SHS

General Biology 2
Quarter 4: Week 1 – Module 1A
Processes in Plants and Animals
(Reproduction, Development and Nutrition)
General Biology 2
Grade 11/12 Quarter 4: Week 1 Module 1A: Processes in Plants and
Animals (Reproduction, Development, and Nutrition)
First Edition, 2021
Copyright © 2021
La Union Schools Division
Region I

All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced in any form
without written permission from the copyright owners.

Development Team of the Module

Author: Emilia V. Vizcarra, MT-I

Editor: SDO La Union, Learning Resource Quality Assurance Team

Illustrator: Ernesto F. Ramos Jr., P II

Management Team:

Atty. Donato D. Balderas, Jr.

Schools Division Superintendent

Vivian Luz S. Pagatpatan, Ph.D

Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

German E. Flora, Ph.D, CID Chief

Virgilio C. Boado, Ph.D, EPS in Charge of LRMS

Rominel S. Sobremonte, Ed.D, EPS in Charge of Science

Michael Jason D. Morales, PDO II

Claire P. Toluyen, Librarian II
 Target

In order to guarantee the species' survival, all living organisms, including

plants and animals, perform various life processes. Plants and animals require
food, a way of excreting waste material, ways of reproducing and generating new
plants, ways of developing individually, and ways of moving and breathing. All of
which are achieved through life processes.
. In your previous lessons, you learned photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
These are essential cell energy processes. They are connected in ways that are vital
for almost all forms of life on earth to survive.
This module will provide you with concepts and activities that will help you
understand the reproduction, development, and nutrition in plants and animals.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals:

reproduction, development, nutrition, gas exchange, transport/ circulation,
regulation of body fluids, chemical and nervous control, immune systems, and
sensory and motor mechanisms (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to

1. differentiate asexual from sexual reproduction;

2. describe different modes of sexual and asexual reproduction;
3. describe the different stages of animal development;
4. describe human reproductive organ systems;
5. define nutrition and cite the nutritional requirements of plants and
animals;
6. enumerate and describe the main stages of digestion; and
7. describe the organs involved in digestion

Before going on, check how much you know about this topic. Answer the
pretest on the next page in a separate sheet of paper.

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 Lesson Reproduction and Development
1

Pretest: Read each question carefully then select the correct answer from the
given choices.

1. How many parents are needed for sexual reproduction to take place?
A. 1 B. 2 C. more than 2 D. multiple

2. Which set of reproductive terms has an incorrect combination?

A. penis, sperm, sperm duct, testis
B. egg, oviduct, sperm, uterus
C. egg, menstruation, oviduct, uterus
D. egg, oviduct, ovulation, uterus

3. After fertilization, which will give rise to a new individual?

A. embryo B. fetus C. ovum D. zygote

4. In which organism does budding take place?

A. amoeba B. bacteria C. hydra D. paramecium

5. Which organism can undergo both sexual and asexual reproduction?

A. coral B. horseradish C. lizard D. human

Jumpstart

In some way or another, all plants and animals around the world reproduce
as a way of bringing in new generations and slowly initiating changes in the species.
Some ways of copulation seem identical to the mating processes of mankind, such
as most, but not all, mammalian reproduction, whereas others seem foreign by
contrast.

The fertilization process occurs both in plants and in animals. Of course, there
are variations in the details and mechanisms. Some of the similarities, on the other
hand, are striking. The moss plant, for instance, has both swimming sperm cells and
eggs. Fertilization happens in the moss plant by the sperm swimming to the egg.
Reproduction is also carried out by vertebrate animals via sperm and eggs.

For you to be more engaged in the lesson, do the following activity. Have
fun and good luck!

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Activity 1: Pick and Assign
Directions: Listed below are words that are related to plant reproduction and
animal reproduction. Determine which words are associated with plant
reproduction, animal reproduction or both. Write the words on the
labeled table below.

Cuttings Double fertilization Male gamete

Female gamete Pollination Testes
Male and female parent Zygote Ovary

PLANT ANIMAL BOTH PLANT AND

REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION ANIMAL
REPRODUCTION

Discover

In living species, reproduction is a distinctive feature. Over the years,

all living species have survived and grown by way of reproduction. Living
organisms reproduce and give rise to similar organisms of the same species.
Different species have different reproduction methods and processes.

