Java Notes

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1. Introduction to Java
1. Why you must learn Java
2. What is a Programming Language
3. What is an Algorithm
4. What is Syntax
5. History of Java
6. Magic of Byte Code
7. How Java Changed the Internet
8. Java Buzzwords
9. Object Oriented Programming
1.1 Why you must learn Java
1. One of the most popular language. Java

currently runs on 60,00,00,00,000
devices.
2. Wide Usage (Web-apps, backend,
Mobile apps, enterprise software).
3. High paying and a lot of Jobs
4. Object Oriented
5. Rich APIs and Community Support
1.2 What is a Programming Language
Humans use natural language (like Hindi/English) to communicate

Computers only understand 0/1 or on/off

• Giving instructions to a
computer
• Instructions: Tells
computer what to do.
• These instructions are
called code.
• Human instructions are
given in High level
languages.
Compiler converts high level languages to low level languages or
machine code.
1.3 What is an Algorithm
1.3 What is an Algorithm
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or

performing a task.
1.4 What is Syntax
• Structure of words in a
sentence.
• Rules of the language.
• For programming exact
syntax must be followed.
1.5 History of Java
Developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems (Early 1990s):

Originally named 'Oak', later renamed Java in 1995.
1.5 History of Java
First Release (1995): Introduced

"Write Once, Run Anywhere"
concept with cross-platform
compatibility.
1.5 History of Java
Developed with vision of backward compatibility. Should not

break with new version release.
1.5 History of Java
Rapid Growth and
Diversification (Late 1990s
- 2010s): Expanded from
web applets to server-side
applications; standardized
into different editions for
various computing
platforms.
1.5 History of Java
1.6 Magic of Byte Code
1.7 How Java Changed the Internet
Portability with Write Once Security because of Code

Run Anywhere running on Virtual Machine
1.8 Java Buzzwords
Robust
Java is robust due to its strong
memory management,
exception handling, and type-
checking mechanisms, which
help in preventing system
crashes and ensuring reliable
performance.
1.8 Java Buzzwords
Multithreaded
Multithreading in programming
is the ability of a CPU to execute
multiple threads concurrently,
allowing for more efficient
processing and task
management.
1.8 Java Buzzwords
Architecture Neutral
Java is architecturally neutral
because its compiled code
(bytecode) can run on any
device with a Java Virtual
Machine (JVM), regardless of
the underlying hardware
architecture.
1.8 Java Buzzwords
Interpreted and High
Performance
Java combines high
performance with
interpretability, as its bytecode
is interpreted by the Java Virtual
Machine (JVM), which employs
Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation
for efficient and fast execution.
1.8 Java Buzzwords
Distributed
Java is inherently distributed,
designed to facilitate network-
based application development
and interaction, seamlessly
integrating with Internet
protocols and remote method
invocation.
1.9 Object Oriented Programming
1.9 Object Oriented Programming
Revision
1. Why you must learn Java
2. What is a Programming Language
3. What is an Algorithm
4. What is Syntax
5. History of Java
6. Magic of Byte Code
7. How Java Changed the Internet
8. Java Buzzwords
9. Object Oriented Programming
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2. Java Basics
1. Installing JDK
2. First Class using Text Editor
3. Compiling and Running
4. Anatomy of a Class
5. File Extensions
6. JDK vs JVM vs JRE
7. Showing Output
8. Importance of the main method
9. Installing IDE(Intellij Idea)
10.Creating first Project
2.1 Installing JDK
Search JDK Download
Make sure to download from the

oracle website.
Download the latest version

2.2 First Class using Text Editor
2.3 Compiling and Running
2.4 Anatomy of a Class
2.5 File Extensions
.Java
• Contains Java Source Code
• High Level Human Readable
• Used for Development
• File is editable
.Class
• Contains Java Bytecode
• For consumption of JVM
• Used for Execution
• Not meant to be edited
2.6 JDK vs JVM vs JRE
.JDK
• It's a software development kit required to develop Java applications.
• Includes the JRE, an interpreter/loader (Java), a compiler (javac), a doc generator
(Javadoc), and other tools needed for Java development.
• Essentially, JDK is a superset of JRE.
.JRE
• It's a part of the JDK but can be downloaded separately.
• Provides the libraries, the JVM, and other components to run applications
• Does not have tools and utilities for developers like compilers or debuggers.
.JVM
• It's a part of JRE and responsible for executing the bytecode.
• Ensures Java’s write-once-run-anywhere capability.
• Not platform-independent: a different JVM is needed for each type of OS.
2.7 Showing Output
2.8 Importance of the main method
• Entry Point: It's the entry point of a Java program, where the execution starts.
Without the main method, the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) does not know where to
begin running the code.
• Public and Static: The main method must be public and static, ensuring it's accessible
to the JVM without needing to instantiate the class.
• Fixed Signature: The main method has a fixed signature: public static void
main(String[] args). Deviating from this signature means the JVM won't recognize it
as the starting point.
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2.9 What is IDE
1. IDE stands for Integrated
Development Environment.
2. Software suite that consolidates basic
tools required for software
development.
3. Central hub for coding, finding
problems, and testing.
4. Designed to improve developer
efficiency.
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2.9 Need of IDE
1. Streamlines development.
2. Increases productivity.
3. Simplifies complex tasks.
4. Offers a unified workspace.
5. IDE Features
1. Code Autocomplete
2. Syntax Highlighting
3. Version Control
4. Error Checking
2.9 Installing IDE(Intellij Idea)
Search Intellij IDEA
Make sure to download the

community Version.
Keep Your Software up to

date.
2.10 Creating first Project
2.10 First Java Class
2.10 Project Structure
Revision
1. Installing JDK
2. First Class using Text Editor
3. Compiling and Running
4. Anatomy of a Class
5. File Extensions
6. JDK vs JVM vs JRE
7. Showing Output
8. Importance of the main method
9. Installing IDE(Intellij Idea)
10.Creating first Project
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Tasks:
1.Create a class to output “good morning” using a text
editor and check output.
2.Create a new Project in Intelij Idea and output
“subscribe” on the console.
3.Show the following patterns:
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Practice Exercise
Java Basics
Answer in True/False:
1.Computers understand high level languages like Java, C.
2.An Algorithm is a set of instructions to accomplish a task.
3.Computer is smart enough to ignore incorrect syntax.
4.Java was first released in 1992.
5.Java was named over a person who made good coffee.
6.ByteCode is platform independent.
7.JDK is a part of JRE.
8.It’s optional to declare main method as public.
9..class file contains machine code.
10.println adds a new line at the end of the line.
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Practice Exercise
Java Basics
1.Computers understand high level languages like Java, C. False
2.An Algorithm is a set of instructions to accomplish a task. True
3.Computer is smart enough to ignore incorrect syntax. False
4.Java was first released in 1992. False
5.Java was named over a person who made good coffee. False
6.ByteCode is platform independent. True
7.JDK is a part of JRE. False
8.It’s optional to declare main method as public. False
9..class file contains machine code. False
10.println adds a new line at the end of the line. True
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3 Data Types, Variables & Input
1. Variables
2. Data Types
3. Naming Conventions
4. Literals
5. Keywords
6. Escape Sequences
7. User Input
8. Type Conversion and Casting
3.1. What are Variables?
Variables are like containers used

for storing data values.
3.1. Memory Allocation
3.1. Variable Declaration
3.2 Data Types
3.2 Data Types
3.3. Naming Conventions
camelCase
• Start with a lowercase letter. Capitalize the first letter of each
subsequent word.
• Example: myVariableName
snake_case
• Start with an lowercase letter. Separate words with underscore
• Example: my_variable_name
Kebab-case
• All lowercase letters. Separate words with hyphens. Example:
my-variable-name
Keep a Good and Short Name

• Choose names that are descriptive but not too long. It should
make it easy to understand the variable's purpose.
• Example: age, firstName, isMarried
3.3. Java Identifier Rules
1. The only allowed characters for identifiers
are all alphanumeric characters([A-Z],[a-z],[0-
9]), ‘$‘ (dollar sign) and ‘_‘ (underscore).
2. Can’t use keywords or reserved words
3. Identifiers should not start with digits([0-9]).
4. Java identifiers are case-sensitive.
5. There is no limit on the length of the
identifier but it is advisable to use an
optimum length of 4 – 15 letters only.
3.4 Literals
3.5 Keywords
3.6 Escape Sequences
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Task:
4. Show the following patterns using single print
statement:
3.7 User Input
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5.Create a program to input name of the person and

respond with ”Welcome NAME to KG Coding”
6.Create a program to add two numbers.
3.8 Type Conversion and Casting
3.8 Type Conversion and Casting
Revision
1. Variables
2. Data Types
3. Naming Conventions
4. Literals
5. Keywords
6. Escape Sequences
7. User Input
8. Type Conversion and Casting
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Practice Exercise
Data Types, Variables & Input
1.In Java, a variable's name can start with a number.
2.char in Java can store a single character.
3.Class names in Java typically start with a lowercase letter.
4.100L is a valid long literal in Java.
5.\d is an escape sequence in Java for a digit character.
6.Scanner class is used for reading console input.
7.In Java, an int can be automatically converted to a byte.
8.Java variable names are case-sensitive.
9.Scanner class can be used to read both primitive data types and
strings.
10.Explicit casting is required to convert a double to an int.
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Practice Exercise
Data Types, Variables & Input
1.In Java, a variable's name can start with a number. False
2.char in Java can store a single character. True
3.Class names in Java typically start with a lowercase letter. False
4.100L is a valid long literal in Java. True
5.\d is an escape sequence in Java for a digit character. False
6.Scanner class is used for reading console input. True
7.In Java, an int can be automatically converted to a byte. False
8.Java variable names are case-sensitive. True
9.Scanner class can be used to read both primitive data types True
and strings.
10.Explicit casting is required to convert a double to an int. True
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4. Operators, If-else & Number System
1. Assignment Operator
2. Arithmetic Operators
3. Order of Operation
4. Shorthand Operators
5. Unary Operators
6. If-else
7. Relational Operators
8. Logical Operators
9. Operator Precedence
10.Intro to Number System
11.Intro to Bitwise Operators
4.1 Assignment Operator
Assigns the right-hand operand's value to the left-hand operand.

Example: int a = 5;.
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7. Create a program to swap two numbers.

