Circut

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 2
For 1 st level students of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Department (code ELC-123)
Lecture Notes Prepared by
Dr. Mohamed Hamdy El-Saify

2023-2024
‫رؤية ورسالة المعهد‬
: ‫رؤية المعهد‬
ٍ‫َسعً يعهذ األهشاياث انعانٍ نههُذست وانتكُىنىجُا ألٌ َصبح أحذ انًعاهذ انشائذة وانًصُفت عانًُا فً يجال انتعهُى انهُذس‬
.‫وانتكُىنىجٍ انزٌ َىاصٌ بٍُ ئحتُاجاث انتًُُت انًحهُت وانًتغُشاث وانتحذَاث انعانًُت‬
Vision:
The Pyramids Higher Institute (PHI) for Engineering and Technology is working hard to be
one of the leading and globally ranked institutes in the field of engineering and
technological education which balances the needs of local development together with the
global variables and challenges.
:‫رسالة المعهد‬
‫ يهتضيٍُ بأخالقُاث انًهُت ويإههٍُ نتهبُت‬،‫َهتضو يعهذ األهشاياث انعانٍ نههُذست وانتكُىنىجُا باعذاد خشَجٍُ روي كفاءة عانُت‬
‫ قادسٍَ عهً يىاكبت انتطىساث انهُذسُت وانتكُىنىجُا انحذَثت وانًشاسكت انفعانت وانبُاءة فٍ تًُُت‬،‫احتُاجاث ويتطهباث سىق انعًم‬
‫ يع االستقاء‬،‫ كًا َإكذ انًعهذ ئنتضايه َحى تفعُم وتطىَش انبحىث انعهًُت وانتطبُقُت نتقذَى أفضم انخذياث نهًجتًع‬.‫وتطىَش انًجتًع‬
. ‫بانعًهُت انتعهًُُت‬
Mission:
The Pyramids Higher Institute (PHI) for Engineering and Technology commits to prepare
highly qualified graduates, who are committed to professional ethics and qualified to fulfill
the needs and requirements of the labor market and capable of keeping up with modern
technological and engineering development as well as constructive and effective
participation in the society development. The institute also assures its commitment towards
the activation and developing scientific and applied researches to provide the best service to
the society, while upgrading the educational process.
PREFACE
T his book is the second course of Electrical circuits. It expands the knowledge acquired
during the first course to include AC circuits, magnetic coupled circuits and its
applications. In addition, other methods of circuit analysis are introduced such as frequency
response analysis and Laplace transform. Two port networks and three phase circuits are
introduced in moderate details too.
Electrical engineering is an exciting and challenging profession for anyone who has a
genuine interest in, and aptitude for, applied science and mathematics. Electrical engineers
play a dominant role in developing systems that change the way people live and work.
Satellite communication links, cell phones, computers, televisions, diagnostic and surgical
medical equipment, robots, and aircraft represent systems that define a modern
technological society. As an electrical engineer, you can participate in this ongoing
technological revolution by improving and refining existing systems and by discovering
and developing new systems to meet the needs of our ever-changing society.
The book is supported by many features to ease the understanding of the course as
follows:
Main concept or definition
• Main equations, concepts and definitions are outlined by a second-color

background box, as this one, in order to increase the focus on the important
notations.
• To develop problem-solving skills, Analysis Methods are presented. Many students

struggle just to get started when analyzing a circuit, and the analysis methods will
reduce that struggle.
Analysis Method
Analysis Methods are used to identify the steps needed to apply a particular circuit
analysis technique.
• Many examples are included to increase the and refine the problem-solving skills.
The examples may be presented in separate supplement book.
• In order to provide the students by the ability to assess themselves in problem
solving, many online exercises are included. The student can follow the link, solve
the exercise, and get immediate evaluation of his answer.
Online exercise
https://my_online_excercise.
• The book is supported by many online supplement material which may include
videos, multimedia files and websites. It is showed in a box formatted as follows:
Supplement material
https://mhelsaify.wordpress.com/
As introductory course, It is important to very important concept. Engineering study is

very correlated to almost all branches of science. Engineers and scientist study the same
subjects but for different objectives. It is very important to know what is Engineering and its
main objective. The following video provides brief explanation of engineering and how to
become an engineer. In addition, it declares the similarities and differences between
Engineers and scientists.
How to become an Engineer?
What is Engineering and how to become an engineer.
How to become an engineer

