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Boolean Algebra and Logic

Gates

2-1 BASIC DEFINITIONS

SocLuan ngbe Boolcan algcbra, like any other deductive mathematical system, may be deined with a
3et 9 eumenk set of elements, a set of operators, and a number of unproved axioms or postulates. A
set of elements is any collection of objects having a common property If S is a set, and
Cpealts Xand y are certain objects, then x E S denotes that .x is a member of the set S, and
y Sdenotes that v is not an element ofS. A set with a denumerable nunber of ele
ments is specifed by braces: A = (1, 2, 3, 4}. i.e., the elements of set A are the num
bers 1, 2, 3, and 4. binary operator defined on a set S of elements is a rule that as
signs t0 cach pair of elennents from S a unique element from S. As an examplc.
pesllae) consider the relation a* b c. We say that * is a binary operator if it speciies a rule
for find1ng c from the pair (a, b) and also if a, b, cE S. However, * is not a binary
operator if a, b E S, whereas the rule finds c S.
Postulates The postulates of a mathematical system form the basic assumptions from which it is
possible to deduce the rules, theorems, and properties of the system. The most com
mon postulates used to formulate various algebraic structures are:
1. Closure. A set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every pair of
elements of S, the binary opertor specihes a rule tor obBa1ning aunique element
of S. For exanple. the sct of natural numbers N= (1. 2. 3, 4, }is closed
cossd with respect to the binary operalor plus (+) by the rules of arithmetic addition,
since for any a, hE Nwe obtain a unique c E N by the operationu t b = c.
Not The set of natural numbers is not closed with respect to the binary operutor minus
cosd?(-)by the rules of arithnmetic subtraction because 2 3=-| and 2, 3 E N.
while (-) N.
36

Ax'om: Sel -evIolent 3kemont t hat e acceptc as t ww ha

 Sectlon 2-1 Baslc Defiltlons 37
2. Associative law. A binary operator * on a set S is said to bc associative whenevcr
(x * y) *:=x (y * 2) for all x, y, z, ES
3. Commuttive law. A binary operator * on a set S is said to be
whenever
commutative
for all x, yE S
4. ldentitv element. A set S is said to have an identity clement with respect to a bi
nary operation * on S if there exists an elemcnt e E S with the property
for every x E S
Example: The clement Ois an identity element with respect to operation + on the
set of integers I = {...,-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}since
t 0= 0 + X=i for any xEI
The set of naturai numbers N has no identity element since 0 is excluded from
the sct.
5. Inverse. A set S having the identity element e with respect to a binary operator
* is said to have an inverse whenever, for every x E S, there cxists an cdement
yES such that
x*y =e
Example: In the set of intcgers I with e = 0, the inverse of an clement ais (-a)
since a + (-a) = .
6. Distributive law. If * and are two binary operators on a set S, * is said to be dis
Lributive over whenever
x *(yz) = (x * y) (x * z)
An example of an algebraic structure is afield. Afield is a set of elements, together
with (wo binary operators, each having properties 1 to 5 and both operators combined
to give property 6. The set of real numbers togcther with the binary operg
tors + andformthe ficld of real numbers. The fieid of real numbers is the basis for
arithmetic and ordinary algebra. The operatorsand postulates have the following mean
ings:
The binaty operator + defines addition.
The additive identity is 0. ’ fos add'non opesa ho, ldaohy elemt in O
The additive inverse defines subtraction.
The binary operator defines multiplication.
The multiplicative identity is 1. For me0hpcanoo; denhy elamnt o L.
The multiplicative inverse of a = /a defines division, i.e., a· 1/a = 1.
The only distributive law applicable is that of -over +: at(b) a1.
a-(b + c) = (a·b) + (a-c)

2 4(3x) 2 kt3)x 2+4)

2HS RHs.
 38 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra and Loglc Gates

2-2 AXIOMATICDEFINITION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

In 1854 George Boole introuced a systematic treatment of logic and
purposc an algebraic system now called Boolean algebra. In 1938 C. developed
for this
E. Shannon intro
duced atwo-valued Boolean algebra called switching algebra, in which he dernonstrated
that the properties of bistable elecirical switching circuits can be represented by this al
gcbra. For the formal definition of Boolean algebra, we shall employ the postulates for
rnulated by E. V. Huntington in 1904.
Boolean algebra is an algebraic structure defined on a set of elements B together
with (wo binary opcrators +and provided the following (Huntington) postulates are
satisfied:

R o o l tA
(1. (a) Closure with respect to the operator +.
P o s lt
ae la
asn
lgbxa

