MySQL Tutorial

MySQL is a relational database management system based on the Structured Query Language, which is
the popular language for accessing and managing the records in the database. MySQL is open-source
and free software under the GNU license. It is supported by Oracle Company.

What is Database?
It is very important to understand the database before learning MySQL. A database is an application
that stores the organized collection of records. It can be accessed and manage by the user very easily.
It allows us to organize data into tables, rows, columns, and indexes to find the relevant information
very quickly.

What is MySQL?
MySQL is currently the most popular database management system software used for managing the
relational database. It is open-source database software, which is supported by Oracle Company. It is
fast, scalable, and easy to use database management system in comparison with Microsoft SQL Server
and Oracle Database.

It is developed, marketed, and supported by MySQL AB, a Swedish company,

. The official pronunciation of MySQL is not the My Sequel; it is My Ess Que Ell. However, you can
pronounce it in your way. Many small and big companies use MySQL. It allows us to implement
database operations on tables, rows, columns, and indexes.
o It defines the database relationship in the form of tables (collection of rows and columns), also
known as relations.
o It provides the Referential Integrity between rows or columns of various tables.
o It allows us to updates the table indexes automatically.
o It uses many SQL queries and combines useful information from multiple tables for the end-
users.

How MySQL Works?

MySQL follows the working of Client-Server Architecture. This model is designed for the end-users
called clients to access the resources from a central computer known as a server using network
services. Here, the clients make requests through a graphical user interface (GUI), and the server will
give the desired output as soon as the instructions are matched. The process of MySQL environment is
the same as the client-server model.

The core of the MySQL database is the MySQL Server. This server is available as a separate program
and responsible for handling all the database instructions, statements, or commands. The working of
MySQL database with MySQL Server are as follows:

1. MySQL creates a database that allows you to build many tables to store and manipulate data
and defining the relationship between each table.
2. Clients make requests through the GUI screen or command prompt by using specific SQL
expressions on MySQL.
3. Finally, the server application will respond with the requested expressions and produce the
desired result on the client-side.

Reasons for popularity

MySQL is becoming so popular because of these following reasons:

o MySQL is an open-source database, so you don't have to pay a single penny to use it.
o MySQL is a very powerful program that can handle a large set of functionality of the most
expensive and powerful database packages.
o MySQL is customizable because it is an open-source database, and the open-source GPL license
facilitates programmers to modify the SQL software according to their own specific
environment.
o MySQL is quicker than other databases, so it can work well even with the large data set.
o MySQL supports many operating systems with many languages like PHP, PERL, C, C++, JAVA,
etc.
o MySQL uses a standard form of the well-known SQL data language.
o MySQL is very friendly with PHP, the most popular language for web development.
 o MySQL supports large databases, up to 50 million rows or more in a table. The default file size
limit for a table is 4GB, but you can increase this (if your operating system can handle it) to a
theoretical limit of 8 million terabytes (TB).

MySQL Features
MySQL is a relational database management system (RDBMS) based on the SQL (Structured Query Language)
queries. It is one of the most popular languages for accessing and managing the records in the table. MySQL is
open-source and free software under the GNU license. Oracle Company supports it.

The following are the most important features of MySQL:

Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

Easy to use

MySQL is easy to use. We have to get only the basic knowledge of SQL. We can build and interact with
MySQL by using only a few simple SQL statements.

It is secure

MySQL consists of a solid data security layer that protects sensitive data from intruders. Also,
passwords are encrypted in MySQL.

Client/ Server Architecture

MySQL follows the working of a client/server architecture. There is a database server (MySQL) and
arbitrarily many clients (application programs), which communicate with the server; that is, they can
query data, save changes, etc.

Free to download

MySQL is free to use so that we can download it from MySQL official website without any cost.

It is scalable

MySQL supports multi-threading that makes it easily scalable. It can handle almost any amount of data,
up to as much as 50 million rows or more. The default file size limit is about 4 GB. However, we can
increase this number to a theoretical limit of 8 TB of data.

Speed
MySQL is considered one of the very fast database languages, backed by a large number of the
benchmark test.

High Flexibility

MySQL supports a large number of embedded applications, which makes MySQL very flexible.

Compatible on many operating systems

MySQL is compatible to run on many operating systems, like Novell NetWare, Windows* Linux*, many
varieties of UNIX* (such as Sun* Solaris*, AIX, and DEC* UNIX), OS/2, FreeBSD*, and others. MySQL also
provides a facility that the clients can run on the same computer as the server or on another computer
(communication via a local network or the Internet).

Allows roll-back

MySQL allows transactions to be rolled back, commit, and crash recovery.

Memory efficiency

Its efficiency is high because it has a very low memory leakage problem.

High Performance

MySQL is faster, more reliable, and cheaper because of its unique storage engine architecture. It
provides very high-performance results in comparison to other databases without losing an essential
functionality of the software. It has fast loading utilities because of the different cache memory.

High Productivity

MySQL uses Triggers, Stored procedures, and views that allow the developer to give higher
productivity.

Platform Independent

t can download, install, and execute on most of the available operating systems.

Partitioning

This feature improves the performance and provides fast management of the large database.

Disadvantages/Drawback of MySQL
Following are the few disadvantages of MySQL:

o MySQL version less than 5.0 doesn't support ROLE, COMMIT, and stored procedure.
 o MySQL does not support a very large database size as efficiently.
o MySQL doesn't handle transactions very efficiently, and it is prone to data corruption.
o MySQL is accused that it doesn't have a good developing and debugging tool compared to paid
databases.
o MySQL doesn't support SQL check constraints.

MySQL Data Types

A Data Type specifies a particular type of data, like integer, floating points, Boolean, etc. It also
identifies the possible values for that type, the operations that can be performed on that type, and the
way the values of that type are stored. In MySQL, each database table has many columns and contains
specific data types for each column.

We can determine the data type in MySQL with the following characteristics:

o The type of values (fixed or variable) it represents.

o The storage space it takes is based on whether the values are a fixed-length or variable length.
o Its values can be indexed or not.
o How MySQL performs a comparison of values of a particular data type.

Numeric Data Type

MySQL has all essential SQL numeric data types. These data types can include the exact numeric data
types (For example, integer, decimal, numeric, etc.), as well as the approximate numeric data types (For
example, float, real, and double precision). It also supports BIT datatype to store bit values. In MySQL,
numeric data types are categories into two types, either signed or unsigned except for bit data type.

Data Type Description

Syntax

TINYINT It is a very small integer that can be signed or unsigned. If signed, the allowable range is from
-128 to 127. If unsigned, the allowable range is from 0 to 255. We can specify a width of up
to 4 digits. It takes 1 byte for storage.