The study of Engineering is divided on many courses during five academic years. By
the time, many students lose the overall picture and study the courses as isolated islands.
They do not know the connection between all courses, and how each course is related to its
successor or predecessor. The connection between courses is actually the story of
engineering and how we reached our modern technology. The following video connects the
dots of basic courses in engineering study.
Story of Engineering
The connections between main courses in engineering study, which is actually the
story of engineering and how we reached our modern technology.
Story of electrical engineering
I anticipate that this book will assist students in comprehending and proficiently
grasping the fundamental concepts addressed throughout the course. I would greatly
appreciate any reviews, feedback, or suggestions to enhance the quality of this book. The
errata file for this book can be accessed through the following link: Errata file
With my best wishes,
Dr. Mohamed Hamdy El-Saify
https://mhelsaify.wordpress.com/
https://www.youtube.com/MohamedhamdyElSaify
m.hamdy.3500@gmail.com
ELC-124 ELECTRONICS 1 2023-2024
TABLE OF CONTENTS
‫ سؤَت وسسانت انًعهذ‬...................................................................................................................... 2
PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................ 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 1: Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis ...................................................................... 7
1.1 The Sinusoidal Source ............................................................................................... 7

1.2 The Sinusoidal Response......................................................................................... 10
1.3 The Phasor ................................................................................................................. 11
1.3.1 Inverse Phasor Transform ................................................................................ 12
1.4 The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain ................................... 13
1.4.1 The V-I Relationship for a Resistor ................................................................. 13
1.4.2 The V-I Relationship for an Inductor ............................................................. 14
1.4.3 The V-I Relationship for a Capacitor .............................................................. 16
1.4.4 Impedance and Reactance................................................................................ 17
1.5 Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain ........................................................ 18
1.6 Series, Parallel, and Delta-to-Wye Simplifications .............................................. 20
1.7 Source Transformations and Thévenin–Norton Equivalent Circuits ............... 24
1.8 The Node-Voltage Method ..................................................................................... 25
1.9 The Mesh-Current Method ..................................................................................... 28
PAGE 6
Dr. Mohamed Hamy El-Saify
CHAPTER 1: SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE

ANALYSIS
T hus far, we have focused on circuits with constant sources; in this chapter we are
now ready to consider circuits energized by sinusoidal voltage or current
sources. For these circuits, we will calculate the values of the specified output voltages
and currents in the steady state. The complete response of the circuits, in general, is the
sum of the transient (or natural) response and the steady-state response. Our
analysis will only characterize a circuit’s response once the transient component has
decayed to zero.
Sinusoidal sources and their effect on circuit behavior form an important area of
study for several reasons.
• Generating, transmitting, distributing, and consuming electric energy occurs

under essentially sinusoidal steady-state conditions.
• Understanding sinusoidal behavior makes it possible to predict the behavior of
circuits with nonsinusoidal sources.
• Specifying the behavior of an electrical system in terms of its steady-state
sinusoidal response simplifies the design. If the system satisfies the specifications,
the designer knows that the circuit will respond satisfactorily to nonsinusoidal
inputs.
1.1 The Sinusoidal Source

A sinusoidal voltage source (independent or dependent) produces a voltage that
varies sinusoidally with time. A sinusoidal current source (independent or dependent)
produces a current that varies sinusoidally with time.
We can express a sinusoidally varying function with either the sine function or the
cosine function. Although they work equally well, we cannot use both functional forms
simultaneously. We will use the cosine function throughout our discussion. Hence, we
write a sinusoidally varying voltage as
PAGE 7
(1.1)
To aid discussion of the parameters in Eq. 1.1, we show the voltage versus time plot
in Fig. 1.1. The coefficient Vm gives the maximum amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage.
Because ±1 bounds the cosine function, ±Vm bounds the amplitude, as seen in Fig. 1.1.
You can also see that the sinusoidal function repeats at regular intervals; therefore, it is a
periodic function. A periodic function is characterized by the time required for the
function to pass through all its possible values. This time is the period of the function, T.
and is measured in seconds. The reciprocal of T gives the number of cycles per second,
or the frequency, of the periodic function, and is denoted f, so
(1.2)
Fig 1.1 A sinusoidal voltage.
A cycle per second is called a hertz, abbreviated Hz. (The term cycles per second rarely is
used in contemporary technical literature.)
Now look at the coefficient of t in Eq. 1.1. Omega (ω) represents the angular
frequency of the sinusoidal function and is related to both T and f:
(1.3)
Equation 1.3 tells us that the cosine (or sine) function passes through a complete set of
values each time its argument, ωt, passes through 2π rad (360°). From Eq. 1.3, we see that
whenever t is an integral multiple of T, the argument ωt increases by an integral multiple
of 2π rad.
The angle φ in Eq. 1.1 is the phase angle of the sinusoidal voltage. It determines
the value of the sinusoidal function at t = 0; therefore, it fixes the point on the periodic
wave where we start measuring time. Changing the phase angle φ shifts the sinusoidal
function along the time axis but has no effect on either the amplitude (Vm) or the angular
frequency (ω). Note, for example, that reducing φ to zero shifts the sinusoidal function
shown in Fig. 1.1 φ / ω time units to the right, as shown in Fig. 1.2. When compared with
a sinusoidal function with φ = 0, a sinusoidal function with a positive φ is shifted to the
left, while a sinusoidal function with a negative φ is shifted to the right.
PAGE 8
Fig. 1.2 The sinusoidal voltage from Fig. 1.1 shifted to the right when φ = 0.
Remember that ω t and φ must carry the same units because the argument of the
sinusoidal function is (ωt + φ). With ωt expressed in radians, you would expect φ to also
be in radians. However, φ normally is given in degrees, and ωt is converted from radians
to degrees before the two quantities are added. The conversion from radians to degrees
is given by
Another important characteristic of the sinusoidal voltage (or current) is its rms
value. The rms value of a periodic function is defined as the square root of the mean
value of the squared function. Hence, if v = Vm cos(ωt + φ), the rms value of v is
(1.4)
Note from Eq. 1.4 that we obtain the mean value of the squared voltage by integrating v2
over one period (that is, from t0 to t0 + T) and then dividing by the range of integration, T.
Note further that the starting point for the integration t0 is arbitrary.
The quantity under the square root sign in Eq. 1.4 reduces to Vm2/2. Hence, the rms
value of v is
RMS VALUE OF SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE SOURCE
𝑉𝑚 (1.5)
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
The rms value of the sinusoidal voltage depends only on the maximum amplitude of v,
namely, Vm. The rms value is not a function of either the frequency or the phase angle.
PAGE 9
1.2 The Sinusoidal Response