(b) Closure with rcspect to the operator

2. (a) An identity element with respect to +, designated by 0: x +0 =
0 + x =X. The eumont O is an dnhty eumnt wo t. à Xt0 Ot1
(b1Ai identityeiement with respect to,Gesignated-by 1: xI = |x = r.
3. (a) Commutative with respect to +:x t y= y + x.
(b) Commutative with respect to:y= y'x.
4. (») is distributive over +:x(y t z) = (r y) + (x z).
(b) + is distributive over :x t (v) = (x t v(x + ¿).
3. For every element x E B, therc exists an element x' E B (called the comple
ment of x) such that (a) x tx'= l and (b) xx=0.
6. There cxists at lcast two elements x, y E B such that x # y.
Comparing Boolean algebra with arithmetic and ordinary algebra (the field of real
numbers), we note the following differences:
1. Huntingtonpostulates do not include thc associative law.However, this law holds
for Boolean algebra and can be derived (for both operators) from the other postu
jates.
2. The distributive law of + over , i.e., x+(y"z) = (r t y) (xt z), is valid for
Boolean algcbra, but not for ordinary algebra.
3. Boolean algebra does not have additive or multiplicative inverses; therefore, there
are no subtraction or division operations.
4. Postulate 5 defines an operator called complemen that is nol available in ordinary
algebra.
5. Ordinary algebra deals with the real numbers, which consitute an infinite set of
elements. Boolean algebra deals with the as yet undefined set of clements B, but
in the two-valued Boolean algebra defincd below (and of interest in our subse
quent use of this algebra), B is defined as a set with only two elements, 0 and 1.
Boolean algebru resembles ordinary algebra in sorne respects. The choice of sym
bols + and is intentional to facilitate Boolean algebraic manipulations by persons
already familiar with ordinary algebra. Altbough one can use some knowledge from
 Beolan Algcb is wsd do minini Coge expxs Ons
wdboul Changeng unchorlilies.

-51;4 3
39
Sectlon 2-2 Axtomatte DeMnition of Boolearn Algebra

ordinary algcbra to deal with Boolean algebra, thc beginner Dust be careful not to sub
stitute the rules of ordinary algebra where they are not applicable.
It is important to distinguish between the elements of the set of an algebraic struc
ture and the variabies of an algebraic system. For example, the elernents of the field ot
real numbers are numbers, whercas variablcs such as a, b, c, etc., used in ordinary al
gebra, are symbols that stand for rcal numbers. Similarly in Boolean algebra, one
defines the clements of the set B, and variables such as x, y, z are merely symbols that
represent the elements. At this point, it is important to rcalize that jn order to have a_
Boolean algebra, one must show:
1. the clements of the set B,
2. the rules of opcration for the two binary operators, and
3. that the set of elements B, together with the two operators, satisfies the six Hunt
ington postulates.
One can formulate many Boolean algebras, depending on the choice of elements of
B and the rules of operation. In our subsequent work, we deal only with atwo-valued
Boolean algebra, i.e., one with onlytwo elements, Two-valued Boolean algebra has ap
plications in set theory (the algebra of classes) and in propositional logic. Our interest
here is with the application of Boolean algebra to gate-type circuits.

Two-Valued Boolean Algebra /Sitchng lobna Bnay Asbsa

Atwo-valued Boolean algebra is dehned on a set of two clements, B =(0, 1}, with
iles for the two binary operators t arnd as shown in the foBlowing operator tables
(the rule for the coraplement operator is for veriñcation of postulate S):

0 1 0 1 1 1
0
1

These rules are exacily the sanme as the AND, OR,and NOT operations, respectively,
defined in Table 1-6. We must now show that the Huntinglon postulates are valid for
the set B = (0, l} and the two binary operators deñned before.
1. Closure is obvious from the tables since the result of each operation is either l or
0and I, 0 E B.
2. From the tables we see that Ideonly elonent
(a) 0 + 0 = 0 0 + 1a |+ 0= 1
(b) I ! = | |0= 0 1= 0
which establishes the two identity elements 0for t and Ifor as defined by pos
tulate 2.
40 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra and Logle Gates
3. The
bles.
commutalive laws are obvIOUs from the symmetry of the
binary operator ta
4. (a) Thc
distributive law a (y t ¿) - (av) t (az) can be
from thc operator tables by forming a truth shown to hold true
table of all
and . For each
combination, we derive x (y + z) and possiblc valucs of x, y.
show that the valuc is
the same as (x y) + (* z).