SMALLINT It is a small integer that can be signed or unsigned. If signed, the allowable range is from -
 32768 to 32767. If unsigned, the allowable range is from 0 to 65535. We can specify a width
of up to 5 digits. It requires 2 bytes for storage.

MEDIUMINT It is a medium-sized integer that can be signed or unsigned. If signed, the allowable range is
from -8388608 to 8388607. If unsigned, the allowable range is from 0 to 16777215. We can
specify a width of up to 9 digits. It requires 3 bytes for storage.

INT It is a normal-sized integer that can be signed or unsigned. If signed, the allowable range is
from -2147483648 to 2147483647. If unsigned, the allowable range is from 0 to 4294967295.
We can specify a width of up to 11 digits. It requires 4 bytes for storage.

BIGINT It is a large integer that can be signed or unsigned. If signed, the allowable range is from -
9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807. If unsigned, the allowable range is from 0
to 18446744073709551615. We can specify a width of up to 20 digits. It requires 8 bytes for
storage.

FLOAT(m,d) It is a floating-point number that cannot be unsigned. You can define the display length (m)
and the number of decimals (d). This is not required and will default to 10,2, where 2 is the
number of decimals, and 10 is the total number of digits (including decimals). Decimal
precision can go to 24 places for a float type. It requires 2 bytes for storage.

DOUBLE(m,d) It is a double-precision floating-point number that cannot be unsigned. You can define the
display length (m) and the number of decimals (d). This is not required and will default to
16,4, where 4 is the number of decimals. Decimal precision can go to 53 places for a double.
Real is a synonym for double. It requires 8 bytes for storage.

DECIMAL(m,d) An unpacked floating-point number that cannot be unsigned. In unpacked decimals, each
decimal corresponds to one byte. Defining the display length (m) and the number of
decimals (d) is required. Numeric is a synonym for decimal.

Date and Time Data Type:

This data type is used to represent temporal values such as date, time, datetime, timestamp, and year.
Each temporal type contains values, including zero. When we insert the invalid value, MySQL cannot
represent it, and then zero value is used.

The following table illustrates all date and time data types that support in MySQL:

Data Type Maximum Size Explanation

Syntax
YEAR[(2|4)] Year value as 2 digits or 4 digits. The default is 4 digits. It takes 1 byte for
storage.

DATE Values range from '1000-01-01' to Displayed as 'yyyy-mm-dd'. It takes 3 bytes

'9999-12-31'. for storage.

TIME Values range from '-838:59:59' to Displayed as 'HH:MM:SS'. It takes 3 bytes

'838:59:59'. plus fractional seconds for storage.

DATETIME Values range from '1000-01-01 Displayed as 'yyyy-mm-dd hh:mm:ss'. It

00:00:00' to '9999-12-31 23:59:59'. takes 5 bytes plus fractional seconds for
storage.

TIMESTAMP(m) Values range from '1970-01-01 Displayed as 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS'. It

00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-19 takes 4 bytes plus fractional seconds for
03:14:07' TC. storage.

String Data Types:

The string data type is used to hold plain text and binary data, for example, files, images, etc. MySQL
can perform searching and comparison of string value based on the pattern matching such as LIKE
operator, Regular Expressions, etc.

The following table illustrates all string data types that support in MySQL:

Data Type Maximum Size Explanation

Syntax

CHAR(size) It can have a maximum size Here size is the number of characters to store.
of 255 characters. Fixed-length strings. Space padded on the right
to equal size characters.

VARCHAR(size) It can have a maximum size Here size is the number of characters to store.
of 255 characters. Variable-length string.

TINYTEXT(size) It can have a maximum size Here size is the number of characters to store.
of 255 characters.

TEXT(size) Maximum size of 65,535 Here size is the number of characters to store.
characters.

MEDIUMTEXT(size) It can have a maximum size Here size is the number of characters to store.
of 16,777,215 characters.
LONGTEXT(size) It can have a maximum size Here size is the number of characters to store.
of 4GB or 4,294,967,295
characters.

BINARY(size) It can have a maximum size Here size is the number of binary characters to
of 255 characters. store. Fixed-length strings. Space padded on the
right to equal size characters.
(introduced in MySQL 4.1.2)

STRUCTURE QUERY LANGUAGE:

It is a non procedural language which is used to communicate with any database
such as Oracle, sqlserver ,Mysql etc.

 This Language was developed by the German Scientist Mr. E.F.Codd in

1968
 ANSI (American National Standard Institute) approved this concept and in
1972 sql was released into the market

Features of SQL:
 SQL is not a case sensitive language it means that all the commands of
Sql are not case sensitive
 Every command of sql should ends with a semicolon (;)
 SQL can be pronounced as Sequel (Structured English Query Language)
 SQL can be called as Common Language Interface, which is used to
communicate with any type of database
 SQL can be called as NLI (Natural Language Interface). It means that all
the SQL Commands are almost similar to normal English language
 Structured query language is mainly divided into 4 sub languages
1. DDL (Data Definition Language)
2. DML (Data Manipulation Language)
3. TCL (Transaction Control Language)
4. DCL(Data Control Language)

SQL

DDL (DR.CAT) DML (SUDI) TCL (CRS) DCL

DROP SELECT COMMIT GRANT
RENAME UPDATE ROLLBACK REVOKE
CREATE DELETE SAVE POINT
ALTER INSERT
TRUNCATE
 DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE

Data Definition Language: This is a 1st sub Language in SQL which is

used to define the database objects such as table, view etc.

 This language contains five commands

1. Create
2. Alter
3. Rename
4. Truncate
5. Drop

1. Create:
 This command is used to create the database objects within the database
Syntax: CREATE TABLE <TABLE NAME>
(COL 1 DATA TYPE (size),
COL2 DATA TYPE (size),
:
:
:
COLN DATA TYPE (size));
Ex: CREATE TABLE EMP (EID NUMBER, ENAME Varchar 2(15), SAL
NUMBER(6, 2));

Rules for Creating a Table:

 Table name must be unique under the database.
 Column names must be unique within the table.
 Never start table name with numeric or special characters
except underscore‟_‟.
 Do not use space in table name if we want give space in table name then
use underscore symbol only.
 Every object name should contain minimum one character and maximum
128 characters.
 The maximum no. of columns a table can have 1024 columns.
2. ALTER:

 This command is used to modify the structure of a table using

this command, we can perform four different operations
 Using this command we can increase (or) decrease the size of the data
type & also we can change the data type from old data type to new
data type
 We can add a new column to the existing table
 We can change the column name from old column name to
new column name
 We can remove the column from the existing table
 This command contains 3 sub commands
1. ALTER -MODIFY COLUMN
2. ALTER- ADD
3. ALTER- DROP

a. ALTER-ALTER COLUMN:

 Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> MODIFY

<COLUMN NAME> DATA TYPE (SIZE)
 Ex: ALTER TABLE EMP ALTER COLUMN ENAME char (25);

b. ALTER-ADD:

 Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> ADD <COLUMNNAME

>DATA TYPE(size);
 Ex: ALTER TABLE EMP ADD DEPTNO int;

c. ALTER-DROP:

 Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> DROP COLUMN <COLUMN

NAME>;
 Ex: ALTER TABLE EMP DROP COLUMN SAL;
d. RENAME TABLE NAME

 Syntax:RENAME table OLDNAME TO NEWNAME

 Ex: RENAME table EMP TO EMP1

e.RENAME COLUMN NAMME

 This command is used to change the table name from old table name to
new table name
 Syntax: ALTER TABLE TANLENAME COLUMN OLDNAME TO NEWNAME
 Ex: ALTER TABLE EMP COLUMN SAL TO SALARY

3. TRUNCATE:

 This command is used for to delete all the records from existing
table permanently
 Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLE NAME>
 Ex: TRUNCATE TABLE EMP;

4. DROP:

 This command is used to remove the table permanently from the database
 Syntax: DROP TABLE <TABLE NAME>
 Ex: DROP TABLE EMP;

DECRIPTION OF TABLE:

 DESC TABLENAME

 DESC EMP
 DATA MANIPULATING LANGUAGE
Data Manipulating Language: This is the 2nd sub language in SQL,
which is used to manipulate the data within database. This Language contains 4
commands

1. Insert
2. Update
3. Delete
4. Select

1. INSERT:

 Using this command we can Insert the records into the existing table
 We can insert the records into the table in two methods
Explicit method
Implicit method
Explicit method:

 In this method user has to enter all the values into all the columns
without anything omitting (or) left any column data
 Syntax: INSERT INTO <TABLE NAME> VALUES <VAL1, VAL2,
….VALN>;
(OR)
INSERT <TABLE NAME> VALUES <VAL1, VAL2, .VALN>;
(Here “INTO” Keyword is optional)

 Ex1: INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (101,‟RAJ‟,9500);

 Ex2: INSERT EMP VALUES (101,‟RAJ‟,9500); 1
Row(s) affected
Implicit method:
 In this method we can enter the values into the required columns in the
table, so that user can omit (or) left some columns data while he enters the
records into the table
 If the user omit any column data in the table then it automatically
takes NULL
 Syntax: INSERT INTO <TABLE NAME> (COL1, COL2….COLN)
VALUES (VAL1, VAL2… VALN);
 Ex: INSERT INTO EMP (EID, SAL) VALUES (106,9999);

2. UPDATE:

 This command is used to modify the data in the existing table

 By using this command we can modify all the records in the table &
also specific records in the table (Using „where‟ clause)
 Syntax: UPDATE <TABLE NAME> SET COL=VALUE;
 Ex: UPDATE EMP SET SAL=10000;

Syntax change for more than one data simultaneously

 Syntax: UPDATE <TABLE NAME> SET COL1=VALUE,

COL2=VALUE………COLN=VALUE;
 Ex: UPDATE EMP SET EID=007,SAL=10000;

3. DELETE:

 This command is used to delete the records from existing table

 Using this command we can delete all the records and also to delete
specific record (by using „where‟ clause)
 Syntax: DELETE FROM <TABLE NAME>
 Ex: DELETE FROM EMP;
 Syntax: DELETE FROM <TABLE NAME> WHERE CONDITION
 Ex: DELETE FROM EMP WHERE ID=1
 Difference between TRUNCATE and DELETE Command:

SRNO TRUNCATE DELETE

01 It is a DDL command It is a DML command

02 It is a permanent deletion It is temporary deletion

03 Specific record deletion is not We can delete the specific record

possible

04 It doesn‟t support WHERE It supports WHERE clause

clause

05 We cannot Rollback the data We can Rollback the data

06 Truncate will reset the identity Delete will not reset the identity
Values value

4. SELECT:

 This command is used to retrieve the data from existing table.

 Using this command we can retrieve all the records & also specific
records from existing table (by using „where‟ clause)
 Using this command we can retrieve the data from the table in 3 ways
1. Projection
2. Selection
3. Joins
 Syntax: SELECT * FROM <TABLE NAME>
 Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP;
 * represents all columns
Projection:

 Retrieving the data from specific columns is known as Projection

 Syntax: SELECT COL1,COL2……..COLN FROM <TABLE NAME>
 Ex: SELECT EID,ENAME FROM EMP;
Selection:

 Retrieving the data based on some condition is called selection

 In SQL, whenever we need to check a condition, we need to use a
special clause called „where‟
 Syntax: SELECT * FROM <TABLENAME> WHERE (CONDITION);
 Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EID=101;
WHERE CLAUSE:

 This clause is used to check the condition based on the condition, we

can retrieve, update, delete specific records in the table
 So we can apply the where clause only in select, update & delete
Select Command With Where clause:

 Syntax: SELECT * FROM <TABLE NAME> WHERE <CONDITION>

 Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EID=102;
Update Command With Where clause:

 Syntax: UPDATE <TABLE NAME> SET <COLUMN NAME>=VALUE

WHERE (CONDITION);
 Ex: UPDATE EMP SET ENAME=”sai” WHERE EID=102;
Delete Command With Where clause:

 Syntax: DELETE FROM <TABLE NAME>WHERE <CONDITION>

 Ex: DELETE FROM EMP WHERE EID=102;
ALIAS:

 ALIAS is a duplicate name (or) alternate name for the original column
name (or) Table name (or) an expression name.

 Column level Alias:

 Syntax: SELECT COLUMN NAME AS “ALIAS
NAME”, COLUMN NAME AS “ALIAS
NAME”,
:
:
COLUMN NAME AS “ALIAS NAME” FROM <TABLE NAME>;
 EX: SELECT EID AS “EMPLOYEE ID”, ENAME AS
“EMPLOYEE NAME”, SAL AS “SALARY” FROM EMP;
 NOTE: In the above example the keyword „as‟ is optional
 EX: SELECT EID “EMPLOYEE ID”, ENAME “EMPLOYEE NAME”,
SAL “SALARY” FROM EMP;

 NOTE: In the above example quotations is also optional but there

should not be space between column name

 EX: SELECT EID EMPLOYEEID, ENAME EMPLOYEENAME, SAL

SALARY FROM EMP;
 Ex: SELECT EID EMPLOYEEID, ENAME EMPLOYEENAME, SAL
SALARY, SAL*12 ANNUALSALARY FROM EMP;
 EX: SELECT EID EMPLOYEEID, ENAME EMPLOYEENAME, SAL
SALARY FROM EMP WHERE ANNUALSALARY > 115000

 In the above example returns the runtime error message invalid column
name „annual salary‟ because we cannot check the conditions on Alias name
 Built In Functions(System Functions) IN SQL: SQL server
provide number of built in functions like mathematical functions, character
functions, date and time functions, aggregative functions,convertion functions
etc.these can be used to perform certain operations and return a value.
Syntax: SELECT <Function Name> [Expressions]

Mathematical Functions: These functions perform a calculation based on

input values provided as arguments, and return a numeric value.