As stated in the Introduction, this chapter focuses
on the steady-state response to sinusoidal sources. But
we begin by characterizing the total response, which
will help you keep the steady-state solution in
perspective. The circuit shown in Fig. 1.5 describes the
general problem, where vs is a sinusoidal voltage Fig. 1.3 An RL circuit excited by a
described by sinusoidal voltage source.
For convenience, we assume the circuit’s initial current is zero, and we measure
time from the moment the switch is closed. We want to find i(t) for t ≥ 0, using a method
similar to the one used when finding the step response of an RL circuit. But here, the
voltage source is time-varying sinusoidal voltage rather than a constant voltage.
Applying KVL to the circuit in Fig. 1.5 gives us the ordinary differential equation
(1.6)
The solution for Eq. 1.6 is discussed in an introductory course in differential

equation. The solution for i is
(1.7)
where
Thus, we can easily determine θ for a circuit driven by a sinusoidal source of known
frequency.
Look carefully at the two terms on the right-hand side of Eq. 1.7. The first term is a
decaying exponential function whose time constant is τ = L/R. This term is the transient
component of the current because it decays to zero as t → ∞. Remember that this
transient component has less than 1% of its initial value when t = 5τ.
The second term is a cosine whose frequency is ω, the same as the frequency of the
voltage source. This is the steady-state component of the current because it persists as
long as the switch remains closed and the source continues to supply the sinusoidal
voltage. In this chapter, we find only the steady-state response of circuits with sinusoidal
sources; that is, we find the response once its transient component has decayed to zero.
We develop a technique for calculating the steady-state response directly, thus avoiding
PAGE 10
the problem of solving the differential equation. However, when we use this technique,
we cannot find either the transient component or the total response.
Using the steady-state component of Eq. 1.7, we identify four important

characteristics of the steady-state solution:
1. The steady-state solution is a cosine function, just like the circuit’s source.
2. The frequency of the solution is identical to the frequency of the source. This
condition is always true in a linear circuit when the circuit parameters, R, L,
and C, are constant.
3. The maximum amplitude of the steady-state response, in general, differs
from the maximum amplitude of the source. For the circuit in Fig. 1.5, the
maximum amplitude of the current is 𝑉𝑚 / 𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 , while the maximum
amplitude of the source is Vm.
4. The phase angle of the steady-state response, in general, differs from
the phase angle of the source. For the circuit being discussed, the
phase angle of the current is φ - θ, and that of the voltage source is φ.
These characteristics motivate the phasor method, which we introduce in
Section 1.3. Note that finding only the steady-state response means finding only its
maximum amplitude and phase angle. The waveform and frequency of the steady-
state response are already known because they are the same as the circuit’s source.
1.3 The Phasor

