Electrical and Electronic

Engineering
(Basic Electrical System, Circuit Elements, KVL, KCL, Mesh Analysis and Nodal
Analysis)

Course- EL&EC Eng(ENEL2EE) (2024)

Course Lecturer- Dr. P. Kumar
Email- kumarp@ukzn.az.za
1
 Electrical system
• A basic electrical system is shown in Fig.
• Source- provides the energy
• Load-absorbs the energy
• Transmission- conducts the energy
• Control- controls the flow of energy
Fig. A basic electrical system

• Example: Simple lamp system

2
Fig. A simple lamp system
 Voltage & current
• The concept of electric charge is the basis for describing all electrical phenomena.
• The charge is bipolar – that is, electrical effects are described in terms of positive and negative
charges.
• The electric charge exists in discrete quantities, which are integral multiples of the electronic charge –
1.6022x10-19C.
• Electrical effects are attributed to both the separation of charges and charges in motion.
• In circuit theory, the separation of charge creates an electric force (voltage) and the motion of charges
creates an electric fluid (current).
• Voltage is the energy per unit charge created by separation between the charges. We express this ratio
in the form:
dw
v=
dq
• Here, v is the voltage in volts, w is the energy in joules, and q is the charge in Coulombs.
• The rate of charge flow is known as the electric current, which is expressed as:
dq
i=
dt
• Where i is the current in amperes, q is the charge in coulombs, and t is the time in seconds. 3
 Power & energy
• Power and energy calculations are also important in circuit analysis.
• One reason is that although voltage and current are useful variables in the
analysis and design of electrically-based systems, the useful output of the
system is often nonelectrical, and this output is conveniently expressed in
terms of power and energy.
• Another reason is that all practical devices have limitations on the amount of
power that they handle. In the design process therefore, voltage and current
calculations by themselves are not sufficient.
• From basic physics, power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy.
Mathematically, energy per unit time is expressed in the form of a derivative:
dw
p=
dt
• Where p is the power in watts, w is the energy in joules, and t the time in
seconds.
• The power associated with the flow of charge follows directly from the
definition of voltage and current:
dw  dw   dq 
p= =     = vi
dt  dq   dt  4
 Circuit elements
• There are five ideal basic circuit elements:
• Voltage sources
• Current sources
• Resistors
• Inductors
• Capacitors
• Although this may seem like a small number of elements with which to begin
analyzing circuits, many practical systems can be modeled with just sources and
resistors.
• They are also useful starting points because of their relative simplicity; the
mathematical relationships between voltage and current in sources and resistors
are algebraic.
• The use of inductors and capacitors requires the solution of integral and
differential equations.

5
 Circuit elements-voltage and current sources
• An electrical source is a device that is capable of converting nonelectric energy to electric
energy.
• An ideal voltage source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed voltage across its
terminals regardless of the current flowing in those terminals.
• Similarly, an ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed current
through its terminals regardless of the voltage across the terminals.
• An ideal DC source remains constant with time.
• An AC source varies with time.

vs
is

Fig. Notation of DC and AC voltage An ideal independent An ideal independent Fig. DC and AC signals
voltage source current source 6
sources
 Circuit elements-electrical resistance
• Resistance is the capacity of materials to impede the flow of current, or, more specifically,
the flow of electric charge.
• The circuit element used to model this behavior is the resistor, shown below. The circuit
symbol for the resistor is R, denoting the resistance value of the resistor.

• Conceptually, we can understand resistance if we think about the moving electrons that
make up electric current interacting with and being resisted by the atomic structure of the
material through which they are moving. In the course of these interactions, some amount
of electric energy is converted to thermal energy and dissipated in the form of heat. This
effect may be undesirable. However, many useful electrical devices take advantage of
resistance heating, including stoves, toasters, irons, and space heaters.