4.2 Arithmetic Operators
4.3 Order of Operation
4.4 Shorthand Operators
4.5 Unary Operators
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8. Create a program that takes two numbers and shows result of all
arithmetic operators (+,-,*,/,%).
9. Create a program to calculate product of two floating points numbers.
10.Create a program to calculate Perimeter of a rectangle.
Perimeter of rectangle ABCD = A+B+C+D
11.Create a program to calculate the Area of a Triangle.
Area of triangle = ½*B*H
12.Create a program to calculate simple interest.
Simple Interest = (P x T x R)/100
13.Create a program to calculate Compound interest.
Compound Interest = P(1 + R/100)t
14.Create a program to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius
°C = (°F - 32) × 5/9
4.6 if-else
1. Syntax: Uses if () {} to check a condition.
2. What is if: Executes block if condition is true, skips if false.
3. What is else: Executes a block when the if condition is false.
4. Curly Braces can be omitted for single statements, but not
recommended.
5. If-else Ladder: Multiple if and else if blocks; only one executes.
6. Use Variables: Can store conditions in variables for use in if
statements.
4.7 Relational Operators
Equality
• == Checks value equality.
Inequality
• != Checks value inequality.
Relational
• > Greater than.
• < Less than.
• >= Greater than or equal to.
• <= Less than or equal to.
Order of Relational operators is less than arithmetic operators
4.8 Logical Operators
1. Types: && (AND), || (OR), ! (NOT)

2. AND (&&): All conditions must be true for the result to be true.
3. OR (||): Only one condition must be true for the result to be true.
4. NOT (!): Inverts the Boolean value of a condition.
5. Lower Priority than Math and Comparison operators
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15.Create a program that determines if a number is positive, negative,

or zero.
16.Create a program that determines if a number is odd or even.
17. Create a program that determines the greatest of the three
numbers.
18.Create a program that determines if a given year is a leap year
(considering conditions like divisible by 4 but not 100, unless also
divisible by 400).
19.Create a program that calculates grades based on marks
A -> above 90% B -> above 75%
C -> above 60% D -> above 30%
F -> below 30%
20.Create a program that categorize a person into different age groups
Child -> below 13 Teen -> below 20
Adult -> below 60 Senior-> above 60
4.9 Operator Precedence
Operator Precedence: Determines the
evaluation order of operators in an expression
based on their priority levels.
Associativity: Defines the order of operation

for operators with the same precedence,
usually left-to-right or right-to-left.
4.10 Intro to Number System
Number System Base or Radix Digits or symbols

Binary 2 0,1
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
Number System Base or Radix Digits or symbols

Unary 1 0/1
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Decimal Number System
• Decimal Number System is a base-10 system that has ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
• The decimal number system is said to be of base, or radix, 10 because it uses 10 digits and the
coefficients are multiplied by powers of 10.
• This is the base that we often use in our day to day life.
• Example: (7,392)10 , where 7,392 is a shorthand notation for what should be written as
7 * 103 + 3 * 102 + 9 * 101 + 2 * 100

Binary Number System
• The coefficients of the binary number system have only two possible values: 0 and 1.
• Each coefficient aj is multiplied by a power of the radix, e.g., 2j, and the results are added to
obtain the decimal equivalent of the number.
Example: (11010.11)2 value in Decimal?
1 * 24 + 1 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 0 * 20 + 1 * 2-1 + 1 * 2-2 = 26.75

4.11 Intro to Bitwise Operators
1.AND Operator (&): Performs on two integers. Each bit of the output is 1 if the
corresponding bits of both operands are 1, otherwise 0.
2.OR Operator (|): Performs on two integers. Each bit of the output is 0 if the
corresponding bits of both operands are 0, otherwise 1.
3.XOR Operator (^): Performs on two integers. Each bit of the output is 1 if the
corresponding bits of the operands are different.
4.NOT Operator (~): Performs a bitwise complement. It inverts the bits of its
operand (0 becomes 1, and 1 becomes 0).
5.Left Shift Operator (<<): Shifts the left operand’s bits to the left by the number
of positions specified by the right operand, filling the new rightmost bits with
zeros.
6.Right Shift Operator (>>): Shifts the left operand’s bits to the right. If the left
operand is positive, zeros are filled into the new leftmost bits; if negative, ones
are filled in.
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21. Create a program that shows bitwise AND of two numbers.

22. Create a program that shows bitwise OR of two numbers.
23. Create a program that shows bitwise XOR of two numbers.
24. Create a program that shows bitwise compliment of a number.
25. Create a program that shows use of left shift operator.
26. Create a program that shows use of right shift operator.
27. Write a program to check if a given number is even or odd using
bitwise operators.
Revision
1. Assignment Operator
2. Arithmetic Operators
3. Order of Operation
4. Shorthand Operators
5. Unary Operators
6. If-else
7. Relational Operators
8. Logical Operators
9. Operator Precedence
10.Intro to Number System
11.Intro to Bitwise Operators
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Practice Exercise
Operators, If-else & Number System
1.In Java, && and || operators perform short-circuit evaluation.
2.In an if-else statement, the else block executes only when the if
condition is false.
3.Java allows an if statement without the else part.
4.The ^ operator in Java is used for exponentiation.
5.Unary minus operator can be used to negate the value of a
variable in Java.
6.a += b is equivalent to a = a + b in Java.
7.In Java, the binary number system uses base 10.
8.The number 1010 in binary is equivalent to 10 in decimal.
9.& and | are logical operators in Java.
10.In Java, a >> 2 shifts the binary bits of a to the left by 2 positions.
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Practice Exercise
Operators, If-else & Number System
1.In Java, && and || operators perform short-circuit evaluation. True
2.In an if-else statement, the else block executes only when the if True
condition is false.
3.Java allows an if statement without the else part. True
4.The ^ operator in Java is used for exponentiation. False
5.Unary minus operator can be used to negate the value of a True
variable in Java.
6.a += b is equivalent to a = a + b in Java. True
7.In Java, the binary number system uses base 10. False
8.The number 1010 in binary is equivalent to 10 in decimal. True
9.& and | are logical operators in Java. False
10.In Java, a >> 2 shifts the binary bits of a to the left by 2 positions.False
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5 While Loop, Methods & Arrays
1. Comments
2. While Loop
3. Methods
4. Return statement
5. Arguments
6. Arrays
7. 2D Arrays
5.1 Java Comments
1. Used to add notes in Java code
2. Not displayed on the web page
3. Helpful for code organization
4. Syntax:
1. Single Line: //
2. Multi Line: /* */
3. Java Docs: /** */
5.2 What is a Loop?
1. Code that runs multiple times based on a
condition.
2. Repeated execution of code.
3. Loops automate repetitive tasks.
4. Types of Loops: while, for, while, do-while.
5. Iterations: Number of times the loop runs.
5.2 While Loop
1. Iterations: Number of times the loop runs.

2. Used for non-standard conditions.
3. Repeating a block of code while a condition is true.
4. Remember: Always include an update to avoid infinite loops.
5.3 What are Functions / Methods?
1. Definition: Blocks of reusable code.

2. DRY Principle: "Don't Repeat Yourself" it Encourages code
reusability.
3. Usage: Organizes code and performs specific tasks.
4. Naming Rules: Same as variable names: camelCase
5. Example: ”Beta Gas band kar de"
5.3 Method Syntax
1. Follows same rules as variable names.

2. Use () to contain parameters.
3. Invoke by using the function name followed by ().
4. Fundamental for code organization and reusability.
5.4 Return statement
1. Sends a value back from a function.

2. Example: "Ek glass paani laao"
3. What Can Be Returned: Value, variable, calculation, etc.
4. Return ends the function immediately.
5. Function calls make code jump around.
6. Prefer returning values over using global variables.
5.5 Arguments vs Parameters
Parameter Function Return
1. Input values that a function takes.

2. Parameters put value into function, while return gets value out.
3. Example: "Ek packet dahi laao”
4. Naming Convention: Same as variable names.
5. Parameter vs Argument
6. Examples: System.out.print, Scanner.nextInt(), are functions we have already used
7. Multiple Parameters: Functions can take more than one.
8. Default Value: Can set a default value for a parameter.
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28. Develop a program that prints the multiplication table for a given number.
29. Create a program to sum all odd numbers from 1 to a specified number N.
30. Write a function that calculates the factorial of a given number.
31. Create a program that computes the sum of the digits of an integer.
32. Create a program to find the Least Common Multiple (LCM) of two
numbers.
33. Create a program to find the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of two
integers.
34. Create a program to check whether a given number is prime.
35. Create a program to reverse the digits of a number.
36. Create a program to print the Fibonacci series up to a certain number.
37. Create a program to check if a number is an Armstrong number.
38. Create a program to verify if a number is a palindrome.
39. Create a program that print patterns:
5.6 What is an Array?
1. An Array is just a list of values.

2. Index: Starts with 0.
3. Arrays are used for storing multiple values in a single
variable.
5.6 Array Memory
5.6 Array Syntax
1. Use {} to create a new array, {} brackets enclose list of values

2. Arrays can be saved to a variable.
3. Accessing Values: Use [] with index.
4. Syntax Rules:
• Brackets start and end the array.
• Values separated by commas.
• Can span multiple lines.
5.6 Array Length
5.7 2D Arrays
5.7 2D Arrays
5.7 2D Arrays
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40. Create a program to find the sum and average of all elements in an
array.
41. Create a program to find number of occurrences of an element in an
array.
42. Create a program to find the maximum and minimum element in an
array.
43. Create a program to check if the given array is sorted.
44. Create a program to return a new array deleting a specific element.
45. Create a program to reverse an array.
46. Create a program to check is the array is palindrome or not.
47. Create a program to merge two sorted arrays.
48. Create a program to search an element in a 2-D array.
49. Create a program to do sum and average of all elements in a 2-D array.
50. Create a program to find the sum of two diagonal elements.
Revision
1. Comments
2. While Loop
3. Methods
4. Return statement
5. Arguments
6. Arrays
7. 2D Arrays
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Practice Exercise
While Loop, Methods & Arrays
1. A 'while' loop in Java continues to execute as long as its condition is
true.
2. The body of a 'while' loop will execute at least once, regardless of
the condition.
3. A 'while' loop cannot be used for iterating over an array.
4. Infinite loops are not possible with 'while' loops in Java.
5. A method in Java can return more than one value at a time.
6. It's mandatory for every Java method to have a return type.
7. The size of an array in Java can be modified after it is created.
8. Arrays in Java can contain elements of different data types.
9. An array is a reference type in Java.
10.Java arrays are zero-indexed, meaning the first element has an index
of 0.
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Practice Exercise
While Loop, Methods & Arrays
1. A 'while' loop in Java continues to execute as long as its condition is True
true.
2. The body of a 'while' loop will execute at least once, regardless of False
the condition.
3. A 'while' loop cannot be used for iterating over an array. False
4. Infinite loops are not possible with 'while' loops in Java. False
5. A method in Java can return more than one value at a time. False
6. It's mandatory for every Java method to have a return type. True
7. The size of an array in Java can be modified after it is created. False
8. Arrays in Java can contain elements of different data types. False
9. An array is a reference type in Java. True
10.Java arrays are zero-indexed, meaning the first element has an index True
of 0.
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6 Classes & Objects
1. Process vs Object Oriented
2. Instance Variables and Methods
3. Declaring and Using Objects
4. Class vs Object
5. This & Static Keyword
6. Constructors & Code Blocks
7. Stack vs Heap Memory
8. Primitive vs Reference Types
9. Variable Scopes
10.Garbage Collection & Finalize
6.1 Process vs Object Oriented
6.1 Process vs Object Oriented
6.2 Instance Variables and Methods
6.3 Declaring Objects
1. Object Creation: new instantiates a new object of a class.