ABSOLUTE (): Returns the absolute, positive value of the given numeric expression.

Ex: select ABSOLUTE(-15) 15

select ABSOLUTE(45) 45

CEILING (): Returns the smallest integer greater than, or equal to, the given
numeric expression.
Ex: select ceil(15.000) -------15
select ceil(15.0001)-------16
select ceil(-12.34) -----(-12)

FLOOR (): Returns the largest integer less than or equal to the given numeric
expression.

Ex:Select floor(20.5)

SQUARE (): Returns the square of the given expression.

Ex: select SQUARE(5) ---25

SQRT (): Returns the square root of the given expression.

Ex: select Sqrt(25) ---5

POWER (n, m): Returns the power value of given expression

Ex: select POWER (2, 3) ---8

SIN (): Returns the trigonometric sine of the given angle (in radians) in an
approximate numeric expression.

Ex: select SIN (0)-------0

COS (): A mathematic function that returns the trigonometric cosine of the given
angle (in radians) in the given expression.

Ex: select COS (0)--1

TAN (): Returns the tangent of the input expression.

Ex: select TAN (0) ---------0

String Functions: These functions perform an operation on a string input value

and return a string or numeric value.

RIGHT (): Returns the right part of a character string with the specified number of
characters.

Ex: Select RIGHT („SUDHAKAR‟, 3) ------KAR

LENGTH (): Returns the number of characters, rather than the number of bytes,
of the given string expression.

Ex: Select LENGTH (‘WELCOME’) -- ----7

LOWER (): Returns a character expression after converting uppercase character

data to lowercase.

Ex: Select LOWER (‘SAI’) --------sai

UPPER (): Returns a character expression with lowercase character data converted
to uppercase.

Ex: Select UPPER (‘SAI’) ------SAI

LTRIM (): Returns a character expression after removing leading blanks.

Ex: Select LTRIM (‘HELLO’) --------HELLO

RTRIM (): Returns a character string after truncating all trailing blanks.

Ex: Select RTRIM (‘HELLO’) -------HELLO

REVERSE (): Returns the reverse of a character expression.

Ex: Select REVERSE (‘HELLO’)--------OLLEH

SUBSTRING (expression, start, length): Returns a part of a string from expression

from starting position, where length is no. of chars to be picked.

Ex: Select SUBSTRING (‘HELLO’, 1, 3) ----------- HEL

Select SUBSTRING (‘HELLO’ 3, 3) ----------- LLO

Aggregate functions/Group functions: Aggregate functions perform
a calculation on a set of values and return a single value. Aggregate functions are
often used with the GROUP BY clause of the SELECT statement.

SUM (): Returns the sum of all the values .Sum can be used with numeric columns
only. Null values are ignored.

Ex: SELECT SUM (SALARY) FROM EMP

AVG (): Returns the average of the values in a group. Null values are ignored.

Ex: SELECT AVG (SALARY) FROM EMP

MAX (): Returns the maximum value in the expression.

Ex: SELECT MAX (SALARY) FROM EMP

MIN (): Returns the minimum value in the expression.

Ex: SELECT MIN (SALARY) FROM EMP

COUNT (): Returns the number of records in a table. This function again use in
three ways.

1. COUNT (*): It Returns total number of records in a table

Ex: SELECT COUNT (*) FROM EMP
2. COUNT (Expression/Column name): It returns number of records
including duplicate values but not null vales.
Ex: SELECT COUNT (ENAME) FROM EMP
3. COUNT (Distinct Column name): It returns number of records without
null and duplicate values.
Ex: SELECT COUNT (Distinct ENAME) FROM EMP

Distinct Key: If we use this key word on a column with in a query then it will
retrieve the values of the column without duplicates.
OPERATORS IN SQL: Operator is a symbol which performs some
specific operation on operands or expressions. These operators are classified into 6
types in SQL.

1. Assignment operator
2. Arithmetic operator
3. Comparison operator
4. Logical operator
5. Set operator

Assignment operator: Assignment operator contain only one operator is

knows as equal „=‟ operator.

Ex1: Write a Query to display the employee details whose salary is equal to10000

 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL=10000

Ex2: Write a query to change the deptno as „10‟whose employee id is 101

 UPDATE EMP SET DEPTNO=10 WHERE EID=101

Ex3: Write a query to delete a record whose employee id is 107

 DELETE FROM EMP WHERE EID=107

Arithmetic operator: Arithmetic operators perform mathematical

operations on two expressions. The lists of arithmetic operators are + (Add), -
Subtraction,* Multiplication. / (Divide) Division and % (Modulo) Returns the
integer remainder of a division. For example, 12 % 5 = 2 because the remainder of
12 divided by 5 is 2.

Ex1: Select 100+250 from dual

Ex2: WAQ to find student TOTAL, AVERAGE AND CLASS OF a table

Step1: Create table student (Sid int, sname varchar (50), math‟s int, phy int, che
int, total int, average int, class varchar (max))

Step2: Update student set total=maths+phy+che

Step3: Update student set average=total/3

Step4: Update student set class=

Case

When average>=60 then 'First class'

When average>=50 then 'second class'

When average>=40 then 'third class'

Else

'Fail'

End

CASE (): This function is used to execute list of conditions and returns a value.

