Solar Eclipse
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Not to be confused with Solar Eclipse (video game) or Solar Eclipse (song).
"Eclipse of the Sun" redirects here. For other uses, see Eclipse of the Sun (disambiguation).
A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon completely covers the Sun's disk, as seen in this 1999 solar
eclipse. Solar prominences can be seen along the limb (in red) as well as extensive coronal filaments.
An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is too far away to completely cover the Sun's disk
(October 14, 2023).
During a partial solar eclipse, the Moon blocks only part of the Sun's disk (October 25, 2022).
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby obscuring the view of
the Sun from a small part of Earth, totally or partially. Such an alignment occurs approximately every six
months, during the eclipse season in its new moon phase, when the Moon's orbital plane is closest to
the plane of Earth's orbit.[1] In a total eclipse, the disk of the Sun is fully obscured by the Moon. In
partial and annular eclipses, only part of the Sun is obscured. Unlike a lunar eclipse, which may be
viewed from anywhere on the night side of Earth, a solar eclipse can only be viewed from a relatively
small area of the world. As such, although total solar eclipses occur somewhere on Earth every 18
months on average, they recur at any given place only once every 360 to 410 years.
If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit and in the same orbital plane as Earth, there would be total
solar eclipses once a month, at every new moon. Instead, because the Moon's orbit is tilted at about 5
degrees to Earth's orbit, its shadow usually misses Earth. Solar (and lunar) eclipses therefore happen
only during eclipse seasons, resulting in at least two, and up to five, solar eclipses each year, no more
than two of which can be total.[2][3] Total eclipses are rarer because they require a more precise
alignment between the centers of the Sun and Moon, and because the Moon's apparent size in the sky
is sometimes too small to fully cover the Sun.
An eclipse is a natural phenomenon. In some ancient and modern cultures, solar eclipses were
attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens. Astronomers' predictions of eclipses began
in China as early as the 4th century BC; eclipses hundreds of years into the future may now be predicted
with high accuracy.
Looking directly at the Sun can lead to permanent eye damage, so special eye protection or indirect
viewing techniques are used when viewing a solar eclipse. Only the total phase of a total solar eclipse is
safe to view without protection. Enthusiasts known as eclipse chasers or umbraphiles travel to remote
locations to see solar eclipses.[4][5]
Types
Partial and annular phases of the solar eclipse of May 20, 2012
A total eclipse occurs on average every 18 months[Note 1][6] when the dark silhouette of the Moon
completely obscures the intensely bright light of the Sun, allowing the much fainter solar corona to be
visible. During any one eclipse, totality occurs at best only in a narrow track on the surface of Earth.[7]
This narrow track is called the path of totality.[8]
An annular eclipse occurs once every one or two years[6] when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line
with Earth, but the apparent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. Hence the Sun appears as
a very bright ring, or annulus, surrounding the dark disk of the Moon.[9]
A hybrid eclipse (also called annular/total eclipse) shifts between a total and annular eclipse. At certain
points on the surface of Earth, it appears as a total eclipse, whereas at other points it appears as
annular. Hybrid eclipses are comparatively rare.[9]
A partial eclipse occurs about twice a year,[6] when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line with Earth
and the Moon only partially obscures the Sun. This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of
Earth outside of the track of an annular or total eclipse. However, some eclipses can be seen only as a
partial eclipse, because the umbra passes above Earth's polar regions and never intersects Earth's
surface.[9] Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable in terms of the Sun's brightness, as it takes well
over 90% coverage to notice any darkening at all. Even at 99%, it would be no darker than civil twilight.
[10]
Comparison of minimum and maximum apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon (and planets). An annular
eclipse can occur when the Sun has a larger apparent size than the Moon, whereas a total eclipse can
occur when the Moon has a larger apparent size.