2 yt

0 0 0

1
1
1 1
1 1

(b) The distributive law of + over can be shown to holò true by means o a
truth table similar to the one above.
5. From the complement table it is casily shown that
(a) x + r'=1, since 0+ 0' = 0 t I= land ] + 1' = | + 0 = I
(b) x*' = 0, since 0-0' = 0:1= 0 and I )'=|0 = 0, which verites
postulatc 5.
6. Postulate 6 is satistied because the two-valued Boolean algebra has two distinct el
ements, Iand 0, with l # 0.
We have just established a two-valued Boolean algebra having a set of two clernents,
]and 0, (wo binary operators with operation rules cquivalent to the AND and OR op
erations, and a complement operator equivalent to the NOT operator. Thus,Boolcan al
gebra has been defined in a formal mathematical manner and has been shown to be
equivalent to the binary logic presented heuristically in Section 1-9. The heuristic pre
sentation is helpful in understanding the applicationof Boolcan algcbra to gate-type cir
cuits. The formal presentation is necessary for developing the theorems and properties
of the algebraic system. Thetwo valued Boulean algebra detined in this section is also
called switching algebra" by engineers. To emphasize the siilarities between two
valued Boolean algehra and other binary systems, this algebra was called "bingry logic"
in Section -9. From bere on, we shall drop the adjective "two-valued" irom Boolean
algebra in subsequent discussions.
 Sectlon 2-3 Basiec Theorems and Propertles of Boolean Algebra 41
2-3 BASIC THEOREMS AND
OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRAPROPERTIES

Dualty Pncp algebaa, emns Nalid, ca tho opeaton #idnonby olmns

aae otechanqcd.
The Huntington postulates have beÃn listed in pairs and designated by part (a) and part
(b). One part may be obtained from thc other if the binary operators and the identity
elements are interchanged. This important property of Boolean algebra is called the
duality principle. Itstates that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates
of Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identity elements are inter
changed. In a two-valued Boolean algebra, the identity elements and the elements of
the set B are the same: 1and 0. The duality principle has many applications. If the dual
of an algebraic expression is desired, we simply interchange OR and AND operators
and replace 1's by 0's and 0's by l's.

Basic Theorems

Table 2-1 lists six theorems of Boolean algebra and for of its postulates. The notation
is simplified by omitting the whencver this does not lead to confusion. The theorems
and postutates listed are the most basic relationships in Boolean algebra. The reader is
advised to become familiar with them as soon as possible. The theorems, like the pos
tulates, are listed in pairs; each relation is the dualof the one paired with it. The postu
Jates are basic axioms of the algebraic structure and need no proof. The theorems must
be proven from the postulates. The proofs of the theorems with one variable are pre
senied below. At the right is listed the number of the postulate that justifies each step of
the proof.

TABLE 2-1
Postultes and Theorems of Boolean Algebra
4 postubhes, u b h a ,
(b) x = x
Postulate 5 (a) x + x'= l (b) xx= 0
Theorem 1 ídempcbncy (a) x + r x
Theorem 2 (a) x + | 1 (b) x0 0
Theorem 3, involution (r')' =
Postulate 3, commutative (a) x +y y t x (b) xy yx
Theoren 4, associative (a) x + (y + z) = (I + y) + z (b) x(y:) = (ry)z
Postulae 4, distributive (a) x(y + ) = ry + *z (b) x + yz = (x t y)x t )
Theorem 5, DeMorgan (a) (r + y' x'y' (b) (xy)' x'+ y
Theorem 6, absorption (a) x t xy K (b) x( + y) =x
 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra and LogicGater
42
THEOREM 1|a): xt*=.

t )1 by postulate: 2(b)

5(a)
4(b)
X+ 0 5/6)
21a)
THEOREM 1{b|: xx=x.
by postulate: 2(a)
S(b)
4{a)
5(2)
2(6)
Note that theorcm 1{b) is the dual of theorem l(a) and that each step of the proof in
pari (b) is the dual of part (a). Any dual theoren: can be similarly derived from the
proof of its corresponding pair.

THEOREM 2(aj: t 1 = 1.
by postulate: 2(b)
= (a t xx t ) 5(a)
4(b)
2(b)
5(a)

THEOREM 2(b): x0= 0 by duality.

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=A+ (A:

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Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su Date

Consersus. he Ore>/.
Recluncay Iwcacre.
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.O...hedundant..).tu..sms..Aß.
.and..Á.C..s..BC.

