NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Man is by nature a political animal. Owing to his many needs, such as for food, shelter, warmth,
defense and the like, he has to live with others. While trying to satisfy these needs, men and women
have to work and cooperate, compete and may even come into conflict with each other. All this
creates problems of various kinds. One of the most important problems is to organize human
activities and relations to satisfy the basic needs and to promote co-operation and prevent conflicts
among people, to settle disputes as and when they arise, so that human life and society may be
better, happier and more productive. The problem is, indeed, very important. If it is not tackled
properly, human life and society will suffer many kinds of troubles, such as endless disputes,
anarchy, misery, poverty and even the end of all social life. But if it is solved properly, peace,
plenty and progress will be the result. Accordingly, every society needs to nave such institutions,
laws and men and women of authority or power as to regulate all activities, value relations, and
interests of all persons and groups living in it. Now such a society which is regulated by laws and
by men and women of authority or power is a politically organized society, i.e., a political system
or state. Political Science is a science or study of such a politically organized society, political
system or state. It is a study of political process, or of men and women in the process of governing
themselves. It is the application of scientific method to the study of political affairs and events.

NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Human life is a choice between alternatives, and it depends upon what kind of choice is made.
This is true for both of individuals as well as of the people or nation as a whole. For instance, when
an individual, as a young man, leaves his home, his past experience and guidance in his family,
his school, his religion and culture may be of help to him. But choice is his own, which will decide
whether his life will be good and happy or not. It will determine his future, his fate. The same is
true of a people or nation. They too are guided by their past history, their religion and culture. But
in all this their choice is between two alternatives which will determine one way or the other their
future development and progress. ”Wrong answers can lead to poverty, misery and even the
collapse of civilizations. Right answers can lead to freedom, plenty and peace.” Social choice, that
is, the choice of the people or nation,” is the essence of politics, and political science is the study
of organizations, or the fusing of individuals into social structures which make social choices. It is
the study of the process, or the methods, by which choices are made. Finally, it is the study of the
process, or choices themselves (often called theories, philosophies or ideologies) and their
consequences, whether they lead to golden ages or holocausts.” In short, politics is the source
material of Political Science. Every Political scientist observes politics closely and builds his
science on the basis of his observations and conclusions. It is this intellectual leap from practical
politics to theoretical politics which gives rise to Political Science.

DEFINITION OF POLITICAL DEFENCE

In a learned discourse, definition of a subject of study comes after it has been first properly
explained. But in a textbook it is customary to begin with the definition of the discipline, so that
its students may have some idea of what they are going to study. It is especially necessary for
beginners. This is the reason why we shall first define Political Science before we explain its
nature, scope, importance and other problems.

Political Science was defined in two different but interrelated ways, namely as a study of the
political institutions, the state or government, and as a study of the phenomenon of power or force
in human society. In the beginning, Political Science has been defined as a systematic study of the
political institution of the state or government. Dr. Stephen Leacock says simply that Political
Science deals with government. Professor G.W.Garner says: “Political science begins and ends
with the state.” A French author, Paul writes that Political Science-is that “Part of social sciences
which treats with the foundations of the state and the principles of government.” The Swiss writer
Bluntschli, defines Political Science as “The science which is concerned with the state which
endeavors to understand and comprehend the state in its fundamental condition, in its essential
nature, its various forms of manifestations, its development.” Later on, Professor G.E.G. Catlin
approached the study of political science from the standpoint of power. ”All politics”, he writes,
is by its nature power politics.” Accordingly, he defines Political Science as “the science of
organised power in all communitions”. Again he says, Politics is a study of all the plural of the
objective control relations of human beings and wills.” He adds further, “Social activities, such as
free play and art, not involving control, lie outside the primary ambit of politics.”

Since the end of the Second World War (1939-45), Political Science has been defined as an
empirical and functional science. It is a new approach to the study of this science. (We shall study
various approaches to this science later on) Harold D. Lasswell, an American political scientist,
declares that political science is primarily concerned with the question: “Who gets What, When,
How?” Accordingly he defines it “As an empirical discipline, as the study of the shaping and
sharing of power”. He adds further that it is a science of “A political act performed in power
perspective.” David Easton, another American political scientist, has approached political science
in strictly behavioral terms. He defines political science as “The study of those actions more or
less directly related to the making of authoritative allocations of resources and values.”

The two kinds of definitions of Political Science describes really two interrelated aspects of
politics, viz. power and state and government. Power is the central organizing factor in politics,
while government or state is its basic operational structure. In conclusion, we may define Political
Science as a systematic study of the stare or government, which is a power structure making
authoritative decisions and allocating resources and values for internal security, and development
and external defence.