Modes of Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
Reproduction is the biological mechanism by which the parents create
new species known as the offspring. It consists of two forms: sexual and
asexual reproduction. The distinction between the two forms lies in the
required number of parents for both types. Two parents are required for sexual
reproduction to give birth to the offspring. One single parent will give birth to
the offspring in asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is commonly seen
in plants, but in the animal kingdom, it is less common.

Types of asexual reproduction

Binary Fission
Bacteria and amoeba typically use this method of reproduction. The
DNA of the parent bacteria replicates itself in this form of reproduction
and then the cell divides into two halves, each half having its own DNA.
Therefore, the parent cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
These daughter cells are identical to the parent cell.

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 Figure 1. Binary fission
Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Binary_Fission_2.svg

Budding
In this type of asexual reproduction process, the offspring grows
on the parent body from a bud-like structure. This is usually seen in
Echinodermata and hydra. The buds fall off the parent body once large
enough, and begin their independent life.

Figure 2. Budding
Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hydra_Budding.svg

Fragmentation
The parent organism splits into several fragments or segments
in this form of asexual mode of reproduction, where each of the
fragments evolves into a new organism. Starfishes, which exhibit sexual
reproduction, also exhibit this type of asexual reproduction in which

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 an entirely new organism may be produced by a part of its body, such
as its arm.

Figure 3. Budding
Source:
https://www.shutterstock.com/search/fragment+planaria

Parthenogenesis
The female organism of the species generates eggs without
fertilization in this process of asexual reproduction, and the
offspring emerge from that. Lizards, few insects and some fishes
reproduce in this way. This reproductive form is not seen in
mammals. This kind of asexual reproduction is seen in both
plants and animals.

Types of asexual reproduction in plants

Vegetative propagation
This process of asexual reproduction takes place in the stems of
certain plants from certain buds that emerge on their leaves or stems,
giving rise to new plants. Tuber (potato), bulb (onion), stolon or runner
(strawberry), rhizome(ginger), sucker (banana), stem cutting (rose) and
leaf (welcome plant) are used as an example of such propagation.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two separate parents that belong to the
opposite sex. Both plants and animals exhibit this kind of reproduction.
Flowering plants undergo sexual reproduction.

Flower
A flower is the sexual reproductive organ in plants. Flowers are
often the most attractive structures of a plant. The flower’s anatomy can
be divided into following parts:
Calyx
These are green petal-like structures located right above
the receptacle called the base of the flower. Calyx is made up of

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 sepals. Their primary task is to safeguard the flower while it is still
in the bud process.
Corolla
Corolla is the name given to the collective colorful petals of
the flower. The petals of various flowers are found in different
colors and are often fragrant much of the time. It is the petals that
attract the pollinating agents. The corolla is found above the calyx
layer.
Androecium
The male reproductive section of a flower is the
androecium. It is made up of a series of stamens. Each stamen at
the top of it consists of a filament and anther. The anthers are
lobed structures that produce the male gamete-containing pollen.
Gynoecium
The gynoecium is the female reproductive organ of the
flower. It is composed of the ovary, style, and stigma. The style is
a slender filament on top of which lies the stigma that works to
retain pollen grains that are transferred. Once the pollen lands on
the stigma, it is moved downward to the ovary via the style. The
ovary is lobed and composed of the female gamete-containing
ovules.

Pollination and Fertilization

The pollen grains and ovules by themselves cannot travel from
one place to another. There are other factors such as wind, water, or
animals that enable the pollen grains to travel to reach the stigma of
the same or another flower. In plants, fertilization, which occurs after
pollination and germination, is a sexual reproduction process.
Fertilization can be defined as the fusion of the male gametes
(pollen) to form a diploid zygote with the female gametes (ovum). It is a
physicochemical mechanism that happens after the carpel is
pollinated. In the zygote, the full sequence of this process takes place
to develop into a seed.
Flowers play an important role in the fertilization process, since
they are angiosperm reproductive structures (flowering plants). When
gametes in haploid conditions fuse to create a diploid zygote, the
process of fertilization in plants occurs.
After the pollination of the carpel, the pollen grain germinates
and evolves into the style by forming the pathway to transfer the pollen
grain down to the ovary.