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angy..dhORm..ae
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=...ABtÐG tBC:L.(Ca.ideohky law)
lau
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AB.+Ô..t. ABG.+. ÔBL (Dismbubve loy
.=.AB.tABC..t.ÔctÔBC..(Atsa.Acrag
=RBU+).+.ÔcCitB)..((Distnhubve lae)
=.AB.t.'.c.. .Hlera..DVd..
 2-4 BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS

Abinary variable can take the value of Oor 1. A Boolcan function is an expression
DRoy Vuctt formed with binary variablcs,the two binary operatorsOR and AND, and unary oper
alor NOT, parentheses, and an cqual sign. For a given value of the variables, thefunc
)Bna ORJoy tion can be either Oor l. Consider, for example, the Boolean function
F = yz
) hasy Cpexcuo The funcion F, is cquai to l ifx= 1and y = 1 and z' = 1; otherwise Fi = 0. The
above is an example of a Boolcan function reprcsented as an algebraic expressíon. A
Boolean function may also be represented in a truth table. To represent a function in a
truth table, we need a list of the 2" combinations of 1's and 0's of the n binary vari
5) eqal Sign ables, and a column showing the combinations for which the function is equal to 1 or 0.
As shown in Tablc 2-2, there arc cight possible distinct combinations for assigning bits
to thrce variables. The column labeled F contains either a 0 or a 1for each of these
combinations. The table shows that the function F is equal to 1only when x = 1,
y= 1,and z = 0. It is equal to0 otherwise. (Note that the statement 2' = I is equiva
lent to saying that z 0.) Consider now the function

TARLE 2-2
Trth Tables for F y ' , F =X+ y'
F x'ye + *'y + y', and F, = y' + x'z
F F

0 0 1 1 1
0
0
1 1
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 0
46 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebraand Logic Gate:

E, = 1if x = 10f it y 0,
and vz = 01 in rOWs 001 andwhile
z = 1, In Table 2-2. x = I in
101. The latter combination appliesthealso
last four rOws
for x = 1.
Therefore. there are five combinations that make F =1. As a third
the function example, consider
F, -sy'z + x'yz + xy ' Hw
This is shown in Table 2-2 with four l's and four 0's. F, is the same as F,
ered below. and is consid
Any Boolean function can be represcnted in a truth table. The number of rows in the
Nole tablc is 2", where n is the nunber of binary variables in the function. The I's and 0's
combinations ior cach row is casily obtained from the binary numbers by counting
from 0to 2 1. For cach row of the table, there is a value for the function equal to
either 1or 0.(The question now arises, is it possible to find two algebraic expressions
th¡t specify the same function? The answer to this question is yes. As a matter of fact,
the manipulationof Boolean algebra is applied mostly to the problem of finding simpler
expressions for the same function. Consider, for example, the function:
F, = xy + x'z
From Table 2-2. we find that F, is the same as Fs,since both have identical I's and O's
for each combination of values of the three binary variables.(In general, two functions
of n binary variables are said to be equal if they have the same value for all possibie 2"
combinations of the n variables. )
A Boolean tunction may be ransformcd from an algebraic Cxpression into a logic di
agram conposcd of AND, OR,and NOT gates. The implementation of the four func
Coats tions introduced in the previous discussion is shown in Fig. 2-4. The logic diagram in
cudes an inverter circuit for every variable present in its complement form. (The
inverter is unnecessary if the complement of the variable is availabje.) There is an
AND gate for each term in the expression, and an OR gate is used to combine two or
more terms. From the diagrarmns, it is obvious that the implementation of F, requires
fewer gates and fewer inputs than F. Since F, and F, are equal Boolean functions, it is
more economical to implement the F. form than the F, form. To find simpler circuits,
one must know howto manipulate Boolean functions to obtain equal and simpler ex
pressions. What constitutes the best form of a Boulean function depends on the particu
lar application. Inthis section, consideration is given to the criterion of equipnent min
imization.

Algebraic Manipulation
A literal is a primed or unprimed variable. When aBoolean function is in1plemented
with logic gates, cach literal in the function designates an input to agate, and each term
is implenented with a gate. The minimization of the number of literals and the number
of terms results in a circuit with less equipment. It is not always possiblc to minimize
both simuitaneously, usually , turther criteria must be available At the moment, we
 Sectlan 24 Boolean Fnctlons

(a) F, = *ye
(b) F, =*+y

(c) F3=y' + x'yz t*y'

(d) F, y' t r'

FKGURE 2-4
Implenentation of 8oolean hunctions with gates

shall narrow the minimization criterion to literal ninimizatiog. We shall discuss other
criteria in Chapter 5. The number of Jiterals in a Boolean function can be mininized by
algebraic manipulations. Unfartunately, there are no speciñc rules to follow that will
guarantee the final answer. The only method available is a cut-and-try procedure em
ploying the postulates, the basic theorems, and any other manipulation method that be.
comes familiar with use. The following examples illustrate this procedure.