolds: The biodegradable polymer substantial interest in the field of tissue engineering for the creation of
Polylacticacid (PLA) is made from renewable resources such corn starch. bone scaffolds, polycaprolactone (PCL) filament is used in the current
Due to its biocompatibility, mechanical robustness, and ease of printing, work for the fabrication of scaffolds. PCL is suitable for 3D printing since
PLA is frequently utilized to create bone scaffolds [16,17].Porous bone it is easily molded into a variety of shapes, including filament. Because
scaffolds are created using polyethylene glycol (PEG), a water-soluble of their great printability, PCL filaments make it possible to precisely
polymer. PEG-based scaffolds can be made with a certain porosity that construct complex and personalized bone scaffolds. By changing the
makes it easier for cells to infiltrate and encourages tissue regeneration printing parameters, such as temperature and speed, the mechanical
[18,19].In bone tissue, hydroxyapatite (HA), a mineral that occurs properties of the filament can be customized. This enables the printed
naturally, is present.Bone scaffolds with chemical and structural char­ scaffolds to provide the necessary support and strength by matching the
acteristics that closely resemble those of genuine bone can be produced mechanical needs of the bone. Furthermore, PCL degrades slowly, pre­
using HA-based 3D printing filaments [20,21]. Tricalcium phosphate serving its structural integrity as new bone tissue develops. The PCL
(TCP) is a different mineral that is frequently employed in the con­ degraded particles are non-toxic and have no negative effects on the
struction of bone scaffolds. TCP-based scaffolds can be created with a tissue around them. Because of its biocompatibility, PCL is a perfect
variety of topologies and mechanical characteristics and have great material for creating bone scaffolds. To improve their activity, PCL fil­
biocompatibility [22,23]. Another biodegradable polymer used to create aments can be coupled with a variety of bioactive substances as growth
bone scaffolds is polycaprolactone (PCL). It is a thermoplastic substance hormones, antibiotics, or nanoparticles. These additions can enhance
that is simple to print and has a low melting point. The creation of bone the bone scaffold’s capabilities by promoting tissue regeneration, anti­
scaffolds requires the use of 3D printing filaments [24,25]. It is possible bacterial characteristics, or controlled medication release. Cell growth
to adjust the characteristics of various filaments to satisfy certain needs and tissue regeneration are made easier by the porosity structure of PCL
for tissue regeneration. filament-based bone scaffolds, which allows for nutrient and oxygen
3D printing is a cutting-edge manufacturing technique that enables passage. The linked porosity very closely resembles the structure of
the layer-by-layer construction of three-dimensional things out of a actual bone, creating an environment that is conducive to cell adhesion,
variety of materials, including plastics, metals, and ceramics. 3D print­ development, and vascularization. PCL also has some restrictions. The
ing is used in the medical industry to produce specialized implants, delayed degradation of PCL scaffolds may impede the full development
prosthetics, and scaffolds for tissue engineering purposes. Making of new bone tissue. Overall, PCL filament is a better material that can be
polymer bone scaffolds using the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) used to create bone scaffolds through 3D printing. It offers a viable

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S.M. Kennedy et al. Bioprinting 34 (2023) e00301

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of Scaffold fabrication and application.