Types of Fertilization
Fertilization process can be grouped into three types and are classified
mainly based on the entry of the pollen tube into the ovule.
Porogamy
It is the common type of fertilization carried out in all angiosperms or
flowering plants. In this type of fertilization, the pollen tube enters the
ovule through the micropyle.

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 Chalazogamy
This type of fertilization is carried out on all Casuarina species of
plants. In this condition, the pollen tube enters the ovule through the
pollen tube.

Mesogamy
This type of fertilization is seen in all Cucurbit plants, such as
pumpkin, ridge gourds, bitter gourd and other gourd plants. In this
type of fertilization, the pollen tube enters the ovule through its middle
part or through the integuments of the ovule.

Double Fertilization
Double fertilization is a fertilization process characterized by the
fusion of two male gametes with a female gametophyte. One sperm cell
in this process fuses with the egg-producing zygote, and the other fuses
to create the endosperm with the two polar nuclei. Both angiosperm
plants undergo a dual process of fertilization.

Reproduction in Human Beings

In human beings, reproduction is by sexual reproduction in which both
male and female gametes fertilize to give birth to a zygote that develops into
an embryo. Fertilization takes place within the female's body thus, called
internal fertilization.
The Male Reproductive System
The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse and urination.
Semen and urine leave the penis through the urethra. The scrotum is a loose,
pouch-like sack of skin that covers the testicles and hangs behind the penis.
The scrotum has a protective role, including maintaining optimum
temperatures for the survival and function of the sperm. The tests must
maintain a temperature slightly cooler than natural body temperature in order
to produce sperm. Special muscles contract and relax in the wall of the
scrotum to move the testicles close to the body. Located at the back of the
testis is the epididymis that binds to the vas deferens. Its function is to store
sperm and carry it. The testis is the site of testosterone production.
Seminiferous tubules are the coiled collection of tubes within the testicles.
Spermatogenesis takes place within these tubules.
The male reproductive system's internal organs are called accessory
organs. They include the vas deferens, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and
bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands.
The vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra during
ejaculation. Seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that bind near the base of
the bladder to the vas deferens. The vesicles produce molecules which serve
as energy sources for sperm, such as fructose. Much of the amount of a man's
ejaculate consists of the seminal vesicle fluid. The prostate gland is a walnut-
sized organ in front of the rectum situated below the urinary bladder. It adds
extra fluid to the ejaculate, which acts as sperm nourishment. Bulbourethral
(Cowper's) glands are pea-sized structures situated just below the prostate
gland on the sides of the urethra. These glands contain a slick, clear fluid that

8
empties into the urethra directly. The fluid produced by these glands
lubricates the urethra and neutralizes residual urine-related acidity.

Figure 5. The male reproductive system

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Male_anatomy_en.svg

The Female Reproductive System

There are two main parts of the human female reproductive system: the
uterus and the ovaries, which contain egg cells for a woman.
The uterus hosts the fetus that is developing. It also produces vaginal
and uterine secretions. It also passes the anatomically male sperm through to
the fallopian tubes.
The ovaries produce the anatomically female eggs. They also produce
and secrete progesterone and estrogen.
These sections are internal; the vagina, which contains the labia,
clitoris, and urethra,
enters the external organs
at the vulva. The vagina is
connected via the cervix to
the uterus, while the
uterus, through the
fallopian tubes, is
attached to the ovaries.
The ovaries produce an
ovum at certain times,
which passes into the
uterus through the
fallopian tube.
If it meets sperm
during this transit, the
sperm penetrates and
merges with the egg,
fertilizing it. Generally,
fertilization occurs in the
oviducts, but can occur in Figure 6. The Female Reproductive System
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Male_
the uterus itself. Then the zygote implants itself in the uterine wall, where the
embryogenesis and morphogenesisanatomy_en.svg
process starts. When sufficiently

9
developed to survive outside the womb, the cervix dilates and uterine
contractions drive the fetus through the birth canal (vagina).
The ova are larger than sperm and they are formed by the time a female
baby is born. In anticipation of fertilization, an oogenesis process matures one
ovum approximately every month to be sent down the fallopian tube attached
to its ovary. This egg is flushed out of the system by menstruation if not
fertilized.
The vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix, and ovary are the
anatomically female inner reproductive organs.
Mons pubis, pudendal cleft, labia majora, labia minora, Bartholin's
glands, and clitoris form the external components.

Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development in Humans

Fertilization and early embryonic development is a complex and well-

regulated mechanism in which an organism grows from a single-celled zygote
into a multi-cellular organism. For ensuring the health of the body, the early
stages of embryonic development are also important .
The process of gametes (an egg and sperm) fusing to form a zygote is
fertilization. There is one set of chromosomes each in the egg and sperm. Just
one sperm must unite with one egg to ensure that the child has only one full
diploid set of chromosomes.
In mammals, a layer of extracellular matrix composed primarily of
glycoproteins called zona pellucida protects the egg. A series of biochemical
processes, called acrosomal reactions, take place when a sperm binds to the
zona pellucida. The acrosome produces digestive enzymes in placental
mammals that initiate the degradation of the glycoprotein matrix that protects
the egg and enables the sperm plasma membrane to fuse with the egg plasma
membrane. A variety of biochemical processes, called acrosomal reactions,
take place when a sperm binds to the zona pellucida. The acrosome produces
digestive enzymes in placental mammals that initiate the degradation of the
glycoprotein matrix that protects the egg and enables the plasma sperm
membrane to fuse with the plasma egg membrane (Figure 7). To ensure that
no more than one sperm fertilizes the egg, the egg releases proteins in other
places until the acrosomal reactions occur at one position of the egg
membrane to prevent other sperm from fusing with the egg. Multiple sperm
can fuse with the egg if this mechanism fails, resulting in polyspermia. The
embryo that results is not genetically viable and dies within a couple of days.

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 Figure 7. Fertilization in Humans
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2901_Sperm_Fertilization.jpg

Cleavage and Blastula Stage

A single-celled zygote, which undergoes rapid cell division to form the
blastula, starts the growth of multi-cellular species. The rapid, multiple cell
division rounds are called cleavage. After over 100 cells have been formed by
cleavage, the embryo is called a blastula.
The blastula is usually a spherical layer of cells around a fluid-filled or
yolk-filled cavity (the blastoderm) (the blastocoel). At this point, mammals
form a structure called the blastocyst, distinguished by an inner cell mass
that is different from the blastula surrounding it. Without an increase in mass,
the cells divide during cleavage; that is, one large single-celled zygote divides
into many smaller cells. Each cell is called a blastomere inside the blastula.

Gastrulation
A ball of cells is the typical blastula. Cells in the blastula are spatially
rearranged to create three layers of cells. This is called gastrulation. The
blastula folds upon itself during gastrulation to form the three cell layers.
Each of these layers is referred to as a germ layer, and various organ systems
are distinguished by each germ layer. The endoderm, the ectoderm, and the
mesoderm are the three germ layers that are seen in Figure 4. The ectoderm
gives rise to the epidermis and the nervous system. The mesoderm produces
the body's muscle cells and connective tissue. The endoderm gives rise to
columnar cells and several internal organs including the digestive system
(Figure 8).

Figure 8. The three germ

layers that give rise to
different cell types
in the animal body.

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Germ_layers.jpg

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 Organogenesis
Through the process of differentiation, organs form from the germ
layers. Embryonic stem cells express unique sets of genes during
differentiation, which will decide their ultimate type of cell. For example, genes
unique to skin cells will be expressed by certain cells in the ectoderm. As a
result, epidermal cells would be divided into these cells.
In vertebrates, the development of the neural system is one of the key
steps during organogenesis. Epithelial cells and tissues, and neural tissues,
form the ectoderm. Special signaling molecules called growth factors during
the development of the neural system signal those cells at the edge of the
ectoderm to become epidermis cells. The neural plate is created by the
remaining cells in the middle.
If growth factors were to block the signaling, then the entire ectoderm
would differentiate into neural tissue.
The neural plate undergoes a series of cell movements where it rolls up
and forms a tube called the neural tube. The neural tube will give rise to the
brain and the spinal cord in further development.
The mesoderm lying on either side of the neural tube of the vertebrate
will grow into the animal body's various connective tissues. A gene expression
spatial pattern reorganizes the mesoderm into groups of cells with gaps
between them, called somites. The somites, will grow further into the muscles
of the ribs, lungs, and segmental (spine).