2. Memory Allocation: Allocates memory for the object in the heap.
3. Constructor Invocation: Calls the class constructor to initialize the object.
4. Reference Return: Returns a reference to the created object.
5. Array Creation: Also used for creating arrays, like int[] arr = new int[5];.
6. Dynamic Allocation: Unlike static allocation, new allows for dynamic
memory allocation, allocating memory at runtime.
6.3 Declaring Objects Syntax
6.3 Declaring Objects Syntax
6.3 Using Objects
Access properties using . Operator like product.price

6.4 Class vs Object
Class is a blueprint; Objects are real values in memory.

6.4 Class vs Object
Class is a blueprint; Objects are real values in memory.

6.4 Class vs Object
6.5 This Keyword
1. Current Instance: Refers to the
current class instance variable.
2. Constructor Call: Can be used to
invoke a constructor of the same class
(this()).
3. Method Call: Invokes a method of the
current object.
4. Pass as Argument: Can be passed as
an argument in the method call.
5. Return the Current Class Instance: Can
return the current class instance from
the method.
6.5 Static Keyword
1. Static Variables: Belong to the class, not individual instances.

Shared among all instances of the class.
2. Static Methods: Can be called without creating an object of the
class. Can only directly access static variables and other static
methods.
3. No Access to Non-static Members: Static methods and blocks
cannot directly access non-static members (variables and
methods) of the class.
6.6 Constructors
1. Purpose: Constructors initialize new
objects and set initial states for the
object's attributes.
2. Naming: A constructor must have the
same name as the class in which it is
declared.
3. No Return Type: Constructors do not
have a return type, not even void.
4. Automatic Calls: A constructor is
automatically called when an instance
of a class is created.
6.6 Constructors (Types)
1. Default Constructor: If no constructor is

explicitly defined, Java provides a
default constructor that initializes all
member variables to default values.
2. Parameterized Constructors:
Constructors can have parameters to
pass values when creating an object,
allowing for different initializations.
6.6 Constructors (Chaining)
1. Within Same Class: Using this() to

call another constructor in the
same class.
2. First Statement: this() must be the
first statement in a constructor.
3. No Loop: Constructor chaining
can’t form a loop; it must have a
termination point.
6.6 Code Blocks
1. Scope: Code blocks {} determine the scope of variables.

2. Local Variables: Variables inside a block are not accessible
outside it.
3. Initialization Block: Blocks without static run each time an
instance is created.
4. Static Block: Blocks with static run once when the class is
loaded.
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51. Create a Book class for a library system.

• Instance variables: title, author, isbn.
• Static variable: totalBooks, a counter for the total number of book
instances.
• Instance methods: borrowBook(), returnBook().
• Static method: getTotalBooks(), to get the total number of books in the
library.
52. Design a Course class.
• Instance variables: courseName, enrolledStudents.
• Static variable: maxCapacity, the maximum number of students for any
course.
• Instance methods: enrollStudent(String studentName),
unenrollStudent(String studentName).
• Static method: setMaxCapacity(int capacity), to set the maximum
capacity for courses.
6.7 Stack vs Heap Memory
6.8 Primitive vs Reference Types
6.8 Primitive vs Reference Types
1. Memory: Primitives store actual values; reference types store addresses

to objects.
2. Default Values: Primitives have specific defaults like 0 or false; reference
types default to null.
3. Speed: Access to primitives is generally faster.
4. Storage Location: Primitives are stored in the stack; reference types are
stored in the heap.
5. Comparison: Primitives compared by value; reference types compared
by reference.
6.9 Variable Scopes
6.9 Variable Scopes
6.10 Garbage Collection & Finalize
1. Automatic Process: Garbage collection is managed by the
Java Virtual Machine (JVM), running in the background.
2. Object Eligibility: Objects that are no longer reachable,
meaning no active references to them, are eligible for
garbage collection.
3. No Manual Control: Unlike languages like C++, Java
developers cannot explicitly deallocate memory. Garbage
collection is automatic and non-deterministic.
4. Generational Collection: Java uses a generational garbage
collection strategy, which divides memory into different
regions (young, old, and permanent generations) based on
object ages.
5. Heap Memory: Garbage collection occurs in the heap
memory, where all Java objects reside.
6. Performance Impact: Garbage collection can affect
application performance, particularly if it runs frequently or
takes a long time to complete.
1. Finalization: Before an object is garbage collected, the finalize() method may be

called, giving the object a chance to clean up resources. However, it's not guaranteed
to run, and its usage is generally discouraged.
2. Optimization: Developers can optimize the process indirectly through code practices,
like setting unnecessary object references to null.
3. System.gc() Call: While System.gc() suggests that the JVM performs garbage
collection, it's not a guarantee.
Revision
1. Process vs Object Oriented
2. Instance Variables and Methods
3. Declaring and Using Objects
4. Class vs Object
5. This & Static Keyword
6. Constructors & Code Blocks
7. Stack vs Heap Memory
8. Primitive vs Reference Types
9. Variable Scopes
10.Garbage Collection & Finalize
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Practice Exercise
Classes, Objects
1. Object-oriented programming is mainly concerned with data rather
than logic.
2. Instance methods in Java can be called without creating an object of
the class.
3. A class in Java is a template that can be used to create objects.
4. Static methods belong to the class and can be called without an
object.
5. The new keyword is used to declare an array in Java.
6. Variables declared within a method are called instance variables.
7. In Java, you can access instance variables through static methods
directly.
8. Every object in Java has its own unique set of instance variables.
9. The static keyword in Java means that a particular member belongs
to a type itself, rather than to instances of that type.
10.Variable scope in Java is determined at runtime.
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Practice Exercise
Classes, Objects
1. Object-oriented programming is mainly concerned with data rather True
than logic.
2. Instance methods in Java can be called without creating an object of False
the class.
3. A class in Java is a template that can be used to create objects. True
4. Static methods belong to the class and can be called without an True
object.
5. The new keyword is used to declare an array in Java. True
6. Variables declared within a method are called instance variables. False
7. In Java, you can access instance variables through static methods False
directly.
8. Every object in Java has its own unique set of instance variables. True
9. The static keyword in Java means that a particular member belongs True
to a type itself, rather than to instances of that type.
10.Variable scope in Java is determined at runtime. False
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7. Control Statements, Math & String
1. Ternary operator
2. Switch
3. Loops (Do-while, For, For each)
4. Using break & continue
5. Recursion
6. Random Numbers & Math class
7. Don’t Learn Syntax
8. toString Method
9. String class
10. StringBuffer vs StringBuilder
11. Final keyword
7.1 Ternary operator
1. Syntax: condition ? expression1 : expression2

2. Condition: Boolean expression, evaluates to true or false.
3. Expressions: Both expressions must return compatible types.
4. Use Case: Suitable for simple conditional assignments.
5. Readability: Good for simple conditions, but can reduce clarity if
overused.
7.2 Switch
1. Multiple Cases: Handles multiple values for an
expression efficiently.
2. Supported Types: Accepts byte, short, char, int, String,
enums, and from Java 14, long, float, double.
3. Case Labels: Each case ends with a colon (:) and is
followed by code.
4. Break Statement: Typically used to prevent fall-through
between cases.
5. Default Case: Executes if no case matches; optional and
doesn't require break.
6. Type Safety: Case label types must match the switch
expression's type.
7.2 Switch
1. Enhanced Switch: Java 12 introduced enhancements

like yield and multiple constants per case.
2. Switch Expression: From Java 14, switch can return a
value using yield.
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53. Create a program to find the minimum of two numbers.

54. Create a program to find if the given number is even or odd.
55. Create a program to calculate the absolute value of a given
integer.
56. Create a program to Based on a student's score, categorize as
"High", "Moderate", or "Low" using the ternary operator (e.g.,
High for scores > 80, Moderate for 50-80, Low for < 50).
57. Create a program to print the month of the year based on a
number (1-12) input by the user.
58. Create a program to create a simple calculator that uses a
switch statement to perform basic arithmetic operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
7.3 Loops (Do-while)
1. Executes block first, then checks condition.

2. Guaranteed to run at least one iteration.
3. Unlike while, first iteration is unconditional.
4. Don't forget to update condition to avoid infinite loops.
7.3 Loops (For)
1. Standard loop for running code multiple times.

2. Generally preferred for counting iterations.
7.3 Loops (For each)
1. A method for array iteration, often preferred for readability.

2. Parameters: One for item, optional second for index.
3. Using return is similar to continue in traditional loops.
4. Not straightforward to break out of a forEach loop.
5. When you need to perform an action on each array element
and don't need to break early.
7.4 Using break & continue
1. Break lets you stop a loop early, or break out of a loop

2. Continue is used to skip one iteration or the current
iteration
3. In while loop remember to do the increment manually
before using continue
7.5 Recursion
1. Self-Calling Function: Recursion is when a function calls itself.