7
 Circuit elements-electrical resistance (cont.)
• Metals such as copper, aluminium, and silver have small values of resistance,
making them good choices for wiring used to conduct electric current – they have
high conductivity.
• In fact, when represented in a circuit diagram, copper or aluminium wiring is not
usually modeled as a resistor: the resistance of the wire is so small compared to
the resistance of the other elements in the circuit that we can neglect the wiring
resistance to simplify the diagram.
CONDUCTIVITY, σ, CONDUCTIVITY, σ,
(MHOS/M) (MHOS/M)
MATERIAL σ MATERIAL σ
Silver 6.17x107 Sea Water 3-5
Copper 5.80 x107 Ferrite 10-2
Gold 4.10 x107 Dry Soil 10-4
Aluminium 3.82 x107 Glass 10-9
Graphite 7.00 x104 Rubber 10-15
Silicon 1.2 x103 Polystyrene 10-16
Sea Water 3-5 Quartz 10-17

8
 Circuit elements-electrical resistance (cont.)
• The relationship between the voltage, v, and the current, I, passing through the
resistor of resistance R, is given by:
R

v = iR
+ v
-
i

• The above equation is known as Ohm’s law, after George Simon Ohm, a German
physicist who established its validity in the nineteenth century.
• Ohm’s law is the algebraic relationship between voltage and current for a resistor. In
SI units, the resistance is measured in Ohms, denoted by the Greek letter omega (Ω).
• The reciprocal of resistance is referred to as conductance, G, and is measured in
Siemens (S) or mhos. Thus: 1
G= S
R

• An 8-Ω resistor has a conductance value of 0.125S, or 0.125 mhos. 9

 Resistance and dissipated power
• We may calculate the power dissipated in a resistor in several ways.
Since, as already noted:
p = vi

• We can use the relationship between v, i and R and write:

p = vi = (iR )i = i 2 R

• Similarly, if only the values of resistance, R, and the voltage across its
terminals, v, are known, we can determine the dissipated power to
be:
2
v v
p = vi = v  =
 R R

10
 Resistance in series
• Resistors in series are connected end-to-end, or in a string, as shown below. A series circuit
provides only one path for current between two points in a circuit so that the same current flows
through each resistor.
R1 R2 R3
I I

V1 V2 V3

• The total current in a series circuit is the same as the current in each resistor. Thus the total circuit
voltage, V, is:
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) = IR
where R = R1 + R2 + R3
• Note that R is the total series resistance which is the sum of the individual resistances.
• Thus we see that in the case of resistors connected in series, the total resistance is larger than
each of the individual resistances.
• If there are n resistances in series, then 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 +𝑅𝑅3 +……+𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛
11
 Resistance in parallel
• When two or more components, each forming a separate current path, are connected across
the same voltage source, they are in parallel. A parallel circuit thus provides more than one path
for current between two given points. I

• Each parallel path is also called a branch. I1 I2 I3

V
R1 R2 R3

• Since each branch has its own current, we use Ohm’s law to obtain:
V V V 1 1 1 V
I = I1 + I2 + I3 = + + =V + + =
R1 R2 R3  R1 R2 R3  R
1 1 1 1
∴ = + +
R R1 R2 R3

• When resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance of the circuit decreases. The total resistance
of a parallel combination is always less than the value of the smallest resistor.
• In general, for n resistors in parallel, the total resistance R is given by:
1 1 1 1 1 1 n 1
= + + + + .. + =∑
R R1 R2 R3 R4 Rn i =1 Ri
1 1
R= =
 1 1 1 1 1  n 1 12
 + + + + .. +   ∑ 
R
 1 R2 R3 R4 Rn  i =1 Ri 
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
• In an electric circuit, the voltages across the resistors (called voltage drops)
always have polarities opposite to the source supply voltage.
• This Kirchhoff’s voltage law is as follows:
• “The sum of all voltage drops around a single closed loop in a circuit is equal
to the total source voltage in that loop.”
R1 R2 R3
I I