Explore

Here are some enrichment activities for you to work on to master and
strengthen the basic concepts you have learned from this lesson.

Enrichment Activity 1
Differentiate plant reproduction from animal reproduction. Present your answer in a
tabular form.

Excellent (5-4) Good (3-2) Needs Improvement (1)

Content Correctness and Correctness and Correctness and
quantity of quantity of quantity of information
information is very information is is poor
good good
Tabular Information is well- Information is Information is poorly
Organization organized organized organized

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Enrichment Activity 2
Make a flowchart to show early embryonic development in humans. Start with the
zygote (12 pts.)

Rubric:

4-3 2-1
Symbols like arrows Symbols are present Symbols are absent in the
in the flowchart that flowchart. If present, these are
indicate the misplaced.
development flow.
Organization (x2) The flowchart is The flowchart is neat, however
neat, logically it is not logically organized, for
organized, and easily someone to understand other
understood by than the author.
someone other than
the author.

Great job! You have understood the lesson. Are

you now ready to summarize?

Deepen

At this point, you are now ready to apply the concepts of reproduction in food
production. Select from among the vegetative methods of plant propagation to
reproduce a certain plant. Grow at least 10 from the selected plant.

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 Lesson
Nutrition
2

Pretest: Read each question carefully then select the correct answer from the
given choices.

1. Which of the following when absent may cause calcium deficiency?

. A. Vitamin B B. Vitamin C C. Vitamin D D. Vitamin E

2. Which of the following enzymes splits fat globules into glycerol and fatty
acids?
A. amylase B. lipase C. sucrase D. trypsin

3. What plant part conveys water to the different parts of the plant?
A. leaf B. flower C. root D. stem

4. Which of the following is an example of an essential macronutrients in

plants?
A. Carbon B. Cobalt C. Manganese D.Sodium

5. Which of the following parts of the digestive system has the most important
role in nutrient absorption?
A. esophagus B. large intestine C. liver D. small intestine

Jumpstart

We engage in a lot of everyday tasks. A large amount of energy is needed to

carry out these activities. This energy comes from the food that we consume. Food is
essential as it provides the energy required for growth, repair, and other life
processes. All of these falls under the life process called nutrition.

Nutrients are the substances that provide the energy and biomolecules
necessary for the different functions of the body to be carried out. For proper
functioning and development, all living organisms need nutrients. But in how they
satisfy this demand, they show divergence. To satisfy their nutrient needs, some
animals feed on basic inorganic compounds, while others use complex compounds.
The mode of nutrition varies according to species.

For you to be more engaged in the lesson, do the following activity. Have
fun and good luck!
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Activity 1: Crackers in my Mouth
This activity shows how your saliva works in indigestion. (Before you start with step
1, read the questions in the observations part first).
Procedure:
Step 1. Put a regular cracker into your mouth and chew. Write down your
observations. down your observations.
Step 2. Place anew cracker in your mouth and let it sit for 1.5 minutes before chewing
and answer the questions in the observations part.

Observations:
What does it feel like initially?
What does it feel like after 1 minute in your mouth?
What does it feel like after 1.5 minutes in your mouth?
What does it feel like when you chew it?
What was the main texture difference in your mouth between chewing right away
and waiting 1.5 minutes before chewing down?

Discover

Nutrition is the mechanism by which food is taken in and converted

into energy and other essential nutrients that are needed for life.

Types of Nutrition
Broadly, there are two types of nutrition among living organisms .

Autotrophic Nutrition
In the autotrophic mode, species use simple inorganic materials such
as water and carbon dioxide to synthesize food on their own in the presence
of light and chlorophyll. In other words, to transform light energy into food,
such as glucose, the photosynthesis mechanism is used. The organisms
are called autotrophs. Some examples of autotrophic feeding are plants,
algae, and bacteria (cyanobacteria).

Heterotrophic Nutrition
Each organism is unable to prepare food on its own. For their nutrition,
such species rely on others. Heterotrophs are species which cannot
produce food on their own and rely on other sources/organisms.
Heterotrophs include fungi and all animals, including humans.
Depending on their climate and adaptations, heterotrophs can be of several
types. Some may eat plants (herbivores) and others may eat animals
(carnivores), although few eat both (omnivores).