The Sun's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon's distance, and the Sun's diameter is about
400 times the Moon's diameter. Because these ratios are approximately the same, the Sun and the
Moon as seen from Earth appear to be approximately the same size: about 0.5 degree of arc in angular
measure.[9]
The Moon's orbit around Earth is slightly elliptical, as is Earth's orbit around the Sun. The apparent sizes
of the Sun and Moon therefore vary.[11] The magnitude of an eclipse is the ratio of the apparent size of
the Moon to the apparent size of the Sun during an eclipse. An eclipse that occurs when the Moon is
near its closest distance to Earth (i.e., near its perigee) can be a total eclipse because the Moon will
appear to be large enough to completely cover the Sun's bright disk or photosphere; a total eclipse has a
magnitude greater than or equal to 1.000. Conversely, an eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its
farthest distance from Earth (i.e., near its apogee) can be only an annular eclipse because the Moon will
appear to be slightly smaller than the Sun; the magnitude of an annular eclipse is less than 1.[12]
A hybrid eclipse occurs when the magnitude of an eclipse changes during the event from less to greater
than one, so the eclipse appears to be total at locations nearer the midpoint, and annular at other
locations nearer the beginning and end, since the sides of Earth are slightly further away from the
Moon. These eclipses are extremely narrow in their path width and relatively short in their duration at
any point compared with fully total eclipses; the 2023 April 20 hybrid eclipse's totality is over a minute in
duration at various points along the path of totality. Like a focal point, the width and duration of totality
and annularity are near zero at the points where the changes between the two occur.[13]
Because Earth's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical, Earth's distance from the Sun similarly varies
throughout the year. This affects the apparent size of the Sun in the same way, but not as much as does
the Moon's varying distance from Earth.[9] When Earth approaches its farthest distance from the Sun in
early July, a total eclipse is somewhat more likely, whereas conditions favour an annular eclipse when
Earth approaches its closest distance to the Sun in early January.[14]
Each icon shows the view from the centre of its black spot, representing the Moon (not to scale)
Central eclipse is often used as a generic term for a total, annular, or hybrid eclipse.[15] This is, however,
not completely correct: the definition of a central eclipse is an eclipse during which the central line of
the umbra touches Earth's surface. It is possible, though extremely rare, that part of the umbra
intersects with Earth (thus creating an annular or total eclipse), but not its central line. This is then called
a non-central total or annular eclipse.[15] Gamma is a measure of how centrally the shadow strikes. The
last (umbral yet) non-central solar eclipse was on April 29, 2014. This was an annular eclipse. The next
non-central total solar eclipse will be on April 9, 2043.[16]
First contact—when the Moon's limb (edge) is exactly tangential to the Sun's limb.
Second contact—starting with Baily's Beads (caused by light shining through valleys on the Moon's
surface) and the diamond ring effect. Almost the entire disk is covered.
Totality—the Moon obscures the entire disk of the Sun and only the solar corona is visible.
Third contact—when the first bright light becomes visible and the Moon's shadow is moving away from
the observer. Again a diamond ring may be observed.
Fourth contact—when the trailing edge of the Moon ceases to overlap with the solar disk and the
eclipse ends.
Predictions
Geometry
The diagrams to the right show the alignment of the Sun, Moon, and Earth during a solar eclipse. The
dark gray region between the Moon and Earth is the umbra, where the Sun is completely obscured by
the Moon. The small area where the umbra touches Earth's surface is where a total eclipse can be seen.
The larger light gray area is the penumbra, in which a partial eclipse can be seen. An observer in the
antumbra, the area of shadow beyond the umbra, will see an annular eclipse.[18]
The Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of Earth's orbit
around the Sun (the ecliptic). Because of this, at the time of a new moon, the Moon will usually pass to
the north or south of the Sun. A solar eclipse can occur only when a new moon occurs close to one of
the points (known as nodes) where the Moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic.[19]
As noted above, the Moon's orbit is also elliptical. The Moon's distance from Earth varies by up to about
5.9% from its average value. Therefore, the Moon's apparent size varies with its distance from Earth,
and it is this effect that leads to the difference between total and annular eclipses. The distance of Earth
from the Sun also varies during the year, but this is a smaller effect (by up to about 0.85% from its
average value). On average, the Moon appears to be slightly (2.1%) smaller than the Sun as seen from
Earth, so the majority (about 60%) of central eclipses are annular. It is only when the Moon is closer to
Earth than average (near its perigee) that a total eclipse occurs.[20][21]
Moon Sun
At perigee
(nearest) At apogee
(farthest) At perihelion
(nearest) At aphelion
(farthest)
(432,000 mi)
Distance 363,104 km
(94,509,100 mi)
Angular
(0.5267°)
Apparent size
to scale
Order by
decreasing
The Moon orbits Earth in approximately 27.3 days, relative to a fixed frame of reference. This is known
as the sidereal month. However, during one sidereal month, Earth has revolved part way around the
Sun, making the average time between one new moon and the next longer than the sidereal month: it is
approximately 29.5 days. This is known as the synodic month and corresponds to what is commonly
called the lunar month.[19]
The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its ascending node, and vice versa at its
descending node.[19] However, the nodes of the Moon's orbit are gradually moving in a retrograde
motion, due to the action of the Sun's gravity on the Moon's motion, and they make a complete circuit
every 18.6 years. This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the
ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month. This period is called the nodical or draconic
month.[23]
Finally, the Moon's perigee is moving forwards or precessing in its orbit and makes a complete circuit in
8.85 years. The time between one perigee and the next is slightly longer than the sidereal month and
known as the anomalistic month.[24]
The Moon's orbit intersects with the ecliptic at the two nodes that are 180 degrees apart. Therefore, the
new moon occurs close to the nodes at two periods of the year approximately six months (173.3 days)
apart, known as eclipse seasons, and there will always be at least one solar eclipse during these periods.