V1 V2 V3

+ 
Vs

• Alternatively, “The algebraic sum of all voltages (both source and drops)
around a closed path is zero.” 13
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
• Example:
• If, in the circuit below, Vs=50 V, V1=12V, V2=25 V, determine the voltage drop
V3.
R1 R2 R3
I I

V1 V2 V3

+ 
Vs

• Solution:
• Applying KVL, we have:
Vs = V1 + V2 + V3
⇒ V3 = Vs − (V1 + V2 ) = 50 − (12 + 25) = 13
∴V3 = 13 V
14
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
Voltage division in series circuit:
• Applying KVL:
−𝑉𝑉 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 = 0
𝑉𝑉
⇒𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2
⇒Voltage drop across 𝑅𝑅1 :
𝑅𝑅1
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
⇒Voltage drop across 𝑅𝑅2 :
𝑅𝑅2
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

15
 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) is stated as follows:
• “The sum of currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving that
junction.”
• A junction is any point in a circuit where two or more circuit paths come together. In a
parallel circuit, a junction is a point where the parallel branches connect together.
• The following is another way to state Kirchhoff’s current law:
“The algebraic sum of all currents entering and leaving a junction is equal to zero.”
I
A

I1 I2 I3

VS R1 R2 R3

16
 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
Current division in parallel circuit:
• Applying KCL at node 1:
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 = +
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
⇒𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼
𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2
⇒Current in 𝑅𝑅1 :
𝑉𝑉 𝑅𝑅2
𝐼𝐼1 = = 𝐼𝐼
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
⇒Current in 𝑅𝑅2 :
𝑉𝑉 𝑅𝑅1
𝐼𝐼2 = = 𝐼𝐼
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
17
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage sources
• In this section, we consider the analysis of circuits using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) around a
closed path.
• A closed path or loop is drawn by starting at a node and tracing a path such that we return to
the original node without passing an intermediate node more than once.
• A mesh is a special kind of loop. A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loops within
it.
• We define the mesh current as the current that flows through the elements that constitute the
mesh. We will use the convention of mesh currents flowing clockwise as shown below.
R1 R2

vs
R3

I2
I1
18
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage sources (cont.)
• Let us consider the two-mesh circuit shown above. We may use Kirchhoff’s voltage law around
each mesh.
• We shall use the convention of summing the voltage drops around the mesh traveling clockwise.
• Thus we have, for Mesh 1 and Mesh 2:
Mesh 1: − vs + R1i1 + R3 ( i1 − i2 ) = 0
Mesh 2: R3 ( i2 − i1 ) + R2i2 = 0
• Note that the voltage across R3 is determined according to Ohm’s law, where:
v = R3ia = R3 ( i1 − i2 )
• Where ia is the actual current flowing through R3. The above two equations will enable us to
determine the two mesh currents i1 and i2. Rewriting the two equations, we have:
i1 ( R1 + R3 ) − i2 R3 = vs
− i1 R3 + i2 ( R2 + R3 ) = 0
19
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage sources (cont.)
• If R1=R2=R3=1 ohm, we have:
2i1 − i2 = vs
− i1 + 2i2 = 0

• Solving the two simultaneous equations, with the source voltage vs known, we have:
2i1 − i2 = vs ; −2i1 + 4i2 = 0
vs
∴ 3i2 = vs ⇒ i2 =
3
4i1 − 2i2 = 2vs ; − i1 + 2i2 = 0
2vs
∴ 3i1 = 2vs ⇒ i1 =
3
• Thus we have obtained two independent mesh current equations that are readily solved from the two unknowns.
• If we have N meshes and write N mesh equations in terms of N mesh currents, we can obtain N independent mesh
equations. Since this set of mesh equations are independent, this guarantees a solution for N mesh currents.