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Nutrition in Plants
To sustain life, plant cells need essential substances, collectively called
nutrients. Plant nutrients may be composed of organic or inorganic
compounds. A chemical compound that contains carbon, such as carbon
dioxide derived from the atmosphere, is an organic compound. Minerals
are commonly referred to as inorganic substances which make up the
majority of the soil solution: those needed by plants include nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for structure and regulation.
Plants require only light, water and about 20 elements to support all
their biochemical needs: these 20 elements are called essential nutrients
(Table 1.)

Table 1. Essential Elements for Plant Growth

Macronutrients Micronutrients
Carbon (C) Iron (Fe)
Hydrogen (H) Manganese (Mn)
Oxygen (O) Boron (B)
Nitrogen (N) Molybdenum (Mo)
Phosphorus (P) Copper (Cu)
Potassium (K) Zinc (Zn)
Calcium (Ca) Chlorine (Cl)
Magnesium (M) Nickel (Ni)
Sulfur (S) Cobalt (Co)
Sodium (Na)
Silicon (Si)

Deficiencies in any of these nutrients can adversely affect the growth of

plants, particularly macronutrients. Depending on the particular nutrient,
a lack can cause stunted development, slow growth or chlorosis (yellowing
of the leaves).

Plants are special organisms that can absorb nutrients and water
through their root system as well as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Along with sunlight, the combination of soil nutrients, water, and carbon
dioxide enables plants to grow.
The essential component of all vascular plants is the roots. It is
primarily the function of this section of the plant to anchor it down to the
ground and absorb the necessary mineral elements, nutrients and water
from the soil. It is used to store food as well. Some plants have roots that
rise above the ground. These are called aerial roots.

Nutrition in Animals
To obtain nutrition and energy from food, a multi-step process is
involved. Ingestion is the first step which is the process of taking in food.
Digestion, absorption, and elimination follow ingestion.

Ingestion is the process of taking in food through the mouth. The teeth,
saliva and tongue play essential roles in chewing in vertebrates (preparing
the food into bolus). While the food is being broken down mechanically,
the saliva enzymes also begin to process the food chemically. These

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processes' combined action modifies the food from large particles to a soft
mass that can be swallowed and can travel the length of the esophagus.
The mechanical and chemical degradation of food into small organic
fragments is digestion. Macromolecules need to be broken down into
smaller molecules that are ideal for absorption in the digestive epithelium.
Before they can be absorbed by the digestive system, large, complex
molecules of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids must be reduced to smaller
particles such as simple sugar. In the digestive phase, different organs
perform unique roles. For nutritional balance, the animal diet requires
carbohydrates, protein, and fat, as well as vitamins and inorganic
components.

Figure 8. he Components of the Digestive System

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Blausen_0316_DigestiveSystem.png

Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth. The salivary enzyme
amylase starts the breakdown of maltose, a disaccharide, into food
starches. No major digestion of carbohydrates occurs as the food bolus
passes through the esophagus to the stomach. No digestive enzymes are
produced by the esophagus, but mucus is produced for lubrication. The
acidic state of the stomach stops the action of the amylase enzyme.
The next stage of carbohydrate digestion takes place in the duodenum.
Note that the chyme enters the duodenum from the stomach and interacts
with the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder digestive secretion. Amylase,
which starts the degradation of starch and glycogen into maltose, a
disaccharide, also contains pancreatic juices. The disaccharides are
broken down by maltases, sucrases, and lactases into monosaccharides.
The maltose breaks down into glucose with the enzyme maltase. Sucrase
breaks down glucose and fructose from sucrose (or 'table sugar'), and
lactase breaks down glucose and galactose from lactose (or 'milk sugar').
The monosaccharides (glucose) formed are absorbed and then can be used
for harnessing energy in metabolic pathways. The monosaccharides are

17
transferred through the intestinal epithelium into the bloodstream to be
carried to the various cells in the body (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Digestion of carbohydrates is performed by several enzymes.

Starch and glycogen are broken down into glucose by amylase and
maltase. Sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar) are broken
down by sucrase and lactase, respectively.
Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Figure_34_03_01.jpg

Protein
In the stomach, a large part of the digestion of protein
takes place. By breaking the intact protein down into peptides, which
are short chains of four to nine amino acids, the enzyme pepsin plays
an important role in the digestion of proteins. Many enzymes like
trypsin, elastase, and chymotrypsin act on the peptides in the
duodenum, reducing them to smaller peptides.
Enzymes called peptidases help further breakdown of peptides
to single amino acids (those that break down peptides). The amino acids
are ingested into the tiny intestines into the bloodstream.