Sometimes the new moon occurs close enough to a node during two consecutive months to eclipse the
Sun on both occasions in two partial eclipses. This means that, in any given year, there will always be at
least two solar eclipses, and there can be as many as five.[25]
Eclipses can occur only when the Sun is within about 15 to 18 degrees of a node, (10 to 12 degrees for
central eclipses). This is referred to as an eclipse limit, and is given in ranges because the apparent sizes
and speeds of the Sun and Moon vary throughout the year. In the time it takes for the Moon to return to
a node (draconic month), the apparent position of the Sun has moved about 29 degrees, relative to the
nodes.[2] Since the eclipse limit creates a window of opportunity of up to 36 degrees (24 degrees for
central eclipses), it is possible for partial eclipses (or rarely a partial and a central eclipse) to occur in
consecutive months.[26][27]
Fraction of the Sun's disc covered, f, when the same-sized discs are offset a fraction t of their diameter.
[28]
Path
From space, the Moon's shadow during the solar eclipse of March 9, 2016 appears as a dark spot moving
across Earth.
During a central eclipse, the Moon's umbra (or antumbra, in the case of an annular eclipse) moves
rapidly from west to east across Earth. Earth is also rotating from west to east, at about 28 km/min at
the Equator, but as the Moon is moving in the same direction as Earth's rotation at about 61 km/min,
the umbra almost always appears to move in a roughly west–east direction across a map of Earth at the
speed of the Moon's orbital velocity minus Earth's rotational velocity.[29]
The width of the track of a central eclipse varies according to the relative apparent diameters of the Sun
and Moon. In the most favourable circumstances, when a total eclipse occurs very close to perigee, the
track can be up to 267 km (166 mi) wide and the duration of totality may be over 7 minutes.[30] Outside
of the central track, a partial eclipse is seen over a much larger area of Earth. Typically, the umbra is
100–160 km wide, while the penumbral diameter is in excess of 6400 km.[31]
Besselian elements are used to predict whether an eclipse will be partial, annular, or total (or
annular/total), and what the eclipse circumstances will be at any given location.[32]: Chapter 11
Calculations with Besselian elements can determine the exact shape of the umbra's shadow on Earth's
surface. But at what longitudes on Earth's surface the shadow will fall, is a function of Earth's rotation,
and on how much that rotation has slowed down over time. A number called ΔT is used in eclipse
prediction to take this slowing into account. As Earth slows, ΔT increases. ΔT for dates in the future can
only be roughly estimated because Earth's rotation is slowing irregularly. This means that, although it is
possible to predict that there will be a total eclipse on a certain date in the far future, it is not possible to
predict in the far future exactly at what longitudes that eclipse will be total. Historical records of eclipses
allow estimates of past values of ΔT and so of Earth's rotation. [32]: Equation 11.132
Duration
The following factors determine the duration of a total solar eclipse (in order of decreasing importance):
[33][34]
The Moon being almost exactly at perigee (making its angular diameter as large as possible).
Earth being very near aphelion (furthest away from the Sun in its elliptical orbit, making its angular
diameter nearly as small as possible).
The midpoint of the eclipse being very close to Earth's equator, where the rotational velocity is greatest
and is closest to the speed of the lunar shadow moving over Earth's surface.
The vector of the eclipse path at the midpoint of the eclipse aligning with the vector of Earth's rotation
(i.e. not diagonal but due east).
The midpoint of the eclipse being near the subsolar point (the part of Earth closest to the Sun).