A phasor is a complex number that carries the amplitude and phase angle
information of a sinusoidal function. The phasor concept is rooted in Euler’s identity,
which relates the exponential function to the trigonometric function:
Euler’s identity gives us another way of representing the cosine and sine
functions. We can think of the cosine function as the real part of the exponential function
and the sine function as the imaginary part of the exponential function; that is,
cos 𝜃 = ℛ ejθ
and
sin 𝜃 = 𝒥 ejθ
where ℛ means “the real part of” and ℐ means “the imaginary part of.” Because we chose
to use the cosine function to represent sinusoidal signals, we can apply Euler’s identity
PAGE 11
directly. In particular, we write the sinusoidal voltage function given in Eq. 1.1 by
replacing the cosine function with the real part of the complex exponential:
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝑉𝑚 ℛ 𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔𝑡 +𝜙) = 𝑉𝑚 ℛ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝜙
We can move the constant Vm inside the argument of the ℛ function without altering the
equation. We can also reverse the order of the two exponential functions inside the
argument and write the voltage as
𝑣 = ℛ 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
In this expression for the voltage, note that the quantity Vm ejφ is a complex number that
carries the amplitude and phase angle of the cosine function we started with (Eq. 1.1).
We define this complex number as the phasor representation, or phasor transform, of
the given sinusoidal function. Thus
PHASOR TRANSFORM
𝐕 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 = 𝒫 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) (1.8)
where the notation 𝒫 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) is read as “the phasor transform of 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 +

𝜙).” Thus, the phasor transform transfers the sinusoidal function from the time domain
to the complex-number domain, which is also called the frequency domain, since the
response depends, in general, on ω. As in Eq. 9.8, throughout this book we represent a
phasor quantity by using a boldface capital letter.
Equation 1.8 is the polar form of a phasor, but we also can express a phasor in
rectangular form. Thus, we rewrite Eq. 1.8 as
Both polar and rectangular forms are useful in circuit applications of the phasor concept.
We see from Eq. 1.8 that phasors always have the form Aejφ, where
A is the amplitude of the underlying voltage or current. It is common to
abbreviate phasors using the angle notation 𝐴∠𝜙°, where
We use this angle notation extensively in the material that follows.
1.3.1 Inverse Phasor Transform
Using Eq. 1.8, we can transform a sinusoidal function to a phasor. We

can also reverse the process; that is, we can transform a phasor back to
PAGE 12
the original sinusoidal function. If V = 100∠−26° V, the expression for v is 100 cos(ωt −
26°) V because we have decided to use the cosine function for all sinusoids. Notice that
the phasor cannot give us the value of ω because it carries only amplitude and phase
information. When we transform a phasor to the corresponding time-domain expression,
we use the inverse phasor transform function, as shown in the equation
INVERSE PHASOR TRANSFORM
𝒫 −1 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = ℛ 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 ° ) (1.9)
where the notation 𝒫 −1 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 is read as “the inverse phasor transform

𝑗𝜃
of 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 .” Using Eq. 1.9, we find the inverse phasor transform by multiplying the phasor
by ejωt and extracting the real part of the product.
1.4 The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain

Applying the phasor transform in circuit analysis is a two-step process.
1. Establish the relationship between the phasor current and the phasor voltage at
the terminals of the passive circuit elements. We complete this step in this section,
analyzing the resistor, inductor, and capacitor in the phasor domain.
2. Develop the phasor-domain version of Kirchhoff’s laws, which we discuss in
Section 1.5.
1.4.1 The V-I Relationship for a Resistor
From Ohm’s law, if the current in a resistor is i = Im cos(ωt + θi),

the voltage at the terminals of the resistor, as shown in Fig. 1.7, is
Fig 1.7 A resistive element

carrying a sinusoidal
current.
where Im is the maximum amplitude of the current in amperes and θi is the phase angle
of the current.
The phasor transform of this voltage is
But Im∠θi is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal current, so we can write the
voltage phasor as
PAGE 13
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHASOR VOLTAGE AND PHASOR CURRENT

FOR A RESISTOR
𝐕 = 𝑅𝐈 (1.10)
which states that the phasor voltage at the terminals of a resistor

is the resistance times the phasor current—the phasor version of
Ohm’s law. Figure 1.8 shows the circuit diagram for a resistor in the
frequency domain. Fig. 1.8 The frequency-
domain equivalent circuit
Equation 1.10 contains an important piece of of a resistor.
information—namely, that at the terminals
of a resistor, there is no phase shift
between the current and voltage. Figure
1.9 depicts this phase relationship, where
the phase angle of both the voltage and
the current waveforms is 60°. The signals
are said to be in phase because they both
reach corresponding values on their
respective curves at the same time (for
example, they are at their positive maxima Fig. 1.9 A plot showing that the voltage and current
at the same instant). at the terminals of a resistor are in phase.
1.4.2 The V-I Relationship for an Inductor
We derive the relationship between the phasor current and phasor voltage at the
terminals of an inductor by assuming a sinusoidal current and using Ldi/dt to establish
the corresponding voltage. Thus, for i = Im cos(ωt + θi), the expression for the voltage is
We now replace the sine function with the cosine function:
The phasor representation of the voltage is then
Note that, in deriving the expression for the phasor voltage, we used the identity
PAGE 14
Also, Im∠θi is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal current, so we can express the
phasor voltage in terms of the phasor current:

FOR AN INDUCTOR
𝐕 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈 (1.11)
Equation 1.11 states that the phasor voltage at the terminals of an

inductor equals jωL times the phasor current. Figure 1.10 shows the
frequency-domain equivalent circuit for the inductor. Note that the
relationship between phasor voltage and phasor current for an Fig. 1.10 The frequency-
inductor also applies for the mutual inductance in one coil due domain equivalent circuit
for an inductor.
to current flowing in another mutually coupled coil. That is,
the phasor voltage at the terminals of one coil in a mutually
coupled pair of coils equals jωM times the phasor current in the other coil.
We can rewrite Eq. 1.11 as
which indicates that the voltage and current are out of phase by exactly 90°. Specifically,
the voltage leads the current by 90°, or, equivalently, the current lags the voltage by 90°.
Figure 1.11 illustrates the concept of voltage leading current or current lagging
voltage. For example, the voltage reaches its negative peak exactly 90° before the
current reaches its negative peak. The same observation can be made with respect to the
zero-going-positive crossing or the positive peak.
Fig. 1.11 A plot showing the phase relationship between the current and voltage at the terminals of an
inductor (θi = 60°).
We can also express the phase shift in seconds. A phase shift of 90° corresponds to
one-fourth of a period; hence, the voltage leads the current by T/4, or 1/(4f) second.
PAGE 15
1.4.3 The V-I Relationship for a Capacitor
To determine the relationship between the phasor current and phasor voltage at the
terminals of a capacitor, we start with the relationship between current and voltage for a
capacitor in the time domain,
and assume that
Therefore,
We now rewrite the expression for the current using the cosine function:
The phasor representation of the current is
Since Vm∠θi is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal voltage, we can express the
current phasor in terms of the voltage phasor as
Now express the voltage phasor in terms of the current phasor, to conform to the phasor
equations for resistors and inductors:

FOR A CAPACITOR
1 (1.12)
𝐕= 𝐈
𝑗𝜔𝐶
Equation 1.12 demonstrates that the equivalent circuit for the capacitor in the phasor
domain is as shown in Fig. 1.12.
The voltage across the terminals of a capacitor lags behind the current
by 90°. We can show this by rewriting Eq. 1.12 as
PAGE 16
Thus, we can also say that the current leads the voltage by 90°. Figure 1.13 shows the
phase relationship between the current and voltage at the terminals of a capacitor.
Fig. 1.12 The frequency Fig. 1.13 A plot showing the phase relationship
domain equivalent circuit between the current and voltage at the
of a capacitor. terminals of a capacitor (θi = 60°).
1.4.4 Impedance and Reactance
We conclude this discussion of passive circuit elements in the frequency

domain with an important observation. When we compare Eqs. 1.10, 1.11,
and 1.12, we note that they are all of the form
DEFINITION OF IMPEDANCE
𝐕 = 𝑍𝐈 (1.13)
where Z represents the impedance of the circuit element. Solving for Z in Eq. 1.13, you
can see that impedance is the ratio of a circuit element’s voltage phasor to its current
phasor. Thus, the impedance of a resistor is R, the impedance of an inductor is jωL, the
impedance of mutual inductance is jωM, and the impedance of a capacitor is 1/jωC. In all
cases, impedance is measured in ohms. Note that, although impedance is a complex
number, it is not a phasor. Remember, a phasor is a complex number that results from
the phasor transform of a cosine waveform. Thus, although all phasors are complex
numbers, not all complex numbers are phasors.
Impedance in the frequency domain is the quantity analogous to resistance,

inductance, and capacitance in the time domain. The imaginary part of the impedance is
called reactance. The values of impedance and reactance for each of the component
values are summarized in Table 1.1.
PAGE 17
And, finally, a reminder. The passive sign convention holds in the frequency
domain. If the reference direction for the current phasor in a circuit element is in the
direction of the voltage phasor rise across the element, you must insert a minus sign into
the equation that relates the voltage phasor to the current phasor.
Table 1.1 Impedance and reactance values.
Circuit element Impedance Reactance