Lipids
With the assistance of lingual lipase and gastric lipase, lipid
digestion starts in the stomach. However, owing to pancreatic lipase,
the majority of lipid digestion occurs in the small intestine. The
hormonal responses cause the release of bile, formed in the liver and
stored in the gallbladder, when chyme reaches the duodenum.
Bile helps to digest lipids, especially triglycerides.
Emulsification is a mechanism that breaks down large lipid globules
into many small lipid globules. Bile contains amphipathic bile
salts, meaning they contain sections that are hydrophobic and
hydrophilic. The hydrophilic side of the bile salts will therefore
interface with water on one side, while the hydrophobic side
interfaces with lipids on the other. Bile salts emulsify big lipid globules
into tiny lipid globules by doing this. Pancreatic lipases can then act
more effectively on the lipids and digest them. Lipases break the lipids
down into glycerides and fatty acids.

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 Vitamins
Vitamins can either be soluble in water or soluble in lipids.
Vitamins soluble in fat are absorbed in the same way as lipids. To help
the absorption of lipid-soluble vitamins, it is essential to consume some
amount of dietary lipid. Water-soluble vitamins can be absorbed from
the intestine directly into the bloodstream.

Elimination
Eliminating the undigested food content and waste products is the final
stage in digestion. The undigested food content reaches the large intestine,
where it reabsorbs much of the water. The semi-solid waste is
transferred by peristaltic muscle movements through the colon and is
deposited in the rectum. As the rectum expands in response to fecal matter
storage, it activates the neural signals needed to set up the desire to remove
them. Using peristaltic motions of the rectum, the solid waste is removed
via the anus.

Explore

Here are some enrichment activities for you to work on to master and
strengthen the basic concepts you have learned from this lesson.

Enrichment Activity 1
Differentiate plant from animal nutrition. Supply the correct answer in the table.

Plants Animals

Type of nutrition (autotrophic or heterotrophic)

Organs involved

Essential nutrients

Enrichment Activity 2.
Match the descriptions in column A with the terms in column B. Write
the letter of your answer on the space provided for before each number.
A B
____1. simplest component of a A. Carbohydrate
carbohydrate
____2. Composed of amino acids; building B. Disaccharide
blocks for body tissues
____3. Major source of energy composed of C. Lipid
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
____4. Starch or cellulose D. Monosaccharide

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 ____5. A fat made of fatty acids joined to one E. Protein
glycerol
____6. A sugar composed of two F. Polysaccharide
monosaccharides

Enrichment Activity 3.
Directions:
Illustrate the steps in human digestion. Label the organs involved and specify
the function/s of each.

Excellent (5-4) Good (3-2) Needs Improvement

(1)
Drawing and Illustrated Illustrated correctly but Illustrated
labels (x2) correctly with with few errors in the incorrectly with
complete labels labels errors in the labels
Functions Complete and Some functions are Functions are
correct missing. Some functions incomplete. Most
are incorrect. functions are
incorrect.

Great job! You have understood the lesson. Are

you now ready to summarize?

20
 Deepen

At this point, you are now ready to apply the concepts you learned on nutrition
to keeping a healthier life. Now more than ever, it's important for your immune
system to stay in tip-top shape during the COVID-19 pandemic. One of the best
ways to stay healthy is by maintaining a healthy diet. Hence, you are asked to
prepare a 2-day menu.

Rubric
Excellent (5-4) Good (3-2) Needs Improvement
(1)
Understanding The student has The student has The student does
researched and researched and not understand a
understands what partially healthy diet to stay
makes a healthy understands what in tip-top shape
diet to stay in tip- makes a healthy during the
top shape during diet to stay in tip- pandemic.
the pandemic. top shape during
the pandemic.
Product The student uses The student uses The student doesn’t
his/her knowledge the things they follow the
and successfully know to create a guidelines to
create a menu menu, but doesn’t successfully make
maintaining the follow the a menu.
guidelines and guidelines.
using the foods they
love.