alternative for bone tissue engineering because to its superior print­ with various pore shapes and dimensions are shown in Fig. 2.
ability, biodegradability, and compatibility with bioactive agents. The
mechanical characteristics and degradation rate of PCL scaffolds are
anticipated to be significantly improved by ongoing research and 2.3. Finite element analysis
development for better therapeutic applications [29,30]. Table 1 rep­
resents the properties of PCL filament procured from the filament The following procedures were followed in ANSYS Workbench
manufacturer [31]. software to analyze the mechanical behavior of a bone scaffold model.
The bone scaffold model is created in the software using SOLIDWORKS®
2023 and imported to ANSYS WORKBENCH®. ANSYS Static structural
2.2. 3D modeling module was opted for present FEA. Mesh convergence were carried out
and the scaffold model was meshed using fine mesh tool. For precise
Using SOLIDWORKS® 2023 modeling software, bone scaffolds with simulation results, the mesh quality, including element type and size, is
various pore shapes, including circle, hexagon, square, and triangle, essential [34,35]. Material properties, such as elastic modulus and
were modeled. Popular computer-aided design (CAD) software, SOL­ Poisson’s ratio, are assigned to the scaffold model from the data ob­
IDWORKS offers cutting-edge tools for producing and modifying 3D tained from the filament manufacturer (Table 1). In FEA, loading con­
models. On the required surface of the scaffold, a circle shape is drawn in ditions were used to simulate the real-life mechanical stresses and
order to construct a bone scaffold with a circular pore form. To build the strains experienced by the scaffold. Applying loading conditions is
scaffold construction, the circle is extruded to the required height. The essential to assess the structural integrity and function of a bone scaffold,
circular pattern function in SOLIDWORKS, which enables you to an artificial structure made to help in bone regeneration. The load was
duplicate the circle form along a central axis, was used to generate the applied as per ASTM F2150-02 (Fig. 3). The ASTM F2150-02involves
regular pattern of these circle-shaped pores. Similarly, appropriate fixing the bottom end of the bone scaffold and applying a load on a
drawing tools in SOLIDWORKS were employed for additional pore plate from the top end stepwise. The scaffold will be put under identical
forms, such as hexagon, square, and triangle. SOLIDWORKS offers a loading conditions in real-life situations. All degrees of freedom,
number of tools and capabilities that let users further customize and including translation along the x, y, and z axes as well as rotation about
manipulate these 3D models. To satisfy certain needs, the pore forms those axes, are restricted by fixing the bottom end. In Finite element
size, shape, and spacing can all be adjusted. It is also possible to use analysis of the scaffolds, the load was considered as the rigid body. A
various surface finishes, textures, and materials to improve the visual rigid body is a concept in classical mechanics and physics used to
depiction of the bone scaffold model [32,33]. The modeled scaffolds describe an object that does not deform under applied forces or mo­
ments. In other words, a rigid body maintains its shape and size, and all
Table 1 its constituent particles move together as a single entity when subjected
Properties of Polycaprolactone (PCL) filament. to external forces. This behavior is an idealization and simplification
Description Value Testing Standard that is often used in engineering and physics to analyze and understand
Density (g/cmᶟ) 1145 D 1505 the motion and transmission of forces in mechanical systems. This is
Yield stress (Mpa) 17.2 D 412-87 done to mimic the physiological situation in which the bone scaffold is
Flexural Modulus (Mpa) 411 D 790 linked to the nearby bones or tissues and is thus prevented from moving
Young’s Modulus (Mpa) 470 D 412-8 from the bottom end [34]. 10-node tetrahedral elements (TET10) were
Hardness 95 D 2240
used in the present finite element analysis. These elements offer

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S.M. Kennedy et al. Bioprinting 34 (2023) e00301

Fig. 2. Modeling of bone scaffolds with different pore shapes.

Fig. 3. Loading conditions for the bone scaffold.

higher-order interpolation, which can provide more accurate results, might be the human body’s weight or outside forces operating on the
especially in complex geometries and stress concentration regions. scaffold in a particular application, as when it supports loads during
The plate was subjected to a Quasistatic loading by applying stepwise routine motions like standing or walking. The reactions of the bone
incremental load values similar to experimental compression test. This scaffold to the pressures and stresses dispersed throughout its structure
loading condition mimics the mechanical force or stress that would be were examined by applying a static load to the top plate.
applied to the scaffold in practical applications. For instance, the load

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S.M. Kennedy et al. Bioprinting 34 (2023) e00301