Resistor R -
Inductor jωL ωL
Capacitor j(−1/ωC) (−1/ωC)
1.5 Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
We begin by assuming that v1, v2, . . ., vn represent voltages around a closed path in
a circuit. We also assume that the circuit is operating in a sinusoidal steady state. Thus,
Kirchhoff’s voltage law requires that
which in the sinusoidal steady state becomes
We now use Euler’s identity to write the KVL equation as
which we simplify as
Factoring the term ejωt from each term yields
or
But ejωt ≠ 0, so
PAGE 18
KVL IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
𝐕𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐 + 𝐕𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐕𝒏 = 0 (1.14)
which is the statement of Kirchhoff’s voltage law as it applies to phasor voltages.
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
A similar derivation applies to a set of sinusoidal currents. Thus, if
Then
KCL IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐈𝒏 = 0 (1.15)
where I1, I2, c, In are the phasor representations of the individual currents i1, i2, ..., in. Thus,
Eq. 1.15 states Kirchhoff’s current law as it applies to phasor currents.
Equations 1.13, 1.14, and 1.15 form the basis for circuit analysis in the frequency
domain. Note that Eq. 1.13 has the same algebraic form as Ohm’s law and that Eqs. 1.14
and 1.15 state Kirchhoff’s laws for phasor quantities. Therefore, you can use all the
techniques developed for analyzing resistive circuits to find phasor currents and
voltages. No new analytical techniques are needed; the basic circuit analysis and
simplification tools covered in Electrical circuits (1) course can all be used to analyze
circuits in the frequency domain.
Phasor-circuit analysis consists of two fundamental tasks:
(1) You must be able to construct the frequency-domain model of a circuit;

and
(2) you must be able to manipulate complex numbers and/or quantities
algebraically.
Example
Four branches terminate at a common node. The reference direction of each branch
current (i1, i2, i3, and i4) is toward the node.
If i1 = 100 cos(ωt + 25°) A, i2 = 100 cos(ωt + 145°) A, and i3 = 100 cos(ωt - 95°) A,
find i4.
PAGE 19
Solution
𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟒 = 0
i2
i1 i3
i4
Fig. 1.14 Four branches terminate at a common node
_____________________________________________________________________________
1.6 Series, Parallel, and Delta-to-Wye Simplifications

The rules for combining impedances in series or parallel and for making delta-to-
wye transformations are the same as those for resistors. The only difference is that
combining impedances involves the algebraic manipulation of complex numbers.
COMBINING IMPEDANCES IN SERIES
Impedances in series can be combined into a single equivalent impedance whose

value is the sum of the individual impedances. The circuit shown in Fig. 1.15 defines the
problem in general terms. The impedances Z1, Z2, ... , Zn are connected in series between
terminals a,b. When impedances are in series, they carry the same phasor current I. From
Eq. 1.13, the voltage drop across each impedance is Z1I, Z2I, ... , ZnI, and from Kirchhoff’s
voltage law,
Fig. 1.15 Impedances in series.
The equivalent impedance between terminals a,b is
PAGE 20
COMBINING IMPEDANCES IN SERIES
(1.16)
Remember that we can use voltage division to find the voltage across a single
component from a collection of series-connected components. We derived the voltage
division equation using the equation for the equivalent resistance of series-connected
resistors. Using the same process, we can derive the voltage division equation for
frequency-domain circuits, where Vs is the voltage applied to a collection of series-
connected impedances, Vj is the voltage across the impedance Zj, and Zeq is the
equivalent impedance of the series-connected impedances:
VOLTAGE DIVISION IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
(1.17)
Example
A resistor, a 50 mH inductor, and a 32 μF capacitor are connected in series. The series-

connected elements are energized by a sinusoidal voltage source whose voltage is 25 cos
(500t - 60∘)V. a) Draw the frequency-domain equivalent circuit. b) Reference the current
in the direction of the voltage rise across the source, and find the phasor current. c) Find
the steady-state expression for i(t).
Solution
PAGE 21
COMBINING IMPEDANCES IN PARALLEL
Impedances connected in parallel can be reduced to an equivalent impedance using

the reciprocal relationship
COMBINING IMPEDANCES IN PARALLEL
(1.18)
Figure 1.16 depicts the parallel connection of impedances. Note that when
impedances are in parallel, they have the same voltage across their terminals. We derive
Eq. 1.18 directly from Fig. 1.16 by combining Kirchhoff’s current law with the phasor-
domain version of Ohm’s law, that is, Eq. 1.13. From Fig. 1.16,
or
Fig. 1.16 Impedances in parallel.
Canceling the common voltage term from both sides gives us Eq. 1.18.
From Eq. 1.18, for the special case of just two impedances in parallel,
(1.19)
We can also express Eq. 1.18 in terms of admittance, defined as the reciprocal of
impedance and denoted Y. Thus
PAGE 22
Admittance is a complex number whose real part, G, is called conductance and whose
imaginary part, B, is called susceptance. Like admittance, conductance and susceptance
are measured in siemens (S). Replacing impedances with admittances in Eq. 9.18, we get
The admittance of each of the ideal passive circuit elements also is worth noting and is
summarized in Table 1.2. Finally, remember that we can use current division to find the
current in a single branch from a collection of parallel-connected branches whose total
current is known.
Table 1.2 Admittance and Susceptance Values.
Circuit element Impedance Reactance