2. Base Case: Essential to stop recursion and prevent infinite loops.
3. Recursive Case: The part where the function makes a recursive call.
4. Stack Overflow Risk: Excessive recursion can cause stack overflow errors.
5. Problem Solving: Ideal for problems divisible into similar, smaller
problems.
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59. Create a program using do-while to find password checker until a valid
password is entered.
60. Create a program using do-while to implement a number guessing game.
61. Create a program using for loop multiplication table for a number.
62. Create a program using for to display if a number is prime or not.
63. Create a program using for-each to find the maximum value in an integer array.
64. Create a program using for-each to the occurrences of a specific element in an
array.
65. Create a program using break to read inputs from the user in a loop and break
the loop if a specific keyword (like "exit") is entered.
66. Create a program using continue to sum all positive numbers entered by the
user; skip any negative numbers.
67. Create a program using continue to print only even numbers using continue for
odd numbers.
68. Create a program using recursion to display the Fibonacci series upto a certain
number.
69. Create a program using recursion to check if a string is a palindrome using
recursion.
7.6 Random Numbers & Math class
Key Methods:
1. abs(): Absolute value.
2. ceil(): Rounds up.
3. floor(): Rounds down.
4. round(): Rounds to nearest integer.
5. max(), min(): Maximum and minimum of two numbers.
6. pow(): Power calculation.
7. sqrt(): Square root.
8. random(): Random number generation.
9. exp(), log(): Exponential and logarithmic functions.
10.Trigonometric functions: sin(), cos(), tan().
1. Static Class: Math methods are static and

accessed directly.
2. Constants: Includes PI and E for π and the base
of natural logarithms.
7.7 Don’t Learn Syntax
1. Google: Quick answers to coding
problems.
2. Oracle: In-depth guides and
documentation.
https://docs.oracle.com/
3. ChatGPT: Real-time assistance for
coding queries.
4. Focus: Understand concepts, not just
syntax.
7.8 toString Method
1. Function: toString() provides a string representation of an object.

2. Inheritance: It's inherited from the Object class.
3. Default Format: By default, returns class name, "@", and hashcode.
4. Overriding: Commonly overridden in custom classes for meaningful output.
5. Implicit Call: Automatically called in string concatenation.
7.9 String class
1. Immutability: Once created, a String object's value cannot be changed.

Modifications create new String objects.
2. String Pool: Java maintains a pool of strings for efficiency. When a new
string is created, it's checked against the pool for a match to reuse.
3. Comparing: equals() method for value comparison, == operator checks
reference equality.
7.9 String class
1. Concatenation: Strings can be concatenated using the +

operator, but each concatenation creates a new String.
2. Methods: Provides methods like length(), substring(), equals(),
compareTo(), indexOf(), for various operations.
3. Memory: Being immutable, strings can use more memory
when frequently modified.
7.9 String class
7.9 String class
7.9 String class
7.10 StringBuffer vs StringBuilder
7.11 Final keyword
1. Variable: When applied to a variable, it becomes a constant, meaning its

value cannot be changed once initialized.
2. Efficiency: Using final can lead to performance optimization, as the
compiler can make certain assumptions about final elements.
3. Null Safety: A final variable must be initialized before the constructor
completes, reducing null pointer errors.
4. Immutable Objects: Helps in creating immutable objects in combination
with private fields and no setter methods.
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70. Define a Student class with fields like name and age, and use
toString to print student details.
71. Concatenate and Convert: Take two strings, concatenate them,
and convert the result to uppercase.
72. Calculate the area and circumference of a circle for a given radius
using Math.PI
73. Simulate a dice roll using Math.random() and display the outcome
(1 to 6).
74. Create a number guessing game where the program selects a
random number, and the user has to guess it.
75. Take an array of words and concatenate them into a single string
using StringBuilder.
76. Create an object with final fields and a constructor to initialize
them.
Revision
1. Ternary operator
2. Switch
3. Loops (Do-while, For, For each)
4. Using break & continue
5. Recursion
6. Random Numbers & Math class
7. Don’t Learn Syntax
8. toString Method
9. String class
10. StringBuffer vs StringBuilder
11. Final keyword
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Practice Exercise
Control Statements, Math & String
1. The ternary operator in Java can replace certain types of if-else
statements.
2. A switch statement in Java can only test for equality with constants.
3. The do-while loop will execute at least once even if the condition is
false.
4. A for-each loop in Java is used to iterate over arrays.
5. The break statement skips the current iteration.
6. The continue statement exits the loop immediately, regardless of the
condition.
7. In Java, recursion is a process where a method can call itself directly.
8. Random numbers generated by Math.random() are inclusive of 0 and 1.
9. The String class is mutable, meaning it can be changed after it's created.
10. StringBuilder is faster than StringBuffer since it is not synchronized.
11. A final variable in Java can be assigned a value once and only once.
FF5F1F
Practice Exercise
Control Statements, Math & String
1. The ternary operator in Java can replace certain types of if-else True
statements.
2. A switch statement in Java can only test for equality with constants. True
3. The do-while loop will execute at least once even if the condition is True
false.
4. A for-each loop in Java is used to iterate over arrays. True
5. The break statement skips the current iteration. False
6. The continue statement exits the loop immediately, regardless of the False
condition.
7. In Java, recursion is a process where a method can call itself directly. True
8. Random numbers generated by Math.random() are inclusive of 0 and 1. False
9. The String class is mutable, meaning it can be changed after it's created. False
10. StringBuilder is faster than StringBuffer since it is not synchronized. True
11. A final variable in Java can be assigned a value once and only once. True
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8 Encapsulation & Inheritance
1. Intro to OOPs Principle
2. What is Encapsulation
3. Import & Packages
4. Access Modifiers
5. Getter and Setter
6. What is Inheritance
7. Types of Inheritance
8. Object class
9. Equals and Hash Code
10.Nested and Inner Classes
8.1 Intro to OOPs Principle
8.2 What is Encapsulation
8.2 What is Encapsulation
1. Data Hiding: Encapsulation hides internal data, allowing access only

through methods.
2. Access Modifiers: Uses private, public, protected to control access to
class members.
3. Getter/Setter: Provides public methods for controlled property
access.
4. Maintains Integrity: Protects object state from external interference.
5. Enhances Modularity: Keeps classes separate and reduces coupling.
8.3 Import & Packages
1. Package Definition: A package in Java is a namespace that
organizes classes and interfaces, preventing naming conflicts.
2. Package Declaration: Packages are declared at the beginning of
a Java source file using the package keyword followed by the
package name.
3. Import Statement: An import statement in Java is used to bring
in classes or interfaces from other packages into the current file,
making them accessible without using a fully qualified name.
4. Types of Import:
• Single-Type Import: Imports a single class or interface from a
package (e.g., import java.util.List;).
• On-Demand Import: Imports all classes and interfaces from a
package (e.g., import java.util.*;).
5. Avoiding Collisions: Packages help in avoiding name collisions by
categorizing similar classes together.
6. Built-in Packages: Java comes with built-in packages like
java.lang (automatically imported), java.util, java.io, etc.
8.4 Access Modifiers
1. Types: The four access modifiers are public, protected,
default (no modifier), and private.
2. Public: The public modifier allows access from any other
class. For classes, it means they can be accessed from any
other package.
3. Protected: The protected modifier allows access within the
same package and subclasses.
4. Default: If no access modifier is specified, it's the default,
allowing access only within the same package.
5. Private: The private modifier restricts access to the defining
class only.
6. Class-Level Access: Only public and default (no modifier)
access modifiers are applicable for top-level classes.
7. Member-Level Access: Methods, constructors, and variables
can use all four access modifiers to control visibility.
8.4 Access Modifiers
8.5 Getter and Setter
1. Getters: Retrieve private field values, typically named get<FieldName>.

2. Setters: Set or update private field values, usually named set<FieldName>.
3. Control and Validation: Offer controlled access and allow for validation logic.
4. Encapsulation: Facilitate read-only or write-only access to class fields.
5. Flexibility: Allow for internal changes without affecting external interfaces.
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77. Create a simple application with at least two packages:

com.example.geometry and com.example.utils. In the geometry
package, define classes like Circle and Rectangle. In the utils
package, create a Calculator class that can compute areas of these
shapes.
78. Define a BankAccount class with private attributes like
accountNumber, accountHolderName, and balance. Provide
public methods to deposit and withdraw money, ensuring that
these methods don't allow illegal operations like withdrawing
more money than the current balance.
79. Define a class Employee with private attributes (like name, age,
and salary), public methods to get and set these attributes, and a
package-private method to displayEmployeeDetails. Create
another class in the same package to test access to the
displayEmployeeDetails method.
8.6 What is Inheritance
8.6 What is Inheritance
1. Inheritance allows a new class (subclass) to
inherit features from an existing class
(superclass).
2. Code Reusability: It enables subclasses to use
methods and variables of the superclass,
reducing code duplication.
3. Access Control: The protected access modifier is
often used in inheritance to allow subclass access
to superclass members.
8.7 Types of Inheritance
8.8 Object class
1. Root Class: The Object class is the parent class of all classes in Java, forming
the top of the class hierarchy.
2. Default Methods: It provides fundamental methods like equals(),
hashCode(), toString(), and getClass() that can be overridden by subclasses.
3. String Representation: The toString() method returns a string
representation of the object, often overridden for more informative
output.
8.9 Equals and HashCode
1. equals() Method: Used for logical equality checks between objects. By default, it
compares object references, but it's commonly overridden to compare object states.
2. hashCode() Method: Generates an integer hash code representing an object. It's
crucial for the performance of hash-based collections like HashMap.
3. Equals-Hashcode Contract: If two objects are equal according to equals(), they must
have the same hash code. However, two objects with the same hash code aren't
necessarily equal.
4. Overriding Both: If equals() is overridden, hashCode() should also be overridden to
maintain consistency between these methods.
8.10 Nested and Inner Classes
1. Nested Classes: Classes defined within another class,
divided into static (static nested classes) and non-static
(inner classes).
2. Static Nested Classes: Act as static members of the outer
class; can access outer class's static members but not its
non-static members.
3. Inner Classes: Associated with an instance of the outer
class; can access all members of the outer class, including
private ones.
4. Local and Anonymous Inner Classes: Local inner classes
are defined within a block (like a method) and are not
visible outside it. Anonymous inner classes are nameless
and used for single-use implementations.
5. Use Cases: Useful for logically grouping classes,
improving encapsulation, and enhancing code readability.
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80. Start with a base class LibraryItem that includes common

attributes like itemID, title, and author, and methods like
checkout() and returnItem(). Create subclasses such as Book,
Magazine, and DVD, each inheriting from LibraryItem. Add unique
attributes to each subclass, like ISBN for Book, issueNumber for
Magazine, and duration for DVD.
81. Create a class Person with attributes name and age. Override
equals() to compare Person objects based on their attributes.
Override hashCode() consistent with the definition of equals().
82. Create a class ArrayOperations with a static nested class Statistics.