2.4. Additive manufacturing point or full capacity. To achieve an even load distribution, compression
plates are typically flat and parallel. Numerous factors were measured
In the current work 16 bone scaffold models were 3d printed using throughout the test, including the load, the displacement, and the strain
Polycaprolactone (PCL) filament for the compression test. 4 models for with time. These data enable evaluation of the scaffold’s mechanical
each pore shapes which include circle, hexagon, square and triangle attributes, including stiffness, strength, and deformation characteristics.
were printed. The scaffolds were printed using UltiMaker S5 3D printer. The compression test was often conducted in a regulated and uniform
3D printing is a promising method in tissue engineering and regenera­ setting while following particular testing standards or processes [40,41].
tive medicine for fabricating bone scaffolds utilizing the Fused Deposi­
tion Modeling (FDM) technology [36,37]. In cases of significant bone 3. Results and discussions
abnormalities or fractures, bone scaffolds function as a temporary
template that offers structural support and encourages the regeneration 3.1. Finite element results
of bone tissue.A computer-controlled printer uses the FDM method of
additive manufacturing to deposit melted thermoplastic filaments one From the finite element results for Principal stress, circular pore
layer at a time to produce a three-dimensional product. This method can shaped bone scaffolds exhibited the highest maximum Principal stress,
be used to create biocompatible and bioresorbable scaffolds for bone indicating better mechanical performance compared to hexagon,
that mirror the composition and characteristics of real bone.Creating the square, and triangle-shaped pores. The geometrical arrangement of the
scaffold using computer-aided design (CAD) software is the initial stage. pores may be the cause of the circular form of the pore scaffold.
The scaffold’s size, shape, and architecture are all specified in the Compared to other pore forms, circular pores offer a more uniform
design, which can be altered to meet the unique demands of the patient. distribution of stress. In addition to reducing stress concentrations and
For bone scaffolds, biocompatible and bioresorbable materials are cho­ guaranteeing more even load transfer throughout the scaffold structure,
sen. Due to their advantageous mechanical properties and biocompati­ the circular shape enables equal load distribution in all directions. By
bility, polycaprolactone (PCL) and Polylactic acid (PLA) are two preventing localized stress concentration and enhancing the scaffold’s
thermoplastic polymers that are frequently utilized in FDM printing. The structural integrity, this quality lowers the risk of failure or deformation.
fabricated bone scaffold made with FDM has an interconnected porous The FEA results of the circular and hexagonal pore shaped bone scaffold
structure that resembles the architecture of real bone. These pores are represented in Fig. 5.Contrarily, a non-uniform stress distribution
enable nutrition exchange, vascularization, and cell infiltration, all of was produced by pores with the shapes of hexagon, square, and triangle.
which aid in the regeneration of bone tissue. By modifying the printing Due to their acute angles, square and triangle-shaped pores frequently
settings, such as layer thickness and infill density, the mechanical encountered stress concentrations. These areas of high stress might
qualities of the scaffold can be customized to match the particular me­ degrade the scaffold’s construction and raise the risk of failure while
chanical demands of the patient’s bone defect [38,39].Overall, the FDM under load.
technology for 3D printing bone scaffolds offers a patient-specific and The FEA results of the square and triangular pore shaped bone
adaptable method for bone tissue creation, offering a viable remedy for scaffold are shown in Fig. 6. Additionally, compared to other pore de­
bone regeneration and repair. signs of similar dimensions, circular pores offer a larger void space-to-
strut ratio. With greater nutrition and waste exchange within the scaf­
fold made possible by the larger porosity, cell adhesion, proliferation,
2.5. Compression testing and tissue regeneration are encouraged. Circular pores may also
improve the interconnectivity of the pores, allowing for more efficient
A compression test is a mechanical test conducted on a bone scaffold diffusion and encouraging tissue ingrowth, both of which lead to
using a Universal Testing Machine (UTM) modelDTRX-50 kN, that has a increased mechanical stability and bone regeneration.
50 kN capacity, a maximum speed of 25 mm/s, and a feed of 1.5 mm/s
(Fig. 4). The full set of tests was recorded using software, which was also
combined with PC data gathering, which automatically calculates the 3.2. Additive manufactured scaffold
experimental results. This test is intended to assess the scaffold’s me­
chanical strength and behavior under compressive loads. It is a crucial The bone scaffold fabricated using FDM 3D printing consisted of a
test since it tells us important things about the scaffold’s capacity to porous structure with interconnected pores that mimic the natural bone
support bone regeneration or tissue engineering applications and endure architecture. The scaffolds were fabricated with different pore shapes
compressive stresses. The bone scaffold was inserted between the UTM’s such as circle, hexagon, square and triangle (Fig. 7). These pores allow
compression plates to conduct the compression test. The scaffold re­ for cell infiltration, nutrient exchange, and vascularization, promoting
ceives steady compression from the machine until it reaches its breaking the regeneration of bone tissue. 3D printed bone scaffolds had very good

Fig. 4. Compression testing of 3D printed scaffolds.