Syntax: Case

<Condition 1>-----------<Condition N>

Else

<Statement>

End
 Comparison operators: Comparison operators test whether two
expressions are the same. Comparison operators can be used on all expressions
except expressions of the text, ntext, or image data types. The following table lists
the Transact-SQL comparison operators are > (Greater Than),< (Less Than)
,>= (Greater Than or Equal To) ,<= (Less Than or Equal To) ,!= (Not Equal
To),!< (Not Less Than),!> (Not Greater Than)
Examples:

 Select ename from EMP where salary<50000

 Update EMP set salary=1000 where salary>90000
 Update EMP set ename='joshitha' where salary<=25000
 Update EMP set salary=98000 where salary>=1000
 Select ename from Emp where salary !>98000
 Select ename from Emp where salary !<98000
 Select ename from Emp where salary !=98000

Logical operator: Logical operators test for the truth of some condition.
Logical operators, like comparison operators, return a Boolean data type with a
value of TRUE or FALSE. Logical operators are AND , OR , NOT, BETWEEN,
NOT BETWEEN, LIKE, NOT LIKE, IN, NOT IN, EXISTS,NOT EXISTS, ANY,
ALL, SOME.
Examples:

 Select * from EMP where ename='siddhu' and salary=45000

 Select * from EMP where ename='joshitha' or salary=98000
 Select * from EMP where not ename='joshitha'
 Select * from EMP where salary between 10000 and 50000
 Update EMP set ename='SAI' where eid=101 and salary=25000
Queries Using ‘Select’ with ‘where’ clause:

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose salary is less

than 10000
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL<10000
  Write a Query to display the employee details whose salary is greater than
or equal to 9000 and less than 15000
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL>=9000 AND SAL<=15000
(OR)
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL BETWEEN 9000 AND 15000
 Write a Query to display the employee details whose salary is not
between 9000 and 15000
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL NOT BETWEEN 9000 AND15000

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose name starts with „r‟
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE „r%‟

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose name ends with „y‟
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE „%Y‟

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose name contains

the letter „a‟
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE „%A%‟

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose names contains

only three letters
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE „---„

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose names contain „r‟
and salary greater than 9000
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE „%R%‟ AND SAL>9000

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose greater than ram
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME>‟RAM‟
 Write a Query to display the employee details whose employee id starts
with 1 and ends with 1
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EID LIKE „1%1‟

(SQL commands are not case sensitive and also data available in SQL also not case
sensitive, in oracle Data available is case sensitive)
Queries using ‘Update’ with ‘where’ clause:

 Write a query to change the deptno as „10‟whose employee id is 101, 103,

107
 UPDATE EMPSET DEPTNO=10 WHERE EID=101 OR EID=103 OR
EID=107

 Write a query to change the deptno as 20 who does not have deptno
 UPDATE EMPSET DEPTNO=20 WHERE DEPTNO IS NULL

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 12000 who are

working under 10 dept and their names starts with „r‟
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=12000 WHERE DEPTNO=10 AND ENAME
LIKE „R%‟

 Write a query to change the deptno as 30 whose second letter is „a‟

 UPDATE EMPSET DEPTNO=30 WHERE ENAME=‟-A%‟

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 8500 who are working
under 10 and 20 deptno
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=8500 WHERE DEPTNO=10 OR DEPTNO=20
(OR)
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=8500 WHERE DEPTNO IN(10,20)

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 8500 who are not working
under 10 and 20 deptno
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=8500 WHERE DEPTNO NOT IN (10,20)

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 15000 and names

ends with „m‟ & working under 10 deptno
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=15000 WHERE ENAME=‟%M‟ AND
DEPTNO=10

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 5500 whose employee

id ends with 4 and deptno starts with 2
  UPDATE EMPSET SAL=5500 WHERE EID LIKE „%4‟ AND DEPTNO
LIKE „2%‟

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 25000 whose salary

less than 10000 and the name contains letter „a‟ and working under dept
20
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=25000 WHERE SAL<10000 AND ENAME
LIKE „%A%‟ AND DEPTNO IN (20)

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 10000 whose salary

is greater than or equal to 8500 and less than or equal to 9000
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=10000 WHERE SAL BETWEEN 8500 AND
9000

Set Operators: Set operators combine results from two or more queries into a
single result set. SQL Server provides the following set operators.

 UNION
 UNION ALL
 INTERSECT
 MINUS

To combine the results of two queries we need to follow the below basic rules.

 The number and the order of the columns must be the same in all queries.
 The data types must be compatible(Well-Matched)

Example:

CREATE TABLE EMP_HYD (EID INT, ENAME VARCHAR (50), SALARY

MONEY)

CREATE TABLE EMP_CHENNAI (EID INT, ENAME VARCHAR (50))

EMP_HYD

EID ENAME SALARY

101 SAI 25000.00

102 SIDDHU 32000.00

103 KAMAL 42000.00

104 NEETHU 63000.00

------------------------------------------------ EMP_CHENNAI

EID ENAME

101 SAI

105 POOJA

106 JASMIN

UNION: it combines the result of two or more select statements into a single result
set that includes all the records belongs to all queries except duplicate values.

Ex: Select Ename from EMP_HYD

Union

Select Ename from EMP_CHENNAI

OUTPUT: ENAME

JASMIN

KAMAL

NEETHU

POOJA

SAI

SIDDHU
UNION ALL: it is same as union but returns duplicate values

Ex: Select Ename from EMP_HYD

Union ALL

Select Ename from EMP_CHENNAI

OUTPUT: ENAME

SAI

SIDDHU

KAMAL

NEETHU

SAI

POOJA

JASMIN

INTERSECT: INTERSECT returns any distinct values that are common in left
and right tables.

Ex: Select Ename from EMP_HYD

Intersect

Select Ename from EMP_CHENNAI

OUTPUT: ENAME

SAI
MINUS: MINUS returns any distinct values from the left query that are not
found on the right query.

Ex: Select Ename from EMP_HYD

Minus

Select Ename from EMP_CHENNAI

OUTPUT: ENAME

KAMAL

NEETHU

SIDDHU

Ex: Select Ename from EMP_CHENNAI

Except

Select Ename from EMP_HYD

OUTPUT: ENAME

JASMIN

POOJA

CLAUSES IN SQL: We can add these to a query for adding additional

options like filtering the records, sorting records and grouping the records with in a
table. These clauses contains the following clauses are,

WHERE: This clause is used for filter or restricts the records from the table.
Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL=10000

ORDER BY: The order by clause is used to sort or arrange the data in
ascending or descending order with in table. By default order by
clause arrange or sort the data in ascending order only.
  If we want to arrange the records in a descending order then
we use Desc keyword.
 We can apply order by clause on integer and string columns.
Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY EID (For Ascending Order)

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY ENAME DESC (For Descending Order)

TOP N CLAUSE: This clause is used to fetch a top n number of records from a
table.

Ex: SELECT TOP 3 * FROM EMP

Ex: UPDATE TOP 3 EMP SET ENAME=‟SAI‟

Ex: DELETE TOP 3 FROM EMP

GROUP BY: Group by clause will use for to arrange similar data into groups.
when we apply group by clause in the query then we use group functions like
count(),sum(),max(),min(),avg().

If we use group by clause in the query, first the data in the table will be divided
into different groups based on the columns and then execute the group function on
each group to get the result.

Ex1: WAQ to find out the number of employees working in the organization

Sol: SELECT COUNT (*) FROM EMP

Ex2: WAQ to find out the number of employees working in each group in the
organization.