20
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage sources (cont.)
• A circuit that contains only independent voltage sources and resistors results in a specific format of
equations that can readily be obtained.
• Consider a circuit with three meshes, as shown below.
R1 R2 R3

vs vg
R4 R5

I2 I3
I1

• Using KVL, the three mesh equations are:

Mesh 1: − vs + R1i1 + R4 ( i1 − i2 ) = 0 Mesh 1: ( R1 + R4 )i1 − R4i2 = vs
Mesh 2: R2i2 + R5 ( i2 − i3 ) + R4 ( i2 − i1 ) = 0 Mesh 2: − R4i1 + ( R4 + R2 + R5 )i2 − R5i3 = 0
Mesh 3: R5 ( i3 − i2 ) + R3i3 + v g = 0 Mesh 3: − R5i2 + ( R3 + R5 )i3 = − v g

• Hence, we note that the coefficient of the mesh current i1 for the first mesh is the sum of the resistances
in the loop.
21
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage sources (cont.)
• The general matrix equation for the mesh current analysis for independent voltage sources present
in a circuit, in matrix form, is:
Ri = vs
 i1   vs1 
i  v 
 2  s2 
i =  ; v =  
   
   
iN   vsN 
• Where we have N mesh currents, vsj is the sum of the sources in the jth mesh with the appropriate
sign assigned to each source.
• The resistance matrix R is given as follows for N=2 and N=3 in the above examples:
( R1 + R3 ) − R3 
N = 2: R = 
 − R3 ( R2 + R3 )
( R1 + R4 ) − R4 0 
 
N = 3: R =  − R4 ( R4 + R2 + R5 ) − R5 
 0 − R5 ( R3 + R5 )
22
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage sources (cont.)
Example – Cramer’s rule
• Consider the two-mesh circuit shown below

1R1Ω R2
2Ω

17 vVs
R3
3Ω 10 V

I2
I1

• Referring to mesh currents i1 and i2, we apply KVL on the two loops:
i1R1 + R3 (i1 − i2 ) = 17 ⇒ i1 (R1 + R3 ) − i2 R3 = 17
R3 (i1 − i2 ) − i2 R2 = 10 ⇒ i1R3 − i2 (R2 + R3 ) = 10
4i1 − 3i2 = 17
3i1 − 5i2 = 10
23
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage sources (cont.)
• If we rewrite the above two mesh equations in matrix form, we have:
4 − 3  i1  17 
3 − 5 i  = 10
  2   
• Forming the determinants and applying Cramer’s rule, we get:
4 −3
∆= = −20 + 9 = −11
3 −5
17 − 3
∆1 = = −85 + 30 = −55
10 − 5
4 17
∆2 = = 40 − 51 = −11
3 10

• Applying the above rule, therefore, we solve for the mesh currents to be:
∆1 − 55
i1 = = = 5A
∆ − 11
∆ − 11
i2 = 2 = = 1A
∆ − 11
24
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage and current sources
• An electric circuit may contain both independent voltage and current
sources. This is shown below.
R1
R3

vvss R2
is
I2
I1

• Since the circuit has an independent current source, we recognize that the
second mesh current is equal to the negative of the current source. That is:
i2 = − is 25
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage and current sources (cont.)
• We therefore need only to determine the first mesh current, i1.
• Writing KVL for the first mesh, we obtain:

vs − i1 R1 − ( i1 − i2 ) R2 = 0
∴ i1 ( R1 + R2 ) − i2 R2 = vs

• Thus we can determine i1 from is, as:

vs + i2 R2
i1 ( R1 + R2 ) = vs + i2 R2 ⇒ i1 =
( R1 + R2 )
vs − is R2
∴ i1 =
( R1 + R2 )
• Here, vs and is are sources of known magnitude.
• Thus we account for the independent current source by recording the relationship between the
mesh current and the source current. If the current source influences only one mesh current, we
record that constraining equation and write KVL equations for the remaining meshes.