DERIVATION OF THE TERM “POLITICS”:

The term “politics” is derived from the word “polls” of the ancient Greek language. The word
“polls” means a city-state. It was the form of the state which the ancient Greeks had in their
country. All the activities and affairs of the city-state were called by them as “politics”. The ancient
Greeks also undertook a close study of these affairs and activities of their city-state, which also
they called “politics”. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), one of the famous Greek philosophers; was the
first thinker to make a systematic study of the life and activities in the city-states of his country in
his well-known book, entitled “Politics’’. Thus he became the founder of the science of politics.
Although politics always remained an important subject-matter of study by countless thinkers,
writers and philosophers for centuries after the ancient Greeks, the term ”political science” came
into usage at the end of the nineteenth century, for reasons which we shall explain later on.

WHAT IS POLITICS?

Political Science .consists of two terms; politics and science. While leaving the term “science” for
later discussion, we shall explain what we mean by the term “politics”. Politics is used in a variety
of meanings. It may mean (i) an activity, an event, a process or a conflict or struggle among groups
of people; (ii) an occupation or public career; and (in) a systematic study and a theory or
philosophy of the political activities, struggles or conflicts, etc. It is with the first two meanings of
politics that we are concerned here, while the third meaning is the basis of Political Science,
Political Theory and Political Philosophy, which are all derived from and dependent upon the
activities and processes, called politics. Politics is a universal phenomenon in human life and
society. Every man, woman and child has a need, desire or a want, which makes him or her to do
something. When a need or want is shared by two or more persons, a relation is established and a
group comes into being. Now the need or want or idea of an individual or a group of individuals
may be opposed by some other individual or group. Thus a conflict arises and a struggle ensues
between the two opposing persons or groups, whom we shall call “actors”.

One of the actors may so exercise his or its influence or power as to compel the other actor to do
what he or it wants and to behave accordingly and not in the manner as the first actor wanted. This
is the basis and essence of politics. It is a situation, process or phenomenon in which influence or
power, coercion or domination is used to compel one or more individuals to do something
according to the decision or order of the other individual or group. In other words, politics means
a conflict, a dispute between the opinions or choices of two persons or parties. (It may be
mentioned that at this stage we are not concerned with such questions as the reason or purpose
of the use of influence, power or coercion, or whether such relations are for the good of the
controlled or controlling individuals or groups or not? Such questions will lead us to the theory,
philosophy or science of politics, which are discussed later on in this book.) This kind of “Politics
is found everywhere, in the family life, among groups of friends, in schools, colleges, universities
and hostels, in clubs and associations of all types, in bazars and shops, in offices, farms and
factories, in business organisations and corporations, and, of course, in political parties,
government and international life and relations between two or more governments and states.

Examples are countless. In family life, a father may tell his son to do what he wants and not what
the son wants. It is so because the father has influence over his son. Or take the case of two children
in a nursery school quarrelling over a toy. The teacher would settle this dispute by giving or
allocating the toy to one of the children. Similarly, in a college, a dispute between two students or
groups of students is decided by the principal in favour of one or the other student or students,
because he has authority to do so. In an office, two clerks may quarrel over a chair and their dispute
may be decided by another clerk who has influence over them. Workers in a factory demand higher
wages from their employer, who refuses to do so. They may accept his decision because he has
authority over them. But if they threaten to go on strike in support of their demands, the employer
may be constrained to accept them due to the influence of their strike threat. Or take another
example. Two persons may quarrel over a piece of land. They go to a court, where the judge
decides’ their dispute according to the law and they submit to his decision. Although these disputes
and struggles may be, popularly or journalistically, called as ”hostel .politics”, ”campus politics”,
”office politics” or the like, but really they are not political. Reason is that they are and can be
settled by an appeal to social customs, norms or laws. But they can become political if and when
one of the two actors in the dispute refuses to accept the authority of the social norms or laws.
Then the government, or more accurately, one or the other organ or department of the government
will be involved in it. Thus, for example, the dispute, between students in a college or university
campus can become political when one or more political parties or personalities become involved
in it. Similarly, a workers’ strike for higher wages, etc., is only an industrial dispute. But it becomes
political when one or more political parties or personalities, whether they are of the ruling party or
not, become involved in the workers and employers dispute. The reason why political parties or
personalities become involved in the non-political disputes of the people/is that by doing so they
either aim at controlling the government or at maintaining their control over it. Hence politics is a
struggle or confrontation between two or more parties or persons with a view to control the
government so that one of them may impose its or his decision or policy on the other by means of
governmental power and authority. Why is there politics at all? Can’t we have a society without
any kind of political conflict or confrontation? No, it is not possible in human life and society. The
causes of the political struggles and conflicts are as follows:

1. Material needs and wants of human beings are unlimited, but the means and resources to satisfy
them are limited. Hence there must be a power or authority to decide or allocate them
authoritatively to one or the other person or class of persons;
2. There are differences of opinion, beliefs and outlook among the people and one of them has to
prevail over the other, which again needs an authoritative decision-maker or government;
3. Similarly, there are differences of religion, language, culture, colour, class, caste, clan, ideology
or ways of life and some people want to impose one of them on others, who oppose them and
hence arises a conflict among them and the need for a government to settle it;
4. Some persons or people want to establish what they call an ideal society or state, while others
oppose either the very concept of the ideal society or state, or the method of establishing it;
5. In international life and relations, disputes may arise between two or more governments, states
or nations over territories or for purposes of domination and exploitation or for war or for relations
of peaceful co-operation, etc.