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S.M. Kennedy et al. Bioprinting 34 (2023) e00301

Fig. 5. FEA results of circular and hexagonal pore shaped bone scaffold.

strength and offers a patient-specific and customizable approach for known for their rigidity and stability, making them more resistant to
bone tissue engineering, providing a potential solution for bone regen­ deformation under compressive forces compared to other shapes.
eration and repair. The layer height of the 3D printed models in the Square and triangle-shaped scaffolds performed worse than circular
present research was 150 μm with 100% fill density. and hexagon-shaped scaffolds due to their inherent weaknesses with the
compression stress of 56.24 and 53.05 Mpa. Squares and triangles have
3.3. Compression test results sharp corners and edges, which act as stress concentration points. These
stress concentrations can lead to local failure and structural damage
A total of 16 bone scaffold models were 3D printed using Poly­ under compressive forces, resulting in a lower overall strength
caprolactone (PCL) filament for the compression test. 4 models for each compared to circular and hexagon-shaped scaffolds. and Fig. 9 is the
pore shapes which include circle, hexagon, square and triangle were graphical representation comparing the stress values obtained from
printed. The compression test results (Table 2) of 3D printed Poly­ experiments and FEA.
caprolactone (PCL) scaffolds using a UTM confirms FEA results that the The applications of 3D printed bone scaffolds holds great promise in
circular pore-shaped scaffold performed the better, followed by the various fields of medicine and healthcare. FDM being a popular additive
hexagon-shaped scaffold, then the square-shaped scaffold, and finally manufacturing technique can produce patient-specific, complex, and
the triangle-shaped scaffold. The compression tests were conducted for porous structures with ease. Potential future applications of 3D printed
16 scaffold models 4 models for each pore shapes which include circle, FDM-made bone scaffolds includes Patient-Specific Implants, Bone Tis­
hexagon, square and triangle and the compression stress obtained were sue Regeneration, Spinal Fusion Devices, Cranial Implants, Maxillofacial
represented by a bar graph shown in Fig. 8. Reconstruction, Drug Delivery Systems, Research and Preoperative
In the compression test the circular pore shape performed the best Planning, Bone Cancer Treatment, Customized Joint Replacements,
due to its inherent structural stability with a compression stress of 65.91 Nerve Regeneration. It’s important to note that while 3D printed FDM-
Mpa. Circular pore shapes distribute stress more evenly across the made bone scaffolds hold significant potential, further research, pre­
scaffold, leading to a higher resistance to compression forces. This is clinical studies, and clinical trials are essential to validate their safety,
because circular shapes have no sharp corners or edges where stress efficacy, and long-term performance in various medical applications. As
concentrations can occur, resulting in a more uniform distribution of additive manufacturing technologies continue to advance, it is expected
stress throughout the scaffold. Thus, circular pore-shaped scaffolds are to see even more innovative and life-changing applications of 3D printed
less prone to failure under compressive forces. The hexagon-shaped bone scaffolds in the future.
scaffold performed better than the square and triangle-shaped scaf­
folds due to its superior strength and stability with a compression stress 4. Conclusion
of 58.99 Mpa. Hexagons have more contact points between neighboring
pores compared to squares or triangles, which leads to better load dis­ Both the FEA and experiment results closely matched and the de­
tribution and overall strength. Additionally, hexagonal structures are viations were less than 1%. According to the results of the Finite Element

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Fig. 6. FEA results of square and triangular pore shaped bone scaffold.

Table 2
Compression Stress results from UTM.
Bone Scaffold Specimen Compression Stress Mean Compression
Pore Shape Number results from UTM (MPa) Stress (MPa)

Circular C1 66.52 65.91

C2 63.02
C3 68.12
C4 66

Hexagon H1 61.12 58.99

H2 58.78
H3 57.11
H4 58.96

Square S1 59.21 56
S2 54.42
S3 55.63
S4 54.75

Triangle T1 55.21 53.07

T2 53.57
T3 52.66
T4 50.87

suggests that, in comparison to the other pore shapes investigated, the

circular form offered the most ideal distribution of stress and strain,
Fig. 7. 3Dprinted bone scaffold with different pore shapes. leading to greater mechanical properties. It is significant to note that the
parameters and circumstances of the aforementioned investigation are
particular to this finding. Pore size, porosity, material characteristics,
Analysis (FEA) and the compression test, the Polycaprolactone (PCL)
and loading circumstances are a few more elements that could affect
scaffold with circular pores performed the best in terms of mechanical
how well bone scaffolds operate. It is advised that more research be done
strength and stability. In comparison to the square and triangle-shaped
to confirm these conclusions and investigate the effects of other
pore scaffolds, the hexagon-shaped pore scaffold performed better. This

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