Statistics could have methods like mean(), median(), which
operate on an array.
Revision
1. Intro to OOPs Principle
2. What is Encapsulation
3. Import & Packages
4. Access Modifiers
5. Getter and Setter
6. What is Inheritance
7. Types of Inheritance
8. Object class
9. Equals and Hash Code
10.Nested and Inner Classes
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Practice Exercise
Encapsulation & Inheritance
Answer in True/False
1. Encapsulation is the OOP principle that ensures an object's data can be changed
by any method, without restrictions.
2. The import statement in Java can be used to bring a single class or an entire
package into visibility.
3. The private access modifier means that the member is only accessible within its
own class.
4. Setters are used to retrieve the value of a private variable from outside the class.
5. Inheritance in OOP can be used to create a general class that defines traits to be
inherited by more specific subclasses.
6. The Object class in Java has protected access by default.
7. If two objects are equal according to their equals() method, then their
hashCode() methods must return different integers.
8. Inner classes are defined within the scope of a method and cannot exist
independently of the method.
9. A static nested class can access the instance variables of its enclosing outer class.
10.Overriding the equals() method requires also overriding the hashCode() method
to maintain consistency.
FF5F1F
Practice Exercise
Encapsulation & Inheritance
1. Encapsulation is the OOP principle that ensures an object's data can be changed False
by any method, without restrictions.
2. The import statement in Java can be used to bring a single class or an entire True
package into visibility.
3. The private access modifier means that the member is only accessible within its True
own class.
4. Setters are used to retrieve the value of a private variable from outside the class. False
5. Inheritance in OOP can be used to create a general class that defines traits to be True
inherited by more specific subclasses.
6. The Object class in Java has protected access by default. False
7. If two objects are equal according to their equals() method, then their False
hashCode() methods must return different integers.
8. Inner classes are defined within the scope of a method and cannot exist False
independently of the method.
9. A static nested class can access the instance variables of its enclosing outer class. False
10.Overriding the equals() method requires also overriding the hashCode() method True
to maintain consistency.
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9 Abstraction and Polymorphism
1. What is Abstraction
2. Abstract Keyword
3. Interfaces
4. What is Polymorphism
5. References and Objects
6. Method / Constructor Overloading
7. Super Keyword
8. Method / Constructor Overriding
9. Final keyword revisited
10.Pass by Value vs Pass by reference.
9.1 What is Abstraction
1.Core Principle: Abstraction hides complex
implementation details, focusing only on
essential features.
2.Focus on Functionality: Emphasizes what an
object does, not how it does it, through clear
interfaces.
9.1 What is Abstraction
1.Simplifies Complexity: It reduces complexity by
showing only relevant information in class design.
2.Real-World Modelling: Abstraction allows creating
objects that represent real-life entities with key
attributes and behaviours.
9.2 Abstract Keyword
1. Abstract Class: Used to declare non-instantiable abstract

classes that serve as base classes.
2. Abstract Method: Defines methods without implementations,
requiring subclasses to provide specific functionality.
3. Mandatory Implementation: Subclasses must implement all
abstract methods of an abstract class.
4. Design Flexibility: Allows for flexible class design by defining a
contract for subclasses.
9.3 Interfaces
1. Interfaces primarily declare abstract methods for implementation by classes.

2. A class can implement multiple interfaces, allowing for more flexible designs.
3. Interfaces can have default methods with implementation and static methods.
4. Interface methods are inherently public and abstract, except for default and
static methods.
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83. Create an abstract class Shape with an abstract method

calculateArea(). Implement two subclasses: Circle and
Square. Each subclass should have relevant attributes (like
radius for Circle, side for Square) and their own
implementation of the calculateArea() method.
84. Create an interface Flyable with an abstract method fly().

Create an abstract class Bird that implements Flyable.
Implement a subclass Eagle that extends Bird. Provide an
implementation for the fly() method.
9.4 What is Polymorphism
1. Polymorphism is the ability of objects of different classes to

respond to the same message (method call) in different ways.
2. Flexibility: Allows for writing more flexible and reusable code.
3. Simplicity: Enables developers to write more simple and readable
code by using the same interface for different underlying data
types.
9.4 What is Polymorphism
1. Compile-Time Polymorphism: Achieved through method

overloading or operator overloading.
2. Run-Time Polymorphism: Achieved through method overriding,
where a subclass provides a specific implementation of a method
already defined in its superclass.
9.5 References and Objects
1. Upcasting:
• Converts subclass to superclass reference.
• Automatic and safe.
• Access only to superclass methods.
2. Downcasting:
• Converts superclass to subclass reference.
• Manual and risky, needs instanceof check.
• Access to subclass-specific methods.
3. Usage:
• Upcasting for generalization in methods.
• Downcasting for specific subclass behaviors.
9.6 Method / Constructor Overloading
1. Method overloading occurs when multiple methods in the same class

have the same name but different parameter lists.
2. Parameter Difference: Overloaded methods must differ in the number,
type, or sequence of their parameters.
3. Return Type: Can vary between overloaded methods, but the return
type alone does not distinguish them.
4. Compile-Time Polymorphism: It's a form of polymorphism that is
resolved during compile time.
9.7 Super Keyword
9.8 Method / Constructor Overriding
1. Method overriding occurs when a
subclass provides a specific
implementation for a method already
defined in its superclass.
2. Run-Time Polymorphism: Overriding is
a basis for runtime polymorphism,
where the method call is determined
by the object's type at runtime.
3. Superclass Reference: An overridden
method can be called through a
superclass reference holding a subclass
object.
9.8 Method / Constructor Overriding
1. Same Signature: Overridden methods must have
the same name, return type, and parameters as
the method in the parent class.
2. Access Level: The access level cannot be more
restrictive than the overridden method's access
level.
3. @Override Annotation: This annotation is
optional but helps to ensure that the method is
correctly overridden.
9.9 Final keyword revisited
1. Variable becomes a constant, meaning its value cannot be changed once

initialized.
2. Method: A final method cannot be overridden by subclasses.
3. Class: A final class cannot be subclassed, securing the class from being extended.
4. Efficiency: Using final can lead to performance optimization, as the compiler can
make certain assumptions about final elements.
5. Null Safety: A final variable must be initialized before the constructor completes,
reducing null pointer errors.
6. Immutable Objects: Helps in creating immutable objects in combination with
private fields and no setter methods.
9.10 Pass by Value vs Pass by reference
9.10 Pass by Value vs Pass by reference
1. Variable Pass by Value:
• Java's default method.
• Copies argument's value to function's
parameter.
• Changes in function don't affect original
variable.
2. Objects and References:
• Java passes the reference's value for objects.
• Modifications to objects in methods affect
originals.
3. Primitive Types:
• Always passed by value.
• In-function changes don't impact originals.
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85. In a class Calculator, create multiple add() methods that

overload each other and can sum two integers, three
integers, or two doubles. Demonstrate how each can be
called with different numbers of parameters.
86. Define a base class Vehicle with a method service() and a

subclass Car that overrides service(). In Car's service(),
provide a specific implementation that calls super.service()
as well, to show how overriding works.
Revision
1. What is Abstraction
2. Abstract Keyword
3. Interfaces
4. What is Polymorphism
5. References and Objects
6. Method / Constructor Overloading
7. Super Keyword
8. Method / Constructor Overriding
9. Final keyword revisited
10.Pass by Value vs Pass by reference.
Practice Exercise
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Abstraction and Polymorphism

1. Abstraction hides the internal implementation details and shows only the
functionality to the users.
2. An abstract class must contain at least one abstract method.
3. When you pass an object to a method, Java copies the reference to the
object.
4. Overloaded methods must have different return types.
5. The 'super' keyword can be used to access methods of the superclass that
are hidden by the subclass.
6. Method overriding is used to change the default behaviour of a method in
the superclass.
7. The final keyword in Java is used to define constants.
8. Java supports pass by reference for primitive types.
9. An interface in Java can contain instance fields (variables).
10.A subclass can override a protected method from its superclass with a
public access modifier.
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Practice Exercise
Abstraction and Polymorphism
1. Abstraction hides the internal implementation details and shows only the True
functionality to the users.
2. An abstract class must contain at least one abstract method. False
3. When you pass an object to a method, Java copies the reference to the True
object.
4. Overloaded methods must have different return types. False
5. The 'super' keyword can be used to access methods of the superclass that True
are hidden by the subclass.
6. Method overriding is used to change the default behaviour of a method in True
the superclass.
7. The final keyword in Java is used to define constants. True
8. Java supports pass by reference for primitive types. False
9. An interface in Java can contain instance fields (variables). False
10.A subclass can override a protected method from its superclass with a True
public access modifier.
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10. Exception & File Handling
1. What is an Exception
2. Try-Catch
3. Types of Exception
4. Throw and Throws
5. FinallyBlock
6. Custom Exceptions
7. FileWriter class
8. FileReader class
10.1 What is an Exception
1. In Java, an exception is a disruptive event that occurs during the execution of

a program, interrupting its normal flow. It's an instance of a problem that
arises while the program is running, such as arithmetic errors, null pointer
accesses, or resource overflows.
2. Exceptions are objects in Java that encapsulate information about an error
event, including its type and the state of the program when the error
occurred.
10.2 Try-Catch
1. Try Block: Contains code that is susceptible to exceptions.

2. Catch Block: Follows the try block and handles the exceptions
thrown by the try block.
3. When an exception occurs in the try block, the control is transferred
to the catch block, where the exception is handled.
10.3 Types of Exceptions
1. Checked Exceptions: These are exceptions that must be either

caught or declared in the method.
2. Unchecked Exceptions: These are exceptions that do not need to
be explicitly handled.
10.4 Throw and Throws
throws Keyword:
1. Declares that a method may throw one or more exceptions.
2. Used in the method signature to indicate that the method might throw
exceptions of specified types.
3. A method declared with throws requires the calling method to handle or
further declare the exception.
throw Keyword:
1. Used to explicitly throw an exception from any method or block of code.
2. You can throw either a new instance of an exception or an existing
exception object using throw.
3. Example: throw new ArithmeticException("Division by zero");
10.5 Finally Block
1. Executes code after the try-catch blocks, used mainly for cleanup operations.
2. Always runs regardless of whether an exception is thrown or caught in the try-
catch blocks.
3. Ideal for closing resources like files or database connections to prevent
resource leaks.
10.6 Custom Exceptions
1. Custom exceptions are user-defined exception classes that extend

either Exception (for checked exceptions) or RuntimeException (for
unchecked exceptions).
2. They are created to represent specific error conditions relevant to
an application.
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87. Arithmetic Exception Handling