We may define politics as the means or the art of influencing, manipulating or controlling the
people by controlling the Government so as to advance the interests or purposes of a group or party
in the face of opposition by another group or party. In other words, politics is a struggle for
governmental power and authority between two actors so that one actor may authoritatively decide
or do something in spite of the opposition of the other. A political scientist says, ”No matter how
the question is obfuscated, wherever it tends to , involve a utilization of the machinery of
government then it becomes a “political issue”; those concerned with it are involved in a ”political
activity”, and the phenomenon becomes one of those which it is the function of the political
scientists to observe”. Professor W.A. Robson writes, ”The focus of interest of Political Science
is clear and unambiguous: it centers on the struggle to gain and retain power, to exercise power or
influence over others, or to resist that exercise.” In short, politics is a ”purposive organisational
behavior in a conflictfilled pursuit for a ”better” world”. And if not, it will become a backward or
underdeveloped one.
POLITICS AS AN “ARENA”
Harold D. Lasswell, the well-known American political scientist, has described politics as
an”arena”, where struggle is being waged for “who gets what, when and how”. The “arena” is
not a place but is a process of the struggle which begins before the arena itself, which he called
“pre-arena”. Moreover, the arena struggle produces a result or outcome, which Lasswell called
“post-arena”. The “post arena” itself is a struggle waged between new groups or classes of
people, who try again and again to get “what, when and how”. In other words, politics is not any
one particular struggle, particular time or between particular people at any particular place. Instead,
it is a continuous and; everlasting struggle, which has gone on among the people before and will
last so long as there are people to struggle for the good things of life or values. Furthermore, the
arena of struggle may be as small as a city or even a smaller locality, and as large as a country or
the whole world. It may be a local struggle, a national struggle or an international struggle. But
political struggles always vary in intensity. They may be as mild as an act to persuade or influence
a political rival. They may become much stronger acts to control or dominate a group or people.
But at times they may become fierce, even bloody, struggles for power to rule a country or to
conquer another. Indeed, it is with such struggles that books of history are filled and the great
dramas and epics of world literature are written. Whether peaceful or violent, these struggles are
the stuff of which politics is made in all countries, climes and times. Politics means a system for
establishing the ground-norms or ground rules, whereby conflicts in the society or country are
resolved and the government is chosen or held. Quincy Wright says: politics is “the art of
influencing, manipulating or controlling groups so as to advance the purposes of some against the
opposition of others.”

Two levels of politics: Micropolitical and Macropolitical:

A French political scientist, Maurice Duverger, in his book: The Idea of Politics suggests that the
study of politics should be undertaken at two levels: micropolitical and macropolitical.
At the micropolitical level, political study should deal with the relations of an individual with other
individuals in such political activities as elections, voting, party meetings, committee work, etc.
At the macropolitical level, it is a study of group relations where, as Maurice Duverger writes,
“direct contact does not exist or is replaced, by indirect contact between intermediaries, by
administrative relationships, or by artificial, theatrical contacts (e.g., the minister’s handshake, the
television appearance of the head of state).1 However, we should not draw a very hard and fast
line of demarcation between micro politics and macro politics. They always affect each other.
Indeed, what is micropolitical today may become macropolitical tomorrow and vice versa. History
of revolts and revolutions tell us that they often began as micropolitical activities of a small group
of rebels or revolutionaries. What is more, political psychology tells us that the personality of the
future rebel or revolutionary is often formed by the micropolitics of his parental family life.
Similarly, macropolitics is also deeply affected by the nature and quality of micropolitics. It is a
well-known principle of Political Science that the strength and stability of a state very much
depends upon the vitality of its local government bodies. Maurice Duverger says, “Research must
be pursued simultaneously on both levels, but the passage from one to the other, the change in
scale, raises an important problem.”