The longest eclipse that has been calculated thus far is the eclipse of July 16, 2186 (with a maximum
duration of 7 minutes 29 seconds over northern Guyana).[33]
As Earth revolves around the Sun, approximate axial parallelism of the Moon's orbital plane (tilted five
degrees to Earth's orbital plane) results in the revolution of the lunar nodes relative to Earth. This causes
an eclipse season approximately every six months, in which a solar eclipse can occur at the new moon
phase and a lunar eclipse can occur at the full moon phase.
Total solar eclipse paths: 1001–2000, showing that total solar eclipses occur almost everywhere on
Earth. This image was merged from 50 separate images from NASA.[35]
A total solar eclipse is a rare event, recurring somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average,[36] yet
is estimated to recur at any given location only every 360–410 years on average.[37] The total eclipse
lasts for only a maximum of a few minutes at any location because the Moon's umbra moves eastward
at over 1,700 km/h (1,100 mph; 470 m/s; 1,500 ft/s).[38] Totality currently can never last more than 7
min 32 s. This value changes over the millennia and is currently decreasing. By the 8th millennium, the
longest theoretically possible total eclipse will be less than 7 min 2 s.[33] The last time an eclipse longer
than 7 minutes occurred was June 30, 1973 (7 min 3 sec). Observers aboard a Concorde supersonic
aircraft were able to stretch totality for this eclipse to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the
Moon's umbra.[39] The next total eclipse exceeding seven minutes in duration will not occur until June
25, 2150. The longest total solar eclipse during the 11,000 year period from 3000 BC to at least 8000 AD
will occur on July 16, 2186, when totality will last 7 min 29 s.[33][40] For comparison, the longest total
eclipse of the 20th century at 7 min 8 s occurred on June 20, 1955, and there will be no total solar
eclipses over 7 min in duration in the 21st century.[41]
It is possible to predict other eclipses using eclipse cycles. The saros is probably the best known and one
of the most accurate. A saros lasts 6,585.3 days (a little over 18 years), which means that, after this
period, a practically identical eclipse will occur. The most notable difference will be a westward shift of
about 120° in longitude (due to the 0.3 days) and a little in latitude (north-south for odd-numbered
cycles, the reverse for even-numbered ones). A saros series always starts with a partial eclipse near one
of Earth's polar regions, then shifts over the globe through a series of annular or total eclipses, and ends
with a partial eclipse at the opposite polar region. A saros series lasts 1226 to 1550 years and 69 to 87
eclipses, with about 40 to 60 of them being central.[42]
Between two and five solar eclipses occur every year, with at least one per eclipse season. Since the
Gregorian calendar was instituted in 1582, years that have had five solar eclipses were 1693, 1758,
1805, 1823, 1870, and 1935. The next occurrence will be 2206.[43] On average, there are about 240
solar eclipses each century.[44]
Partial
(south) Partial
(north) Partial
(north) Partial
(south) Annular
(south)
Saros 111
Saros 149
Saros 116
Saros 154
Saros 121
Final totality
Total solar eclipses are seen on Earth because of a fortuitous combination of circumstances. Even on
Earth, the diversity of eclipses familiar to people today is a temporary (on a geological time scale)
phenomenon. Hundreds of millions of years in the past, the Moon was closer to Earth and therefore
apparently larger, so every solar eclipse was total or partial, and there were no annular eclipses. Due to
tidal acceleration, the orbit of the Moon around Earth becomes approximately 3.8 cm more distant each
year. Millions of years in the future, the Moon will be too far away to fully occlude the Sun, and no total
eclipses will occur. In the same timeframe, the Sun may become brighter, making it appear larger in size.
[45] Estimates of the time when the Moon will be unable to occlude the entire Sun when viewed from
Earth range between 650 million[46] and 1.4 billion years in the future.[45]
Historical eclipses
Historical eclipses are a very valuable resource for historians, in that they allow a few historical events to
be dated precisely, from which other dates and ancient calendars may be deduced.[47] The oldest
recorded solar eclipse was recorded on a clay tablet found at Ugarit, in modern Syria, with two plausible
dates usually cited: 3 May 1375 BC or 5 March 1223 BC, the latter being favored by most recent authors
on the topic.[48][49] A solar eclipse of June 15, 763 BC mentioned in an Assyrian text is important for
the chronology of the ancient Near East.[50] There have been other claims to date earlier eclipses. The
legendary Chinese king Zhong Kang supposedly beheaded two astronomers, Hsi and Ho, who failed to
predict an eclipse 4,000 years ago.[51] Perhaps the earliest still-unproven claim is that of archaeologist
Bruce Masse, who putatively links an eclipse that occurred on May 10, 2807, BC with a possible meteor
impact in the Indian Ocean on the basis of several ancient flood myths that mention a total solar eclipse.