Write a program that asks the user to enter two integers and
then divides the first by the second. The program should
handle any arithmetic exceptions that may occur (like
division by zero) and display an appropriate message.
Key Points:
• Use Scanner to read user input.
• Implement a try-catch block to handle ArithmeticException.
• Display a user-friendly message if division by zero occurs.
10.7 FileWriter class
1. FileWriter is used for writing streams of characters to files.
2. It's a character-based stream, which means it's best used for
writing text rather than binary data.
3. Constructors:
• FileWriter(String fileName): Creates a FileWriter object given
the name of the file to write to.
• FileWriter(File file): Creates a FileWriter object given a File
object.
4. Common Methods:
• write(int c): Writes a single character.
• write(char[] cbuf): Writes an array of characters.
• write(String str): Writes a string.
• flush(): Flushes the stream, ensuring all data is written out.
• close(): Closes the stream, releasing any associated system
resources.
10.7 FileWriter class
10.8 FileReader class
1. The FileReader class is used for reading streams of
characters from files.
2. It's a character-based stream, meaning it reads characters
(as opposed to bytes). This makes it suitable for reading
text files.
3. Constructors:
• FileReader(String fileName): Creates a FileReader object
to read from a file with the specified name.
• FileReader(File file): Creates a FileReader object to read
from the specified File object.
4. Common Methods:
• read(): Reads a single character and returns it as an
integer. Returns -1 if the end of the stream is reached.
• read(char[] cbuf): Reads characters into an array and
returns the number of characters read.
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88. File Not Found Exception Handling

Write a program to read a filename from the user and display its
content. The program should handle the situation where the file
does not exist.
Key Points:
• Use Scanner to read the filename from the user.
• Use FileReader to read the file content.
• Implement a try-catch block to handle FileNotFoundException.
• Display a message informing the user if the file is not found.
Revision
1. What is an Exception
2. Try-Catch
3. Types of Exception
4. Throw and Throws
5. FinallyBlock
6. Custom Exceptions
7. FileWriter class
8. FileReader class
FF5F1F
Practice Exercise
Exception & File Handling
1. A method that throws a checked exception must declare the exception
using the throws keyword in its signature.
2. It is possible to handle more than one type of exception in a single catch
block.
3. The finally block is always executed, even if a return statement is
encountered in the try or catch block.
4. If both try and catch blocks have return statements, the finally block will not
execute.
5. You can throw an exception of any type, including custom exceptions, using
the throw keyword.
6. If a try block does not throw any exception, the catch block is executed for
cleanup purposes.
7. Unchecked exceptions are a direct subclass of Throwable.
8. A catch block can exist independently of a try block.
9. You can nest try blocks within another try block.
10.The throw keyword is used to propagate an exception up the call stack.
FF5F1F
Practice Exercise
Exception & File Handling
1. A method that throws a checked exception must declare the exception True
using the throws keyword in its signature.
2. It is possible to handle more than one type of exception in a single catch True
block.
3. The finally block is always executed, even if a return statement is True
encountered in the try or catch block.
4. If both try and catch blocks have return statements, the finally block will not False
execute.
5. You can throw an exception of any type, including custom exceptions, using True
the throw keyword.
6. If a try block does not throw any exception, the catch block is executed for False
cleanup purposes.
7. Unchecked exceptions are a direct subclass of Throwable. False
8. A catch block can exist independently of a try block. False
9. You can nest try blocks within another try block. True
10.The throw keyword is used to propagate an exception up the call stack. True
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11 Collections & Generics
1. Variable Arguments
2. Wrapper Classes & Autoboxing
3. Collections Library
4. List Interface
5. Queue Interface
6. Set Interface
7. Collections Class
8. Map Interface
9. Enums
10.Generics & Diamond Operators
11.1 Variable Arguments
1. Java's varargs allow methods to accept any
number of arguments.
2. Declared using an ellipsis (...), e.g., void
method(int... nums).
3. Internal Handling: Treated as arrays, e.g.,
int... nums is int[] nums.
4. Placement: Must be the last in the method's
parameters.
5. Usage: Call with varying argument counts,
e.g., method(1, 2) or method().
6. Introduced in: Java 5.
11.2 Wrapper Classes
1. Provide a way to use primitive data types (int, char, boolean, etc.) as objects.
2. Automatic conversion between the primitive types and their corresponding
wrapper classes.
3. Once created, the value of a wrapper object cannot be changed.
4. Utility Methods: Each wrapper class provides useful methods, like compareTo,
valueOf, and parseXxx (e.g., parseInt for Integer).
5. Required for storing primitives in collection objects like ArrayList, HashMap, etc.
6. Allows assignment of null to primitive values when needed.
11.2 Autoboxing
1. Autoboxing: Automatic conversion of primitive types to their

corresponding wrapper class objects.
2. Unboxing: Automatic conversion of wrapper class objects back to
their respective primitive types.
11.3 Collections Library
1. Collection Interface: The root interface of the collection hierarchy. It declares basic
operations like add, remove, clear, and size.
2. List Interface: An ordered collection. Lists can contain duplicate elements.
3. Set Interface: A collection that cannot contain duplicate elements.
4. Queue Interface: A collection used for holding elements in FIFO prior to processing.
5. Map Interface: Not a true Collection, but part of the Collections Framework. Maps
store key-value pairs. Keys are unique, but different keys can map to the same value.
11.4 List Interface
1. An ordered collection (also known as a sequence).

2. Allows duplicate elements.
3. Elements can be accessed by their integer index.
4. Maintains the insertion order of elements.
5. Performance: Offers fast random access and quick iteration.
6. Capacity: Grows automatically as elements are added.
7. Preferred over arrays when the size is dynamic or unknown.
11.4 List Interface
1. add(E e): Appends the specified element
2. add(int index, E element): Inserts at specified position
3. remove(Object o): Removes the first occurrence of the
specified element
4. remove(int index): Removes the element at the specified
position
5. get(int index): Returns the element at the specified
position
6. set(int index, E element): Replaces the element at the
specified position
7. size(): Returns the number of elements
8. clear(): Removes all of the elements
9. contains(Object o): Returns `true` if the list contains the
specified element.
10.indexOf(Object o): Returns the index of the first
occurrence, or -1 if the list does not contain the element.
11.5 Queue Interface
1. It's a collection designed for holding elements prior to processing.

2. Ordering: Typically, it orders elements in a FIFO (First-In-First-Out)
manner.
3. End Points: Offers two ends - one for insertion (tail) and the other for
removal (head).
11.5 Queue Interface
1. add(E e): Inserts the specified element into the
queue. Throws an exception if the element
cannot be added.
2. offer(E e): Inserts the specified element into the
queue. Returns false if the element cannot be
added.
3. remove(): Retrieves and removes the head of the
queue. Throws an exception if the queue is
empty.
4. poll(): Retrieves and removes the head of the
queue, or returns null if the queue is empty.
5. element(): Retrieves, but does not remove, the
head of the queue. Throws an exception if the
queue is empty.
6. peek(): Retrieves, but does not remove, the head
of the queue, or returns null if the queue is
empty.
11.6 Set Interface
1. Unique Elements: Does not allow duplicate elements.

2. Unordered Collection: it does not guarantee any specific ordering of
elements.
3. No Positional Access: Unlike lists, it doesn't support indexing-based
access to elements.
4. Implementation: Common implementations include HashSet,
LinkedHashSet, and TreeSet.
11.6 Set Interface
1. add(E e): Adds the specified element to the set

2. remove(Object o): Removes the specified element from the set
3. contains(Object o): Checks if the set contains the specified element.
4. size(): Returns the number of elements in the set.
5. isEmpty(): Checks if the set is empty.
11.7 Collections Class
1. Offers methods like sort to sort lists.

2. Provides methods like binarySearch for searching sorted lists.
3. Allows reversing the order of elements in a list with reverse.
4. Can shuffle the elements of a list randomly using shuffle.
5. Creates unmodifiable collections using methods like unmodifiableList, etc.
6. Methods like singletonList, create immutable collections with a single element.
7. The copy method is used to copy all elements from one list to another.
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89. Write a method concatenate Strings that takes variable arguments

of String type and concatenates them into a single string.
90. Write a program that sorts a list of String objects in descending
order using a custom Comparator.
91. Use the Collections class to count the frequency of a particular
element in an ArrayList.
92. Write a method that swaps two elements in an ArrayList, given
their indices.
93. Create a program that reverses the elements of a List and prints
the reversed list.
94. Create a PriorityQueue of a custom class Student with attributes
name and grade. Use a comparator to order by grade.
95. Write a program that takes a string and returns the number of
unique characters using a Set.
11.8 Map Interface
1. Stores data as key-value pairs.