Scope or Contents of Political Science

The definition of Political Science indicates its contents or the extent of its scope. It is a science of
politics in all its varied aspects. The whole subject-matter of Political Science can be summarized
under the following heads:

Political Science as a study of the State.—

The term ’state’ is understood in three senses: the State as it is, the State as it has been, and the
State as it ought to be. When Political Science considers the State as it is, it tries to understand it
in its fundamental conditions, its essential nature, its various forms of manifestation and
development. It studies the fundamental nature of the state, its organisation, its administrative
machinery, its relations with the individuals who compose it, the principles and practices of the
modern state and its relations to other states. As, such Political Science deals with statecraft, the
art of statesmanship. The State as it has been. The state is a dynamic institution: it changes! and
progressed from one form to another. In other words, it has a history and an evolution. Political
Science surveys the historical development of the state and considers the changes and forms which
the state assumed in the past ages and in the present time. We cannot know the present without
knowing the past. This means we must study the origin’ and evolution of the state and of its various
institutions, e.g. of government and law, and the development of the mechanism
by which they function. Hence Political Science is a science of the past and present states’.
The State as it ought to be. Study of the past and present of the state does not exhaust the scope of
Political Science. We must also see how Car the existing structure of the state responds to the
needs of the people and to their .well-being. Knowledge of the past and present of the state enables
us to reform .our political institutions according to our ideals and aspirations. It enables us to mould
our ideals and to understand the principles on which the state ought to be organised. It gives us the
idea of what the state ought to be and inspires us to achieve it. This makes Political Science a
speculative stiitty, dealing with the theories of the state and government, expounded by political
thinkers and philosophers. In this respect, it becomes a study of ethical and moral imperatives and
fundamental principles which should determine the form of the state.

Political Science as a study of government.

Political Science is also a study of the government and all its stands for. Government is the working
agency of the state, its most vital part and its most important aspect. Just as a man cannot exist
without a head, a state cannot exist without a government. It makes laws and enforces them; it
administers the country, maintains peace and order in the state and defends it against its internal
and external enemies. We, therefore, study in Political Science the forms or kinds of government,
its Various organs, and departments and such other allied institutions as the local government,
public services, or bureaucracy, etc. It considers the questions of what the organs of the
government are, what their functions are, how they are constituted and, more importantly, what
are the social and psychological factors and forces which determine how they use their powers,
take decisions and adopt policy. What Political Science aims at is to discover what political life is,
who its actors are, and what its laws are.
Political Science as a study of power process.
To consider Political Science as a study of state and government is an institutional approach to the
study of Political Science. It is, however, a partial view of it. Politics is a dynamic process, a power
process. It is a relation in which one “actor” influences the behavior of another. ”Political Process”
means the activities of the people organized in various groups, such as parties, factions, or leaders
of parties, factions or cliques or groups, who struggle for and use power to achieve personal and
group purposes by attaining position of authority in the government, whether it is unitary, federal,
provincial or local. It involves conflict which may include not only violence, propaganda, pressure,
guiles and frauds and character assassination, but also slow building of consensus, and public
opinion. By power is meant the capacity to influence events and thereby to control the behavior of
others. The greater the influence, the greater the power and, therefore, greater the actor. Without
power no leader, or ruler can realise his own interests or the interests of a small minority or of his
country. But the real test of power is the purpose .for which it is used, or the interests it seeks to
satisfy. Political process operates in a system, in which power achievement is an input and the
satisfaction of interests, personal, of the group or nation, is the output. It makes political science a
study of political system, which we shall study later on.

Political Science as a study of political theory:

Political theory is not political philosophy, which is a distinct discipline. Political theory is the
explanation of the nature and function of the state or political system, derived from data or
descriptive analysis, with a view to understand it. It implies prediction of what it will be in future.
Theory is, therefore, strictly an empirical thought. Of course, political theory has varied from age
to age and from time to time. In the past ages, it was influenced by religion, dogma and ideology.
In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it was influenced by the institutional or static
approach towards political life. Accordingly, it dealt with such concepts as state, government,
justice, liberty.

Political Science as a study of Political Behaviour:

In the present times, i.e. since World War II, Political Science is influenced by such dynamic
concepts as political process, systems analysis, etc., which have now become part of Political
Science. It has become a behavioral science also.

Political Science as a study of individual liberty and rights:

A mere study of the state, government and law, though very important parts of the political study,
is not enough. Political Science also studies individual liberty. It considers the problems of
adjusting political authority to individual liberty, the relations among men, and their relations to
the state. It also deals with the rights and duties of the citizens towards one another and towards
the state.

Political Science and international Relations:

Political Science also studies the conflicts, and relations between various states and nations in the
world. Relations between two or more states can be peaceful or full of conflict and hostility, As
there is no supreme authority in the world, conflicts between two or more states or nations
sometimes result in war, which is a method of deciding a disputes or conflicts between them by a
resort to weapons of war and victory on the battlefield. The victorious then has his way and
allocates or captures the disputed territory or country and controls it as it likes. Besides war,
disputes between the states can also be settled by more peaceful methods of negotiation and treaty
relations, or by forming alliances in order to oppose rival group of nations and states.