26
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage and current sources (cont.)
• Consider the circuit below where a current source influences two mesh
currents.
R1 R2
a

vvss R3
is
I2
I1

b
• The current source, is, has an unknown voltage vab across its terminals.
• We note that:
i2 − i1 = is
27
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage and current sources (cont.)
• The two mesh equations are:
vs − i1 R1 − vab = 0
vab − i2 ( R2 + R3 ) = 0

• Adding the above two equations, we eliminate vab, obtaining:

i1 R1 + i2 ( R2 + R3 ) = vs

• Further noting the relationship between the mesh currents and is, we
have: i =i +i
2 s 1

∴ i1 R1 + i2 ( R2 + R3 ) = vs
⇒ i1 R1 + (is + i1 )( R2 + R3 ) = vs
i1 ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) = vs − is ( R2 + R3 )
vs − is ( R2 + R3 )
∴ i1 =
( R1 + R2 + R3 ) 28
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage and current sources (cont.)
• Thus we account for independent current sources by recording the
relationship between the mesh currents and the current source.

• If the current source influences only one mesh current, we record the
constraining equation and write the KVL equations for the remaining
meshes.

• If the current source influences two mesh currents, we write the KVL
equations for both meshes, assuming a voltage vab across the
terminals of the current source. Then adding these two mesh
equations, we obtain one equation independent of vab.

29
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage and current sources (cont.)
Example:
• Consider the circuit below with R1=R2=1Ω and R3=2Ω. Determine the
three mesh currents.
4A

R1 I1 R2

10 V
I3 R3
I2
5A

b 30
 Mesh current analysis with independent
voltage and current sources (cont.)
• Solution:
• Since the 4-ampere source flows only in mesh 1, we note that:
i1 = is = 4
• For the 5-A source, we have:
i2 − i3 = 5

• Writing KVL for mesh 2 and mesh 3, we obtain:

R1 (i2 − i1 ) + vab = 10
R2 (i3 − i1 ) + R3i3 − vab = 0
• Substitute i1=4 and adding the above equations, we have:
R1 (i2 − 4) + R2 (i3 − 4) + R3i3 = 10
 i2 = 5 + i3 ⇒ R1 (5 + i3 − 4) + R2 (i3 − 4) + R3i3 = 10
10 − R1 + 4 R2
i3 = = 3.25 A; i2 = 8.25 A
( 1 2 3)
R + R + R
31
 Nodal voltage analysis using KCL
• We now consider an alternative circuit analysis technique using KCL by
obtaining node voltages.
• A circuit with n nodes requires (n-1) equations to obtain the voltages at
the (n-1) nodes, since one node serves as the reference node. Because
a voltage is defined between two nodes (across a branch), we seek to
identify the voltages at (n-1) nodes relative to the reference node.
• We often choose a grounded reference or bottom node as the
reference node.

32
 Nodal voltage analysis using KCL (cont.)
• Consider the above circuit: the circuit has two nodes, a and b, with b being
the reference node.
• Using Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) at node a, we have:
va − vb va − vb
is = i1 + i2 = +
R1 R2

• Since vb=0, we have:

va va 1 1
is = + = va  +  = va (G1 + G2 )
R1 R2  R1 R2 
is
∴ va =
(G1 + G2 )

• Once we have determined va with respect to the reference node, we are also
able to determine all the currents.
33
 Nodal voltage analysis using KCL (cont.)
• Let us also use KCL to determine the two node voltages in the figure
below.
Node a R1 Node b

I1

is R2 R3 R2

Node c

• Writing KCL at nodes a and b, we have:

va va − vb 1 1 v
is = + ⇒ va  +  − b = is
R2 R1  R1 R2  R1
vb
i1 =
R3 34
 Nodal voltage analysis using KCL (cont.)
• However, we also have:
va − vb v − vb vb
i1 = ⇒ a =
R1 R1 R3
va 1 1
∴ − vb  +  = 0
R1  R1 R3 
• Therefore the two equations written in terms of unknown node
voltages va and vb become:
1 1 v
va  +  − b = is
 R1 R2  R1
va 1 1
− vb  +  = 0
R1  R1 R3 