Sol: SELECT DEPT, COUNT=COUNT (*) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPT

Ex3: WAQ to find out the total salary of each department in the organization

Sol: SELECT DEPT, TOTALSALARY=SUM (SALARY) FROM EMP GROUP

BY DEPT (Like this we can find max, min, avg salary in the organization)
 HAVING CLAUSE: Having clause is also used for filtering and restricting the
records in a table just like where clause.

Ex: WAQ to find out the number of employees in each department only if the
count is greater than 3

Sol: SELECT DEPT, COUNT=COUNT (*) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPT

HAVING COUNT (*) >3

Differences Between WHERE and HAVING Clause:

WHERE HAVING
WHERE clause is used to filter and HAVING clause is used to filter and
restrict the records before grouping restrict the records after grouping
If restriction column associated with But we can use HAVING clause at this
A aggregative function then we cannot situations
use WHERE clause there
WHERE clause can apply without group HAVING clause cannot be applied
by clause without a group by clause
WHERE clause can be used for Where as HAVING clause is used along
restricting individual rows with group by clause to filter or restrict
groups

SYNONYM: synonym is database object which can be created as an “alias”

for any object like table, view, procedure etc.

 If we apply any DML operations on synonym the same

operations automatically effected to corresponding base table and
vice versa.
 If we create a synonym, the synonym will be created on entire table. It is
not possible to create the synonym on partial table.
 When we create synonym based on another the new synonym does not allow
us to perform any DML operations because Synonym chaining is not
allowed.
 Synonym will become invalid into two cases,
1. When we drop the base table
2. When we change the base table name
  On invalid synonym we cannot apply any DML operations and we
cannot create synonym based on more than one table at a time.
 When we change the structure of the base table the corresponding
synonym automatically reflected with same changes.
 But, if we change the structure of the synonym that is not reflected to
the base table because we cannot change the structure of the synonym.

Syntax: Create synonym <synonym name> for <object name>

Ex: Create synonym synemp for employee

Syntax to drop a synonym: Drop synonym <synonym name>

Ex: Drop synonym synemp

Syntax to Creating a table from an existing table:

we can create a table from an existing table and maintain a copy of the actual table
before manipulating the table.

Syntax: Select * into <New Table Name> from <Old Table Name>

Ex1: Select * into New_Emp from Employee

In this case it creates a table New_Emp by copying all the rows and columns of the
Employee table.

Ex2: Select EID, ENAME into Test_Emp from Employee

In this case it creates a table Test_Emp with only the specified columns from the
employee table.

Ex3: Select * into Dummy_Emp from employee where 1=2

In this case it creates the Dummy table without any data in it.
Copying data from one existing table to another table:
We can copy the data from one table to another table by using a combination of
insert and select statement as following

Syntax: Insert into <Dummy Table name> select * from <Table Name>

Ex: Insert into Dummy_Emp select * from Employee

Constraint in SQL
Why Constraint in SQL: Constraint is using to restrict the insertion of
unwanted data in any columns. We can create constraints on single or multiple
columns of any table. It maintains the data integrity i.e. accurate data or original
data of the table. Data integrity rules fall into three categories:

 Entity integrity
 Referential integrity
 Domain integrity

Entity Integrity: Entity integrity ensures each row in a table is a uniquely

identifiable entity. You can apply entity integrity to a table by specifying a
PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE KEY constraint.

Referential Integrity: Referential integrity ensures the relationships

between tables remain preserved as data is inserted, deleted, and modified. You
can apply referential integrity using a FOREIGN KEY constraint.

Domain Integrity: Domain integrity ensures the data values inside a database
follow defined rules for values, range, and format. A database can enforce these
rules using CHECK KEY constraints.

Types of constraints in SQL Server:-

1. Unique Key constraint.

2. Not Null constraint.
3. Check constraint
4. Primary key constraint.
5. Foreign Key constraint.
 1. Unique Key:- Unique key constraint is use to make sure that there is no
duplicate value in that column. Both unique key and primary key both enforces
the uniqueness of column but there is one difference between them unique key
constraint allow null value but primary key does not allow null value.

In a table we create one primary key but we can create more than one unique key
in Sql Server.

Ex: create table EMP(EID int unique,ENAME varchar(50)

unique,SALARY money);

2. Not null constraint: - Not null constraint is used to restrict the insertion of
null value at that column but allow duplicate values.

Ex: create table EMP(EID int not null,ENAME varchar(50) not

null,SALARY money);

3. Check Constraint: - This constraint is using to check value at the time of

insertion like as salary of any employee is always greater than zero. So we
can create a check constraint on employee table which is greater than zero.

Ex: create table emp4(eno int,ename varchar(50),age int check (age

between 20 and 30))

4. Primary Key:- Primary key is a combination of unique and not null which
does not allow duplicate as well as null values into a column. In a table we create
one primary key only.

Ex:create table emp(EID int primary key,ENAME

varchar(50),SALARY money)
 5. Foreign Key: - One of the most important concepts in database is creating
relationships between database tables. These relationships provide a mechanism
for linking data stored in multiple tables and retrieving it in an efficient manner.

In order to create a link between two tables we must specify a foreign key in one
table that references a column in another table.

Foreign key constraint is used for relating or binding two tables with each other
and then verifies the existence of one table data in the other.

To impose a foreign key constraint we require the following things.

We require two tables for binding with each other and those two tables must have a
common column for linking the tables.

Example:

To create Department Table (PARENT TABLE):-

create table Department(Deptno int primary key,DNAME

varchar(50),LOCATION varchar(max))

Insert Records Into Department Table:

insert into Department values(10,'Sales','Chennai')

insert into Department values(20,'Production','Mumbai')
insert into Department values(30,'Finance','Delhi')
insert into Department values(40,'Research','Hyderabad')

To create Employee Table(CHILD TABLE):-

create table Employee(EID int,ENAME varchar(50),SALARY money,Deptno int

foreign key references Department(Deptno))

Insert Records Into Employee Table:

insert into Employee values(101,'Sai',35000,10)

insert into Employee values(102,'Pavan',45000,20)
insert into Employee values(103,'Kamal',74000,30)
insert into Employee values(104,'Ravi',58000,40)
The below records are not allowed in to employee table:

insert into Employee values(105,'Kamal',74000,50)

insert into Employee values(106,'Ravi',58000,60)

When we impose the foreign key constraint and establish relation between the
table,the followiong three rules will come into picture.

Rule1:- Cannot insert a value into the foreign key column provided that value is
not existing under the refernce key column of the parent table.

Rule2:- Cannot update the reference key value of a parent table provided that
value has corresponding child record in the child table with out addressing what
to do with the child record.