Resistor G (conductance) -
Inductor j(−1/ωL) −1/ωL
Capacitor jωC ωC
Using the same process, we can derive the current division equation for frequency-
domain circuits, where Is is the current supplied to a collection of parallel-connected
impedances, Ij is the current in the branch containing impedance Zj, and Zeq is the
equivalent impedance of the parallel-connected impedances:
CURRENT DIVISION IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
(1.20)
We use Eq. 1.18 to calculate the equivalent impedance in Eq. 1.20.
DELTA-TO-WYE TRANSFORMATIONS
The ∆-to-Y transformation for resistive circuits, discussed in time domain, also
applies to impedances. Figure 1.17 defines the ∆-connected impedances along with the
Y-equivalent circuit. The Y impedances as functions of the ∆ impedances are
(1.21)
(1.22)
(1.23)
PAGE 23
Fig. 1.17 The delta-to-wye transformation
The ∆-to-Y transformation also may be reversed; that is, we can start with the Y
structure and replace it with an equivalent ∆ structure. The ∆ impedances as functions of
the Y impedances are
(1.24)
(1.25)
(1.26)
1.7 Source Transformations and Thévenin–Norton Equivalent

Circuits
The source transformations and the Thévenin–Norton equivalent circuits discussed
in time-domain analysis are analytical techniques that also can be applied to frequency-
domain circuits. Figure 1.18 shows a source-transformation equivalent circuit in the
frequency domain.
Fig. 1.18 A source transformation in the frequency domain.
Figure 1.19 illustrates the frequency-domain version of a Thévenin equivalent

circuit, and Figure 1.20 shows the frequency-domain equivalent of a Norton equivalent
circuit. The techniques for finding the Thévenin equivalent voltage and impedance are
PAGE 24
identical to those used for resistive circuits, except that the frequency-domain equivalent
circuit involves phasors and complex numbers. The same holds for finding the Norton
equivalent current and impedance.
Fig. 1.19 The frequency-domain version of a Thévenin equivalent circuit.
Fig. 1.20 The frequency-domain version of a Norton equivalent circuit.
1.8 The Node-Voltage Method

In time-domain analysis, we introduced the node-voltage method of circuit
analysis. We can use this analysis method to find the steady-state response for circuits
with sinusoidal sources. We need to make a few modifications:
 If the circuit is in the time domain, it must be transformed to the appropriate

frequency domain. To do this, transform known voltages and currents to phasors,
replace unknown voltages and currents with phasor symbols, and replace the
component values for resistors, inductors, mutually coupled coils, and capacitors
with their impedance values.
 Follow the steps in Analysis Method (introduced in time-domain analysis) to find the
values of the unknown voltage and current phasors of interest.
 Apply the inverse phasor transform to the voltage and current phasors to find the
steady-state values of the corresponding voltages and currents in the time domain.
Example
Use the node-voltage method to find the branch currents ia, ib, and ic in the steady-state,
for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.21. The value of the current source in this circuit is is = 10.6
cos(500t) A.
PAGE 25
Fig. 1.21 The circuit for the Example.
Solution
We begin by transforming the circuit into the frequency domain. To do this, we replace
the value of the current source with its phasor transform, 10.6 ∠ 10° A. We also replace
the currents ia, ib, ic, and ix with corresponding phasor symbols Ia, Ib, Ic, and Ix. Then we
replace the inductor and capacitor values with their impedances, using the frequency of
the source:
The resulting frequency-domain circuit is shown in Fig. 1.22.
Fig. 1.22 The circuit in Fig. 1.21, transformed into the frequency domain.
Now we can employ Analysis Method of node-voltage method introduced in time-

domain analysis.
Step 1: The circuit has three essential nodes, two at the top and one on the bottom. We
will need two KCL equations to describe the circuit.
Step 2: Four branches terminate on the bottom node, so we select it as the reference node
and label the node voltages at the remaining essential nodes. The results of the first two
steps are shown in Fig.1.23.
Step 3: Apply KCL at the nonreference essential nodes to give
PAGE 26
and
The circuit has a dependent source, so we need a dependent source constraint equation
that defines Ix in terms of the node voltages:
Fig. 1.23 The circuit shown in Fig. 1.22, with the node voltages defined.
Step 4: Solve the three equations from Step 3 for V1, V2, and Ix:
Step 5: Use the phasor values from Step 4 to find the three branch currents from Fig. 1.22:
We find the steady-state values of the branch currents in the time-domain circuit of Fig.
1.22 by applying the inverse phasor transform to the results of Step 5. Remember that the
frequency of the current source in the circuit is 500 rad/s. The results are
PAGE 27
1.9 The Mesh-Current Method