[52]
Records of the solar eclipses of 993 and 1004 as well as the lunar eclipses of 1001 and 1002 by Ibn Yunus
of Cairo (c. 1005).
Eclipses have been interpreted as omens, or portents.[53] The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote
that Thales of Miletus predicted an eclipse that occurred during a battle between the Medes and the
Lydians. Both sides put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse.[54] The exact
eclipse involved remains uncertain, although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and
modern authorities. One likely candidate took place on May 28, 585 BC, probably near the Halys river in
Asia Minor.[55] An eclipse recorded by Herodotus before Xerxes departed for his expedition against
Greece,[56] which is traditionally dated to 480 BC, was matched by John Russell Hind to an annular
eclipse of the Sun at Sardis on February 17, 478 BC.[57] Alternatively, a partial eclipse was visible from
Persia on October 2, 480 BC.[58] Herodotus also reports a solar eclipse at Sparta during the Second
Persian invasion of Greece.[59] The date of the eclipse (August 1, 477 BC) does not match exactly the
conventional dates for the invasion accepted by historians.[60]
Chinese records of eclipses begin at around 720 BC.[61] The 4th century BC astronomer Shi Shen
described the prediction of eclipses by using the relative positions of the Moon and Sun.[62]
Attempts have been made to establish the exact date of Good Friday by assuming that the darkness
described at Jesus's crucifixion was a solar eclipse. This research has not yielded conclusive results,[63]
[64] and Good Friday is recorded as being at Passover, which is held at the time of a full moon. Further,
the darkness lasted from the sixth hour to the ninth, or three hours, which is much, much longer than
the eight-minute upper limit for any solar eclipse's totality. Contemporary chronicles wrote about an
eclipse at the beginning of May 664 that coincided with the beginning of the plague of 664 in the British
isles.[65] In the Western hemisphere, there are few reliable records of eclipses before AD 800, until the
advent of Arab and monastic observations in the early medieval period.[61]
A solar eclipse took place on January 27, 632 over Arabia during Muhammad's lifetime. Muhammad
denied the eclipse had anything to do with his son dying earlier that day, saying "The sun and the moon
do not eclipse because of the death of someone from the people but they are two signs amongst the
signs of God."[66] The Cairo astronomer Ibn Yunus wrote that the calculation of eclipses was one of the
many things that connect astronomy with the Islamic law, because it allowed knowing when a special
prayer can be made.[67] The first recorded observation of the corona was made in Constantinople in AD
968.[58][61]
Erhard Weigel, predicted course of Moon shadow on 12 August 1654 (O.S. 2 August)
The first known telescopic observation of a total solar eclipse was made in France in 1706.[61] Nine
years later, English astronomer Edmund Halley accurately predicted and observed the solar eclipse of
May 3, 1715.[58][61] By the mid-19th century, scientific understanding of the Sun was improving
through observations of the Sun's corona during solar eclipses. The corona was identified as part of the
Sun's atmosphere in 1842, and the first photograph (or daguerreotype) of a total eclipse was taken of
the solar eclipse of July 28, 1851.[58] Spectroscope observations were made of the solar eclipse of
August 18, 1868, which helped to determine the chemical composition of the Sun.[58]
John Fiske summed up myths about the solar eclipse like this in his 1872 book Myth and Myth-Makers,
the myth of Hercules and Cacus, the fundamental idea is the victory of the solar god over the robber
who steals the light. Now whether the robber carries off the light in the evening when Indra has gone to
sleep, or boldly rears his black form against the sky during the daytime, causing darkness to spread over
the earth, would make little difference to the framers of the myth. To a chicken a solar eclipse is the
same thing as nightfall, and he goes to roost accordingly. Why, then, should the primitive thinker have
made a distinction between the darkening of the sky caused by black clouds and that caused by the
rotation of the earth? He had no more conception of the scientific explanation of these phenomena
than the chicken has of the scientific explanation of an eclipse. For him it was enough to know that the
solar radiance was stolen, in the one case as in the other, and to suspect that the same demon was to
blame for both robberies.[68]
Viewing
2017 total solar eclipse viewed in real time with audience reactions
Looking directly at the photosphere of the Sun (the bright disk of the Sun itself), even for just a few
seconds, can cause permanent damage to the retina of the eye, because of the intense visible and