Rule3:- Cannot delete a record from the parent table provided that records
reference key value has child record in the child table with out addressing what to
do with the child record.

If we want to delete or update a record in the parent table when they have
corresponding child records in the child table we are provide with a set of rules to
perform delete and update operations knows as cascade rules.

On delete cascade:- It is used to delete a key value in the parent table which is
referenced by foreign key in other table all rows that contains those foreign keys in
child table are also deleted.
Making a Relationship between Three Tables
CASE-1:

Create table CUSTOMER (CID Int primary key, CNAME Varchar (20), MAILID
Varchar (40))

Insert customer values (1,'a','a@gmail.com'), (2,'b','b@gmail.com'), (3,'c','c@gmail.com')

CASE-2

Create table PRODUCTS (PCODE Int primary key, PNAME varchar (50), PRICE
money)

Insert products values (10,'C', 500), (20,'C++’, 1000), (30,'.NET’, 35000),

(40,’SQL’, 1800)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------

CASE-3

Create table ORDERS (ORID Int primary key, ORDATE date, QUANTITY int,CID
Int foreign key references CUSTOMER(cid) on delete cascade, PCODE Int
foreign key references PRODUCTS(pcode) on update cascade on delete
cascade)

Insert into ORDERS values (101,’2014/10/15’, 3, 2, 10) //ALLOWED

Insert into ORDERS values (102,’2014/10/25’, 3, 4, 50) //NOTALLOWED

----------------------------------------------------------

Update CUSTOMER set cid=100 where cid=1

Delete from CUSTOMER where cid=100 Update

PRODUCTS set orid=21 where orid=20 Delete

from PRODUCTS where orid=30

Adding Constraint on an Existing Table:
 Adding Primary Key on an existing table:
Ex: CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (EID INT, ENAME VARCHAR (50), SALARY MONEY)

 Adding Unique Key on an existing table:

Ex: ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE ADD CONSTRAINT X UNIQUE (ENAME)

 Adding Check Key on an existing table:

Ex: ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE ADD CONSTRAINT X CHECK (SALARY>8000)

 Adding Foreign Key on an existing table:

Ex: ALTER TABLE DEPT ADD CONSTRAINT Y FOREIGN KEY (EID) REFERENCES
EMPLOYEE (EID) ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE CASCADE

 Dropping Constraint from an existing table:

Ex: ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE DROP CONSTRAINT X

JOINS IN SQL: Joins are used for retrieving the data from more than one
table at a time. Joins can be classified into the following types.
 INNER JOIN OR EQUI JOIN
 OUTER JOIN
 LEFT OUTER JOIN
 RIGHT OUTER JOIN
 FULL OUTER JOIN
 SELF JOIN
 CROSS JOIN
EQUI JOIN: If two or more tables are combined using equality condition then
we call as an Equi join.

Ex: WAQ to get the matching records from EMP and DEPT tables

Sol: SELECT * FROM EMP, DEPT WHERE (EMP.EID=DEPT.DNO) (NON-

ANSI STANDARD)

Sol: SELECT E.EID, E.ENAME, E.SALARY, D.DNO, D.DNAME FROM EMP

E, DEPT D WHERE E.EID=D.DNO (NON-ANSI STANDARD)

INNER JOIN: Inner join return only those records that match in both table

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP E INNER JOIN DEPT D ON E.EID=D.DNO (ANSI)

OUTTER JOIN: It is an extension for the Equi join. In Equi join condition we
will be getting the matching data from the tables only. So we loss UN
matching data from the tables.

To overcome the above problem we use outer join which are used to getting
matching data as well as UN matching data from the tables. This outer join again
classified into three types

LEFT OUTER JOIN: It will retrieve or get matching data from both table as well
as UN matching data from left hand side table

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP LEFT OUTER JOIN DEPT ON

EMP.EID=DEPT.DNO;

RIGHT OUTER JOIN: It will retrieve or get matching data from both table as
well as UN matching data from right hand side table

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP RIGHT OUTER JOIN DEPT ON

EMP.EID=DEPT.DNO;

FULL OUTER JOIN: It will retrieve or get matching data from both table as well
as UN matching data from left hand side table plus right hand side table also.

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP FULL OUTER JOIN DEPT ON

EMP.EID=DEPT.DNO;

SELF JOIN: Joining a table by itself is known as self join. When we have some
relation between the columns within the same table then we use self join.

When we implement self join we should use alias names for a table and a table
contains any no. of alias names.
 Ex: SELECT E.EID, E.ENAME, E.SALARY, M.MID, M.ENAME
MANAGERSNAME, M.SALARY FROM EMP E, EMP M WHERE
E.EID=M.MID.

CROSS JOIN: Cross join is used to join more than two tables without any
condition we call as a cross join. In cross join each row of the first table join with
each row of the second table.

So, if the first table contain „m‟ rows and second table contain „n‟ rows then output
will be „m*n‟ rows.

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP, DEPT

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP CROSS JOIN DEPT

Making To Joins Three Tables:

CREATE TABLE STUDENTS (SID Int, SNAME varchar (20), SMBNO char (10), CID
Int)

INSERT STUDENT VALUES (1,'aa',’7894561233’, 10), (2,'bb',’9874563211’,

20), (3,'cc',’8749653215’, 30), (4,’dd’,’7788996655’, 40)

CREATE TABLE COURSES (CID int, CNAME Varchar (20), CFEE decimal (6, 2))

INSERT COURSES VALUES (10,'c', 500), (20,'c++', 1000), (50,'sql', 1800),

(60,’.net’, 3500), (70,’sap’, 8000)

CREATE TABLE REGISTER (SNO int, REGDATE date, CID Int)

INSERT REGISTER VALUES (100,’2014/10/20’, 10), (101,’2014/10/21’,

80), (102,’2014/10/22’, 90)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Select * from course c inner join student s on c.cid=s.cid inner join register r on
s.cid=r.cid

Select * from student s left outer join course c on s.cid=c.cid left outer join
register r on c.cid=r.cid

Sub Query: A select query contains another select query is called sub Query.
In this, there will be two queries those are called as inner query and outer query.
When it is executed, first inner query is executed later outer query will be executed

Syntax: select * from <Table Name> where (condition) (select *

from…….. (Select * from….. (select * from……..)));

Types of Sub Queries: We have two types of sub queries

Nested Sub queries: In a sub query, Outer query depends on result of
inner query is called as Nested sub query.

Examples:
1) WAQ to find the details of employee who is earning the highest salary.

Sol: select * from employee where Salary=(select MAX(salary) from

employee)//subquery
 2) WAQ to find the details of employee who is earning second highest salary.