We can also use the mesh-current method introduced in time-domain analysis to
analyze frequency-domain circuits. If a problem begins with a circuit in the time domain,
it needs to be transformed into the frequency domain. Then, the Analysis Method
introduced in time domain can be used to find the mesh-current phasors, just as it was
used to find mesh currents in resistive circuits. Finally, apply the inverse phasor
transform to the phasor voltages and currents to find the steady-state voltages and
currents in the time domain.
End of Chapter Problems - Online Exercise
When you asked by your instructor to solve the problems, follow the link, solve the
problems and submit your answer.
End of chapter problems
PAGE 28

Circut

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ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 2

For 1 st level students of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Lecture Notes Prepared by

Dr. Mohamed Hamdy El-Saify

Main concept or definition

• Main equations, concepts and definitions are outlined by a second-color

• To develop problem-solving skills, Analysis Methods are presented. Many students

As introductory course, It is important to very important concept. Engineering study is

How to become an Engineer?

What is Engineering and how to become an engineer.

How to become an engineer

Story of electrical engineering

With my best wishes,

Dr. Mohamed Hamdy El-Saify

‫ سؤَت وسسانت انًعهذ‬...................................................................................................................... 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................... 6

Chapter 1: Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis ...................................................................... 7

1.1 The Sinusoidal Source ............................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER 1: SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE

• Generating, transmitting, distributing, and consuming electric energy occurs

1.1 The Sinusoidal Source

Fig 1.1 A sinusoidal voltage.

RMS VALUE OF SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE SOURCE

1.2 The Sinusoidal Response

The solution for Eq. 1.6 is discussed in an introductory course in differential

Using the steady-state component of Eq. 1.7, we identify four important

1.3 The Phasor

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝑉𝑚 ℛ 𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔𝑡 +𝜙) = 𝑉𝑚 ℛ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝜙

where the notation 𝒫 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) is read as “the phasor transform of 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 +

We use this angle notation extensively in the material that follows.

1.3.1 Inverse Phasor Transform

Using Eq. 1.8, we can transform a sinusoidal function to a phasor. We

INVERSE PHASOR TRANSFORM

𝒫 −1 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = ℛ 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 ° ) (1.9)

where the notation 𝒫 −1 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 is read as “the inverse phasor transform

1.4 The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain

1.4.1 The V-I Relationship for a Resistor

From Ohm’s law, if the current in a resistor is i = Im cos(ωt + θi),

Fig 1.7 A resistive element

The phasor transform of this voltage is

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHASOR VOLTAGE AND PHASOR CURRENT

which states that the phasor voltage at the terminals of a resistor

1.4.2 The V-I Relationship for an Inductor

We now replace the sine function with the cosine function:

The phasor representation of the voltage is then

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHASOR VOLTAGE AND PHASOR CURRENT

Equation 1.11 states that the phasor voltage at the terminals of an

We can rewrite Eq. 1.11 as

1.4.3 The V-I Relationship for a Capacitor

and assume that

The phasor representation of the current is

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHASOR VOLTAGE AND PHASOR CURRENT

1.4.4 Impedance and Reactance

We conclude this discussion of passive circuit elements in the frequency

Impedance in the frequency domain is the quantity analogous to resistance,

Table 1.1 Impedance and reactance values.

Circuit element Impedance Reactance

1.5 Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain

KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN

which in the sinusoidal steady state becomes

We now use Euler’s identity to write the KVL equation as

Factoring the term ejωt from each term yields

KVL IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN

which is the statement of Kirchhoff’s voltage law as it applies to phasor voltages.

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN

A similar derivation applies to a set of sinusoidal currents. Thus, if

KCL IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN

Phasor-circuit analysis consists of two fundamental tasks:

(1) You must be able to construct the frequency-domain model of a circuit;

Fig. 1.14 Four branches terminate at a common node

1.6 Series, Parallel, and Delta-to-Wye Simplifications

COMBINING IMPEDANCES IN SERIES

Impedances in series can be combined into a single equivalent impedance whose

Fig. 1.15 Impedances in series.

The equivalent impedance between terminals a,b is

COMBINING IMPEDANCES IN SERIES