2. Each key can map to at most one value.
3. Keys are unique, but multiple keys can map to the same value.
4. It is part of the Collections Framework but does not extend the
Collection interface.
11.8 Map Interface
1. put(K key, V value): Associates the specified value with
the specified key in the map.
2. get(Object key): Returns the value to which the
specified key is mapped, or null if the map contains no
mapping for the key.
3. remove(Object key): Removes the mapping for a key
from the map if it is present.
4. containsKey(Object key): Checks if the map contains a
mapping for the specified key.
5. keySet(): Returns a Set view of the keys contained in
the map.
6. values(): Returns a Collection view of the values
contained in the map.
11.9 Enums
1. Enums in Java: Special types for fixed sets of
constants like days, colors.
2. Declaration: Use enum keyword, e.g., enum
Color { RED, GREEN, BLUE; }.
3. Access: Access constants with dot syntax, e.g.,
Color.RED.
4. Features: Type-safe, readable, can have
methods and fields.
5. Usage: Useful in switch statements and iterating
with values() method.
11.10 Generics & Diamond Operators
1. They allow you to write flexible and reusable code by enabling types (classes and
interfaces) to be parameters when defining classes, interfaces, and methods.
2. Generics provide compile-time type safety by allowing you to enforce that certain
objects are of a specific type.
3. With generics, you don’t need to cast objects because the type is known.
4. Generics are denoted by angle brackets <>, e.g., List<String> means a list of strings.
5. Diamond Operator: Introduced in Java 7, the diamond operator <> allows you to infer
the type parameter from the context, simplifying instantiation of generic classes.
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96. Create an enum called Day that represents the days of the
week. Write a program that prints out all the days of the
week from this enum.
97. Enhance the Day enum by adding an attribute that
indicates whether it is a weekday or weekend. Add a
method in the enum that returns whether it's a weekday or
weekend, and write a program to print out each day along
with its type.
98. Create a Map where the keys are country names (as String)
and the values are their capitals (also String). Populate the
map with at least five countries and their capitals. Write a
program that prompts the user to enter a country name
and then displays the corresponding capital, if it exists in
the map.
Revision
1. Variable Arguments
2. Wrapper Classes & Autoboxing
3. Collections Library
4. List Interface
5. Queue Interface
6. Set Interface
7. Collections Class
8. Map Interface
9. Enums
10.Generics & Diamond Operators
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Practice Exercise
Collections & Generics
1. Variable arguments can be used to pass an arbitrary number of values to a
method.
2. Autoboxing is the process where primitive types are automatically converted
into their corresponding wrapper class objects by the Java compiler.
3. Every class in the Collections Library implements the Collection interface.
4. Lists guarantee the order of insertion for the elements they contain.
5. Sets in Java inherently maintain the elements in sorted order.
6. In a Map, you can have multiple entries with the same value but not with
the same key.
7. Enums in Java can have constructors, methods, variables, and can
implement interfaces.
8. With the diamond operator, you do not need to specify the type on the
right-hand side of a statement when initializing an object.
9. The List interface provides methods for inserting elements at a specific
position in the list.
10.Wrapper classes in Java, such as Integer and Double, can be extended
like any other class.
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Practice Exercise
Collections & Generics
1. Variable arguments can be used to pass an arbitrary number of values to a True
method.
2. Autoboxing is the process where primitive types are automatically converted True
into their corresponding wrapper class objects by the Java compiler.
3. Every class in the Collections Library implements the Collection interface. False
4. Lists guarantee the order of insertion for the elements they contain. True
5. Sets in Java inherently maintain the elements in sorted order. False
6. In a Map, you can have multiple entries with the same value but not with True
the same key.
7. Enums in Java can have constructors, methods, variables, and can True
implement interfaces.
8. With the diamond operator, you do not need to specify the type on the True
right-hand side of a statement when initializing an object.
9. The List interface provides methods for inserting elements at a specific True
position in the list.
10.Wrapper classes in Java, such as Integer and Double, can be extended False
like any other class.
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12 Multi threading & Executor Service
1. Intro to Multi-threading
2. Creating a Thread
3. States of a Thread
4. Thread Priority
5. Join Method
6. Synchronize keyword
7. Thread Communication
8. Intro to Executor Service
9. Multiple Threads with Executor
10.Returning Futures
12.1 What is a Thread
1. What is a Thread: A thread in Java is a small part of a
program that can run at the same time as other
parts.
2. Purpose: Threads help a program do many things at
once, like handling many users or doing different
tasks simultaneously.
3. Creating Threads: You can make a thread by using the
Thread class or the Runnable interface.
4. Using Threads: Use threads for tasks that can happen
at the same time, like managing many requests or
splitting up a big job.
5. Thread Talk: Threads can talk to each other using
wait(), notify(), and notifyAll() to coordinate their
work.
12.1 Need of Multi-threading
1. Tasks might be very important
2. Tasks are independent of each other
3. A Multi-core CPU is sitting idle most of the time
4. A big task can be divided into smaller parts
5. Making your code responsive
12.2 Creating a Thread
(Extending Thread Class)
In the main method, two threads (t1 and t2) are

created and started. They will execute
independently and print their values.
12.2 Creating a Thread
(Creating Runnables)
In the main method, two threads (t1 and t2) are

created and started. They will execute
independently and print their values.
12.3 States of a Thread
1. New: Thread is created but not started.

2. Runnable: Thread is ready or running.
3. Running: Thread is actively executing tasks.
4. Blocked/Waiting: Thread is alive but not active
because it's waiting for resources or other threads.
5. Terminated: Thread has finished or stopped running.
12.4 Thread Priority
1. Priority Levels: Java threads have priority levels from 1

(lowest) to 10 (highest), with a default value of 5.
2. Influence on Execution: A thread's priority suggests the
importance of a thread to the scheduler, though it
doesn't guarantee the order of execution.
3. Set and Get Priority: Use setPriority(int) to change a
thread's priority and getPriority() to retrieve it.
12.5 Join Method
1. Purpose of join: The join method is used to make the
calling thread wait until the thread on which join has
been called completes its execution.
2. Synchronization of Threads: join helps in
synchronizing multiple threads, ensuring that a
thread completes its execution before the next steps
in the calling thread proceed.
3. Overloaded Versions: join comes in three versions:
• join(): Waits indefinitely until the thread on which
it's called finishes.
• join(long millis): Waits for the thread to die for the
specified milliseconds.
• join(long millis, int nanos): Waits for the thread to
die for the specified milliseconds plus nanoseconds.
12.6 Synchronize keyword
1. Mutual Exclusion: The synchronize keyword in Java
ensures that only one thread can execute a block of
code at a time, providing mutual exclusion and
preventing race conditions.
2. Object Lock: When a thread enters a synchronized
block or method, it acquires a lock on the object or
class, depending on whether the method is an
instance method or a static method.
3. Visibility: It ensures that changes made by one thread
to shared data are visible to other threads.
12.6 Synchronize keyword
12.7 Thread Communication
1. sleep(long millis): Causes the currently executing
thread to sleep (temporarily cease execution) for the
specified number of milliseconds.
2. yield(): Causes the currently executing thread to
pause and allow other threads to execute. It's a way
of suggesting that other threads of the same priority
can run.
3. wait(): Causes the current thread to wait until
another thread invokes the notify() or notifyAll()
method for this object. It releases the lock held by
this thread.
4. notify(): Wakes up a single thread that is waiting on
the object's monitor. If any threads are waiting, one is
chosen to be awakened.
5. notifyAll(): Wakes up all threads that are waiting on
the object's monitor.
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99. Write a program that creates two threads. Each thread should print
"Hello from Thread X", where X is the number of the thread (1 or 2),
ten times, then terminate.
100. Write a program that starts a thread and prints its state after each
significant event (creation, starting, and termination). Use
Thread.sleep() to simulate long-running tasks and Thread.getState() to
print the thread's state.
101. Create three threads. Ensure that the second thread starts only after
the first thread ends and the third thread starts only after the second
thread ends using the join method. Each thread should print its start
and end along with its name.
102. Simulate a traffic signal using threads. Create three threads
representing three signals: RED, YELLOW, and GREEN. Each signal
should be on for a certain time, then switch to the next signal in order.
Use sleep for timing and synchronize to make sure only one signal is
active at a time.
12.8 Intro to Executor Service
1. Purpose: ExecutorService is a framework provided by the Java

Concurrency API to manage and execute submitted tasks without
the need to manually manage thread life cycles.
2. Thread Pool Management: ExecutorService efficiently reuses a fixed
pool of threads to execute tasks, thereby improving performance by
reducing the overhead of thread creation, especially for short-lived
asynchronous tasks.
12.8 Intro to Executor Service
12.9 Multiple Threads with Executor
12.10 Returning Futures
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103. Write a program that creates a single-threaded executor service.

Define and submit a simple Runnable task that prints numbers
from 1 to 10. After submission, shut down the executor.
104. Create a fixed thread pool with a specified number of threads
using Executors.newFixedThreadPool(int). Submit multiple tasks
to this executor, where each task should print the current thread's
name and sleep for a random time between 1 and 5 seconds.
Finally, shut down the executor and handle proper termination
using awaitTermination.
105. Write a program that uses an executor service to execute multiple
Callable tasks. Each task should calculate and return the factorial
of a number provided to it. Use Future objects to receive the
results of the calculations. After all tasks are submitted, retrieve
the results from the futures, print them, and ensure the executor
service is shut down correctly.
Revision
1. Intro to Multi-threading
2. Creating a Thread
3. States of a Thread
4. Thread Priority
5. Join Method
6. Synchronize keyword
7. Thread Communication
8. Intro to Executor Service
9. Multiple Threads with Executor
10.Returning Futures
FF5F1F
Practice Exercise
Multi threading & Executor Service
1. In Java, the main thread is the only user thread that is created automatically
when a program starts.
2. The run() method is automatically called when a thread is started using the
start() method.
3. A thread can be in both the Runnable and Running state at the same time.
4. Lower priority threads are executed first to ensure equal processing time for
all threads.
5. The join() method causes the calling thread to immediately stop executing
until the thread it joins with stops running.
6. Using the synchronized keyword can prevent two threads from executing a
method simultaneously.
7. The notify() method wakes up all threads that are waiting on the object's
monitor.
8. The ExecutorService must be explicitly shut down to terminate the threads it
manages.
9. A Callable task cannot be submitted to an ExecutorService.
10.The Thread.yield() method forces a thread to stop its execution permanently.
FF5F1F
Practice Exercise
Multi threading & Executor Service
1. In Java, the main thread is the only user thread that is created automatically True
when a program starts.
2. The run() method is automatically called when a thread is started using the True
start() method.
3. A thread can be in both the Runnable and Running state at the same time. False
4. Lower priority threads are executed first to ensure equal processing time for False
all threads.
5. The join() method causes the calling thread to immediately stop executing True
until the thread it joins with stops running.
6. Using the synchronized keyword can prevent two threads from executing a True
method simultaneously.
7. The notify() method wakes up all threads that are waiting on the object's False
monitor.
8. The ExecutorService must be explicitly shut down to terminate the threads it True
manages.
9. A Callable task cannot be submitted to an ExecutorService. False
10.The Thread.yield() method forces a thread to stop its execution permanently. False
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13 Functional Programming
1. What is Functional Programming
2. Lambda Expression
3. What is a Stream
4. Filtering & Reducing
5. Functional Interfaces
6. Method References
7. Functional vs Structural Programming
8. Optional Class
9. Intermediate vs Terminal Operations
10.Max, Min, Collect to List
11.Sort, Distinct, Map
13.1 What is Functional Programming
1. Functional Programming: It's a way of
writing programs where you use functions
like small building blocks.
2. Functions as First-Class: Functions can be
passed as arguments, returned from other
functions, and assigned to variables.
3. Immutable Data: Once you create a piece of
data, you don't change it.
4. Pure Functions: These are special functions
that always give the same result for the
same input with no Side-Effects.
5. Functional Interfaces: These are like
templates for functions, making it easier to
use them in different parts of your
program.
13.2 Lambda Expression
1. Shortcuts: Lambda expressions are
quick, nameless functions for small
tasks.
2. Syntax: Written as (parameters) ->
{body}, linking inputs to actions.
3. Functional Interfaces: They work
with interfaces that have only one
method, making code concise.
4. Readability: They make code shorter
and clearer, especially with
collections.
5. Useful with Collections: Great for
managing lists and sets, like filtering
or sorting.
13.2 Lambda Expression
13.3 What is a Stream
1. Element Sequence: Streams represent a sequence of elements