Sol: select * from employee where Salary=(select MAX(salary)from employee

where Salary<(select MAX(salary) from employee)) //multiple sub query

3) WAQ to find the details of employee who is earning third highest salary.

Sol: select * from employee where Salary=(select MAX(salary)from employee

where Salary<(select MAX(salary) from employee where Salary <(select
MAX(salary) from employee))) //nested subquery

4) WAQ to display employee details who are working in .NET department.

Sol: select * from employee where EID IN (select EID FROM employee where
DNAME='.NET')

5) WAQ to display employee details who are working in JAVA or

HR department.

Sol: select * from employee where EID IN (select EID FROM employee where
DNAME='.NET' OR DNAME='HR')

Co-Related Sub queries: In a sub query, inner query depends on

result of outer query is called as Co-Related sub query.

Outer query will execute first and value of the outer query will be used
by co- related sub query i.e. inner query.

When outer query is executed then the copy of the table will be stored in
memory, later co related sub query will check the values and will give Ranks
to the outer query rows in the memory ,according to the ranks the result
will be displayed.

Note: - To find Top n salaries list use “n>”.To find nth highest salary use “n-1”.

Syntax: SELECT * FROM Employee Emp1 WHERE (N-1) = or N> (

SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT (Emp2.Salary)) FROM Employee Emp2WHERE Emp2.Salary >
Emp1.Salary)
 Disadvantage: Sub query execution will be fast and co related sub
query execution is slow because it will check every row of inner query with
every row of the outer query.

Examples:
6) WAQ to display top 2 salaries list from employee table.

Sol: Select * from employee E where 2>(select count(salary) from employee M

where M.salary>E.salary)
(Or)

Sol: Select * from employee E where 2>(select count(Distinct salary) from

employee M where M.salary>E.salary)

Note: - Here Distinct Key will be used when the table contain duplicate values.

7) WAQ to display least 2 salaries list from employee table.

Sol: Select * from employee E where 2>(select count(salary) from employee M

where M.salary<E.salary)
(Or)

Sol: Select * from employee E where 2>(select count(Distinct salary) from

employee M where M.salary<E.salary)

8) WAQ to display “N th” salary from employee table.

Sol: Select * from employee E where 0=(select count( salary) from employee
M where M.salary>E.salary)

Note: When condition is M.salary>E.salary / M.salary<E.salary

then N=0 then first highest salary / first least salary

N=1 then second highest salary/second least

salary N=2 then third highest salary / third

least salary
 9) WAQ to get the details of the department in which employee are working.

Select * from department D Exists (select * from employee E where

E.deptno=D.deptno)

10) WAQ to get the details of the department in which employee are
not working.

Select * from department D not Exists (select * from employee E where

E.deptno=D.deptno)
Syntax to Find Any Position Record From A table

SELECT * FROM(SELECT * ,ROW_NUMBER() OVER (ORDER BY

empid) AS RowNum FROM Employee) employee WHERE RowNum
=15
Syntax to Delete Duplicate Records from a table contains more than two same duplicate
values:

SID SNAME FEE Rownum

10 Sai 12000 1
20 Siddhu 45000 1
30 Meena 65000 1
30 Meena 65000 2
30 Meena 65000 3
30 Meena 65000 4
30 Meena 65000 5

with duplicates as
(select * ,ROW_NUMBER() over(partition by sid,sname, fee order by
sid,sname,fee) rownum from student)
delete from duplicates where rownum > 1

select the complete above query and execute then we delete all duplicate records
which are greater than 1 i.e.output is like below
SID SNAME FEE Rownum
10 Sai 12000 1
20 Siddhu 45000 1
30 Meena 65000 1

VIEWS IN SQL: View is database object which is like table but logical.
We can call it as a logical or virtual table because it does not has a physical
existence.

 It is a logical table use to get the required information from the table.
View will be created by using select statement and table used for the
creation of the view is called as base table.
 View will not store records in it and will not occupy memory space
with help of structure existing in it and records will be displayed from
table.
  View is logical representation or virtual representation .it is a dependent
where as table an independent is because view is extracted from the
table.
 If we want to access the data from the table it‟s not necessary to change the
data direct to the table but we can access by having a view.
 Views are used for security purpose in databases, views restricts the user
from viewing certain column and rows means by using view we can
apply the restriction on accessing the particular rows and columns for
specific user.
 Views display only those data which are mentioned in the query, so it
shows only data which is returned by the query that is defined at the time of
creation of the View.
Why We Need Views: To protect the data. If you have a table
containing sensitive data in certain columns, you might wish to hide those
columns from certain groups of users. For instance, customer names, addresses
and their social security numbers might all be stored in the same table;
however, for lower level employees like shipping clerks, you can create a view
that only displays customer name and address. You can grant permissions to a
view without allowing users to query the original tables.
 A view is a logical table but what it stores internally is a select statement
that is used for creating the view. So that whenever a user performs any
operation on the view like select, insert, update or delete internally the view
performs those operations on a table.
 Simply we can say that view will act as an interface between the
data provider (Table) and the User.

View is created based on a table any changes that are performed on the table
reflects into the view any changes performed on the view reflect into the table also.
View is classified into two types. These are

 Simple view(Updatable view)

 Complex view(Non-Updatable view)

Simple view: we create a view based on one table is called simple view or
Updatable view.

Complex view: we create a view based on more than one table is called complex
view or Non-Updatable view.
 Syntax: create view <view name> as select * from <table name>

Ex1: create view simpleview as select * from emp;

Ex2: CREATE VIEW COMPLEXVIEW AS SELECT E.EID,E.ENAME,D.DNO,D.DNAME

FROM EMP E INNER JOIN DEPT D ON E.DEPTNO=D.DEPTNO
As

Begin

<Function Body>

Return <return attribute name>

End

DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE:

Authentication: Authentication is a process of verifying the credentials of a

user to login into the system.

Authorization: Authorization is process of verifying whether the user as

permissions to perform any operation on the database.
Data Control Language:

DCL commands are used to enforce database security in multiple users’ database
environment.

These are two types….

1. GRANT
2. REVOKE

GRANT: Grant command is used for giving a privilege or permission for a user to perform
operations on the database.
Syntax: GRANT <Privilege Name> on <object name> To {User} [With GRANT OPTION]

Privilege Name: Used to granted permission to the users for some rights are ALL, EXECUTE
and SELECT.

Object Name: It is the name of database objects like Table, Views and Stored Procedure
etc….
User: Used for to whom an access rights is being granted.

With Grant Option: Allows a user to grant access rights to other users.
REVOKE: Revoke command removes user access rights / privileges to the
database OR taking back the permission that is given to a user.

Syntax: Revoke <privilege name> on <object name > from {user}