21
 Gauge

Directions: Read carefully each question and select the correct answer from the
given choices. Use separate sheet of paper for your answers. Write the letter only.
Directions: Read carefully each question and select the correct answer from the
given choices. Use separate sheet of paper for your answers. Write the letter only.

1. Which type of reproduction can a strawberry plant be reproduced?

A. Asexual B. Sexual
C. Both sexual and asexual D. Neither sexual nor asexual

2. For sexual reproduction to happen, which of the following conditions must be

met?
A. The stamen must be inside the petals.
B. The male and female gametes must meet.
C. The pollen must be transferred by insects.
D. There must be nectar or scent present in the flower.

3. What is the process of transferring pollen to the stigma?

A. Fertilization B. Germination C. Pollination D.Seed dispersal

4. Which of the following reproductive method is observed in a planaria?

A. Budding B. Parthenogenesis C. Fragmentation D. Fission

5. Which of the following undergoes cleavage?

A. Egg cell B. ootid C. sperm cell D. zygote

6. Which recommendation is best for someone whose gall bladder is removed

from the body?
A. Increase fatty food intake B. Increase water consumption
C. Reduce intake of fatty food D. Reduce protein intake

7. Which of the following is incorrectly matched?

A. ovary: egg B. testis: sperm cell C. urethra: semen D. urethra: egg

8. What reproductive process does a bacterium exemplify?

A. budding B. cutting C. fission D. regeneration

9. Which of the following enzymes is involved in the digestion of proteins?

A. Amylase B. Lipase C. Pepsin D. Trypsin

10. Which organ secretes bile that emulsifies fats?

A. Intestine B. Liver C. Pancreas D. Stomach

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11. Which part of the digestive tract absorbs nutrients?
A. Large intestine B. Small intestine C. Rectum D. Stomach

12. In which of the following are fats, carbohydrates and proteins digested?
A. Large intestine B. Mouth C. Small intestine D. Stomach

13. Which of the following is NOT one of the three macronutrients that are most
essential for plant growth and development?
A. Nitrogen B. Phosphorus C. Potassium D. Sulfur

14. What process breaks down the stored food that we eat?
A. Digestion B. Elimination C. Excretion D. Respiration

15. What is the correct definition of nutrition? Nutrition _____

A. is the process of eating food.
B. are substances in foods that your body needs to grow.
C. is the measurement of the amount of energy available in foods.
D. is the process of taking in food and using it for energy, growth and good
health.

23
 24
Lesson 1. Reproduction and Development
Pre-Test
1. B
2. B
3. D
4. C
5. B
Activity 1
PLANT ANIMAL BOTH PLANT AND
REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION ANIMAL
REPRODUCTION
Cuttings Male and female Female gamete
Double fertilization parent Male gamete
Pollination Zygote
Testes
Ovary
Lesson 2. Nutrition
Pre-Test
1. D
2. B
3. C
4. A
5. D
Enrichment Activity 2
1. D
2. E
3. A
4. F
5. C
6. B
Gauge
1. C 6. C 11. B
2. B 7. D 12. C
3. C 8. A 13. D
4. C 9. C 14. A
5. D 10. B 15. D
Answer Key
References
Printed Materials:

Dela Peña, Renato Jr., Gracilla, Daniel and Pangilinan, Christian. 2016. General
Biology. Pasay City: JFS Publishing Services

Website:
“Animal and Plant Cycle”. 2018. Accessed at https://sciencing.com/animal-plant-
life-cycles-6392248.html

“The Male Reproductive System”. Accessed at

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/the-male-reproductive-
system/

“Introduction to Reproduction”. Accessed at

https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/how-do-organisms-reproduce/
reproduction -human-beings/

“The Female Reproductive System”. Accessed at

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/the-female-
reproductive-system/

“Fertilization”. Accessed at
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/fertilization/

“Organogenesis”. Accessed at https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-

biology2/chapter/organogenesis/

“Nutrition in Living Organisms and Modes of reproduction”. 2021. Accessed at

https://byjus.com/biology/nutrition-modes-living-organisms/

“Digestive System Process”. Accessed at

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/digestive-system-
processes/

“Digestive System Process”. Accessed at

https://teachwithfergy.com/the-crackers-bread-in-a-bag-digestive-system-
demonstrations/

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