2.Functional Operations: Operations like map, filter, and reduce.
3.No Storage: Streams don't store data; they process it on-the-fly from
sources like collections or arrays.
4.Efficiency: Stream operations can be lazy, processing elements only as
needed, which is efficient for large data.
5.One-Time Use: Streams are consumable; once processed, they cannot be.
6.Parallel Capable: They support parallel processing, making operations
faster by utilizing multiple threads.
13.4 Filtering & Reducing (Filter)
1. Purpose: Used to filter elements of a stream based on a given

predicate (a condition). Only elements that satisfy the
condition are included in the resulting stream.
2. Lazy Operation: It's a lazy operation, meaning it's not executed
until a terminal operation (like collect or forEach) is invoked on
the stream.
3. Returns a Stream: filter itself returns a new stream with
elements that match the predicate.
13.4 Filtering & Reducing (Reduce)
1. Purpose: Used to reduce the elements of a stream to a

single value. It takes a binary operator as a parameter
and applies it repeatedly, combining the elements of
the stream.
2. Versatile: Can be used for summing, finding min or max,
and combining elements in a myriad of ways.
3. Optional or Default Value: Without an identity value,
reduce returns an Optional. With an identity value, it
returns a default value if the stream is empty.
FF5F1F
106.Write a lambda expression that takes two integers and

returns their multiplication. Then, apply this lambda to a
pair of numbers.
107.Convert an array of strings into a stream. Then, use the
stream to print each string to the console.
108.Given a list of strings, use stream operations to filter out
strings that have length of 10 or more and then
concatenate the remaining strings.
109.Given a list of integers, use stream operations to filter odd
numbers and print them.
13.5 Functional Interfaces
1. Single Abstract Method (SAM): A functional
interface has only one abstract method. However,
it can have multiple default or static methods.
2.Lambda Compatibility: They are intended to be
used with lambda expressions, providing a target
type for lambdas and method references.
3.@FunctionalInterface Annotation: While not
mandatory, this annotation helps the compiler to
identify the intention of making an interface
functional and to generate an error if the
annotated interface does not satisfy the
conditions.
4.Common Examples: Predicate, Consumer,
BinaryOperator, Runnable, Callable, Comparator,
and user-defined interfaces can be functional if
they have only one abstract method.
13.6 Method References
Syntax:
• Static Method References:
ClassName::staticMethodName
• Instance Method:
instance::instanceMethodName
• Instance Method Particular Class:
ClassName::methodName
• Constructor References:
ClassName::new.
1. Purpose Syntax & Usage: A method reference is described using ::

(double colon) syntax. For example, System.out::println refers to the
println method of the System.out object.
2.Functional Interfaces: They are used with functional interfaces.
3.Benefit: They make your code more readable and concise
4.Limitation: They can only be used for methods that fit the
parameters and return type.
13.7 Functional vs Structural Programming
Imperative Programming Declarative Programming
1. Computation
You describe the step-by-step instructions for how an executed You set the conditions that trigger the program execution to
program achieves the desired results. produce the desired results.
2. Readability and complexity
With the emphasis on the control flow, you can often follow the Step-by-step processes are eschewed. You’ll discover that this
step-by-step process fairly easily. However, as you add more paradigm is less complex and requires less code, making it easier
code, it can become longer and more complex to read.
3. Customization
A straightforward way to customize and edit code and structure Customizing the source code is more difficult because of
is offered. You have complete control and can easily adapt the complicated syntax and the paradigm’s dependence on
structure of your program to your needs. implementing a pre-configured algorithm.
4. Optimization
Adding extensions and making upgrades are supported, but You can easily optimize code because an algorithm controls the
doing so is significantly more challenging than with declarative implementation. Furthermore, you can add extensions and make
programming, making it harder to optimize. upgrades.
5. Structure
The code structure can be long and complex. The code itself
specifies how it should run and in what order. The code structure is concise and precise, and it lacks detail.
13.7 Functional vs Structural Programming
13.8 Optional Class
1. Creating Optional Objects: Optional.empty(),

Optional.of(), Optional.ofNullable()
2. Checking Value Presence: isPresent() and ifPresent()
3. Default Values: orElse() and orElseGet()
4. Value Transformation: map()
5. Throwing Exception: orElseThrow()
13.8 Optional Class
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110.Create your own functional interface with a single abstract

method that accepts an integer and returns a boolean.
Implement it using a lambda that checks if the number is
prime.
111.Write two versions of a program that calculates the factorial
of a number: one using structural (procedural) programming,
and the other using functional programming.
112.Write a function that accepts a string and returns an
Optional<String>. If the string is empty or null, return an
empty Optional, otherwise, return an Optional containing the
uppercase version of the string.
13.9 Intermediate vs Terminal Operations
Intermediate Operations
1. Laziness: Executed only when a terminal operation is invoked, setting
up a pipeline without processing data.
2. Stream Transformation: Transform one stream into another, e.g.,
filter, map. They're chainable, allowing multiple transformations.
3. State Handling: Can be stateless (like map) or stateful(like sorted),
affecting processing.
13.9 Intermediate vs Terminal Operations
Terminal Operations
1. Computation Trigger: Initiates the stream processing and closes the
stream. After this, the stream can't be reused.
2. Final Outcome: Produces a result (like a sum or list) or a side-effect
(like printing each element). Not chainable.
3. Examples: Operations like collect, forEach, reduce, sum, max, min,
and count are terminal.
13.10 Max, Min, Collect to List
1. max() finds the largest element in
the stream according to a given
comparator or natural ordering.
2. min() identifies the smallest element
in the stream based on a provided
comparator or natural ordering.
3. collect(Collectors.toList()) gathers
all the elements of the stream into a
new List.
13.11 Sort, Distinct, Map
1. sorted() orders the elements of a stream
based on their natural order or a provided
comparator.
2. distinct() filters out duplicate elements,
ensuring that every element in the resulting
stream is unique.
3. map() applies a function to each element of a
stream, transforming them into a new stream
of results based on the function logic.
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113.Given an array of integers, create a stream, use the distinct

operation to remove duplicates, and collect the result into
a new list.
114.Create a list of employees with name and salary fields.
Write a comparator that sorts the employees by salary.
Then, use this comparator to sort your list using the sort
stream operation.
115.Create a list of strings representing numbers ("1", "2", ...).
Convert each string to an integer, then again calculating
squares of each number using the map operation and sum
up the resulting integers.
Revision
1. What is Functional Programming
2. Lambda Expression
3. What is a Stream
4. Filtering & Reducing
5. Functional Interfaces
6. Method References
7. Functional vs Structural Programming
8. Optional Class
9. Intermediate vs Terminal Operations
10.Max, Min, Collect to List
11.Sort, Distinct, Map
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Practice Exercise
Functional Programming
1. Functions can't be assigned to variables, passed as arguments, or returned
from other functions.
2. A lambda expression in Java can be used to implement any interface,
regardless of the number of abstract methods.
3. A Java stream represents a sequence of elements and supports various
methods which can be pipelined to produce the desired result.
4. The filter method in streams is a terminal operation that returns a boolean
value.
5. A functional interface in Java is an interface with exactly one abstract method.
6. Method references in Java can only refer to static methods.
7. The Optional class in Java is used to avoid NullPointerException.
8. Intermediate operations on streams are executed immediately and are always
followed by terminal operations.
9. The max and min operations on streams return an Optional describing the
maximum or minimum element.
10.The sorted operation in streams is a terminal operation and it sorts the
elements of the stream in their natural order.
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Practice Exercise
Functional Programming
1. Functions can't be assigned to variables, passed as arguments, or returned False
from other functions.
2. A lambda expression in Java can be used to implement any interface, False
regardless of the number of abstract methods.
3. A Java stream represents a sequence of elements and supports various True
methods which can be pipelined to produce the desired result.
4. The filter method in streams is a terminal operation that returns a boolean False
value.
5. A functional interface in Java is an interface with exactly one abstract method. True
6. Method references in Java can only refer to static methods. False
7. The Optional class in Java is used to avoid NullPointerException. True
8. Intermediate operations on streams are executed immediately and are always False
followed by terminal operations.
9. The max and min operations on streams return an Optional describing the True
maximum or minimum element.
10.The sorted operation in streams is a terminal operation and it sorts the False
elements of the stream in their natural order.
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1. One of the most popular language. Java

Humans use natural language (like Hindi/English) to communicate

Computers only understand 0/1 or on/off

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or

Developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems (Early 1990s):

First Release (1995): Introduced

Developed with vision of backward compatibility. Should not

Portability with Write Once Security because of Code

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Search JDK Download

Make sure to download from the

Download the latest version

Search Intellij IDEA

Make sure to download the

Keep Your Software up to

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Variables are like containers used

Keep a Good and Short Name

5.Create a program to input name of the person and

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Assigns the right-hand operand's value to the left-hand operand.

7. Create a program to swap two numbers.

1. Types: && (AND), || (OR), ! (NOT)

15.Create a program that determines if a number is positive, negative,

Associativity: Defines the order of operation

Number System Base or Radix Digits or symbols

Number System Base or Radix Digits or symbols

7 * 103 + 3 * 102 + 9 * 101 + 2 * 100

Example: (11010.11)2 value in Decimal?

1 * 24 + 1 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 0 * 20 + 1 * 2-1 + 1 * 2-2 = 26.75

21. Create a program that shows bitwise AND of two numbers.

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1. Iterations: Number of times the loop runs.

1. Definition: Blocks of reusable code.

1. Follows same rules as variable names.

1. Sends a value back from a function.

Parameter Function Return

1. Input values that a function takes.

1. An Array is just a list of values.

1. Use {} to create a new array, {} brackets enclose list of values

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1. Object Creation: new instantiates a new object of a class.

Access properties using . Operator like product.price

Class is a blueprint; Objects are real values in memory.

Class is a blueprint; Objects are real values in memory.

1. Static Variables: Belong to the class, not individual instances.

1. Default Constructor: If no constructor is

1. Within Same Class: Using this() to

1. Scope: Code blocks {} determine the scope of variables.

51. Create a Book class for a library system.

1. Memory: Primitives store actual values; reference types store addresses

1. Finalization: Before an object is garbage collected, the finalize() method may be

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1. Syntax: condition ? expression1 : expression2

1. Enhanced Switch: Java 12 introduced enhancements

53. Create a program to find the minimum of two numbers.

1. Executes block first, then checks condition.

1. Standard loop for running code multiple times.

1. A method for array iteration, often preferred for readability.

1. Break lets you stop a loop early, or break out of a loop

1. Self-Calling Function: Recursion is when a function calls itself.

1. Static Class: Math methods are static and

1. Function: toString() provides a string representation of an object.

1. Immutability: Once created, a String object's value cannot be changed.

1. Concatenation: Strings can be concatenated using the +

1. Variable: When applied to a variable, it becomes a constant, meaning its

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