• If R1=1Ω, R2=R3=0.5Ω, and is=4A, we have:

3va − vb = 4
va − 3vb = 0
∴ va = 15
. V ; vb = 0.5V
35
 Nodal voltage analysis using KCL (cont.)
• Let us now consider the three-node circuit having two independent
current sources.
Node a G2 Node b

is1 G1 G3 R2 is2

Node c

• Writing KCL equations for nodes a and b, we have:

is1 = G1va + G2 ( va − vb )
is 2 = G3vb + G2 ( vb − va )

• These can then be rewritten as:

(G1 + G2 )va − G2 vb = is1
− G2 va + (G2 + G3 )vb = is 2 36
 Nodal voltage analysis using KCL (cont.)
Example
• Let us consider the circuit shown below. It is required to determine the
three node voltages, va, vb, and vc, when all the conductances are equal
to 1S.
G6

3A

G2 G4
a b c

7A
9A G1 G3 R2 G5 is2

37
Ground
 Nodal voltage analysis using KCL (cont.)
• Solution:
• Applying KCL at the three nodes, we obtain:
Node a : (G1 + G2 + G6 )va − G2 vb − G6 vc = 9 − 3
Node b : −G2 va + (G2 + G3 + G4 )vb − G4 vc = 3
Node c : -G6 va − G4 vb + (G4 + G5 + G6 )vc = 7
• Substituting the numerical values of the conductances we have:
Node a : 3va − vb − vc = 6
Node b : −va + 3vb − vc = 3
Node c : −va − vb + 3vc = 7

• Using Cramer’s rule, we have the four determinants as:

3 −1 −1 6 −1 −1 3 6 −1 3 −1 6
∆ = −1 3 −1 = 16; ∆1 = 3 3 −1 = 88; ∆ 2 = −1 3 −1 = 76; ∆ 3 = −1 3 3 = 92
−1 −1 3 7 −1 3 −1 7 3 −1 −1 7
∆1 88 ∆ 76 ∆ 92
∴ va = = = 5.5V ; vb = 2 = = 4.75V ; vc = 3 = = 5.75V
∆ 16 ∆ 16 ∆ 16
38
 Nodal voltage analysis of circuits with voltage
and current sources
• Consider a circuit with a current source as well as voltage source as
shown below. a G b 2

vs G1 G3 R2 is

Common node c

• We note from node a that

va = v s
• Thus va is known and only vb is unknown. From KCL at node b, we have:
is = vb (G2 + G3 ) − va G2
is + va G2 i + vsG2
∴ vb = = s
(G2 + G3 ) (G2 + G3 )
39
 Nodal voltage analysis of circuits with voltage
and current sources (cont.)
• Let us consider a similar circuit, with an additional element G4, as shown
below.
c G4 a G2 b

vs G1 G3 R2 is

Common node d

• We have, at node c,
vc = vs

• Thus we may write the node equations at nodes a and b, using KCL, since vc is
known.
40
 Nodal voltage analysis of circuits with voltage
and current sources (cont.)
• At node b, we obtain:

is = vb (G2 + G3 ) − va G2
• At node a, we have:

( va − vb )G2 + va G1 + ( va − vc )G4 = 0
• Noting that vc=vs, we may rewrite the above equations as:
( va − vb )G2 + va G1 + ( va − vs )G4 = 0
∴ va (G1 + G2 + G4 ) − G2 vb = G4 vs

• Thus we now have two equations with and two unknowns, rewritten below:
− va G2 + vb (G2 + G3 ) = is
va (G1 + G2 + G4 ) − G2 vb = G4 vs

• These can then be solved for va and vb.

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 References
• A R Hambley, Electrical Engineering: Principles and Applications, 6th or 7th
Edition
• BL Theraja and AK Theraja, A Textbook of Electrical Technology.

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