invisible radiation that the photosphere emits. This damage can result in impairment of vision, up to and
including blindness. The retina has no sensitivity to pain, and the effects of retinal damage may not
appear for hours, so there is no warning that injury is occurring.[69][70]
Under normal conditions, the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly. However, during an
eclipse, with so much of the Sun covered, it is easier and more tempting to stare at it. Looking at the Sun
during an eclipse is as dangerous as looking at it outside an eclipse, except during the brief period of
totality, when the Sun's disk is completely covered (totality occurs only during a total eclipse and only
very briefly; it does not occur during a partial or annular eclipse). Viewing the Sun's disk through any
kind of optical aid (binoculars, a telescope, or even an optical camera viewfinder) is extremely hazardous
and can cause irreversible eye damage within a fraction of a second.[71][72]
Eclipse glasses filter out eye damaging radiation, allowing direct viewing of the Sun during all partial
eclipse phases; they are not used during totality, when the Sun is completely eclipsed
Pinhole projection method of observing partial solar eclipse. Insert (upper left): partially eclipsed Sun
photographed with a white solar filter. Main image: projections of the partially eclipsed Sun (bottom
right)
Viewing the Sun during partial and annular eclipses (and during total eclipses outside the brief period of
totality) requires special eye protection, or indirect viewing methods if eye damage is to be avoided. The
Sun's disk can be viewed using appropriate filtration to block the harmful part of the Sun's radiation.
Sunglasses do not make viewing the Sun safe. Only properly designed and certified solar filters should be
used for direct viewing of the Sun's disk.[73] Especially, self-made filters using common objects such as a
floppy disk removed from its case, a Compact Disc, a black colour slide film, smoked glass, etc. must be
avoided.[74][75]
The safest way to view the Sun's disk is by indirect projection.[76] This can be done by projecting an
image of the disk onto a white piece of paper or card using a pair of binoculars (with one of the lenses
covered), a telescope, or another piece of cardboard with a small hole in it (about 1 mm diameter),
often called a pinhole camera. The projected image of the Sun can then be safely viewed; this technique
can be used to observe sunspots, as well as eclipses. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that no
one looks through the projector (telescope, pinhole, etc.) directly.[77] A kitchen colander with small
holes can also be used to project multiple images of the partially eclipsed Sun onto the ground or a
viewing screen. Viewing the Sun's disk on a video display screen (provided by a video camera or digital
camera) is safe, although the camera itself may be damaged by direct exposure to the Sun. The optical
viewfinders provided with some video and digital cameras are not safe. Securely mounting #14 welder's
glass in front of the lens and viewfinder protects the equipment and makes viewing possible.[75]
Professional workmanship is essential because of the dire consequences any gaps or detaching
mountings will have. In the partial eclipse path, one will not be able to see the corona or nearly
complete darkening of the sky. However, depending on how much of the Sun's disk is obscured, some
darkening may be noticeable. If three-quarters or more of the Sun is obscured, then an effect can be
observed by which the daylight appears to be dim, as if the sky were overcast, yet objects still cast sharp
shadows.[78]
Totality
When the shrinking visible part of the photosphere becomes very small, Baily's beads will occur. These
are caused by the sunlight still being able to reach Earth through lunar valleys. Totality then begins with
the diamond ring effect, the last bright flash of sunlight.[79]
It is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse directly only when the Sun's photosphere is
completely covered by the Moon, and not before or after totality.[76] During this period, the Sun is too
dim to be seen through filters. The Sun's faint corona will be visible, and the chromosphere, solar
prominences, and possibly even a solar flare may be seen. At the end of totality, the same effects will
occur in reverse order, and on the opposite side of the Moon.[79]
Eclipse chasing
A dedicated group of eclipse chasers have pursued the observation of solar eclipses when they occur
around Earth.[80] A person who chases eclipses is known as an umbraphile, meaning shadow lover.[81]
Umbraphiles travel for eclipses and use various tools to help view the sun including solar viewing
glasses, also known as eclipse glasses, as well as telescopes.[82][83]
Photography
The progression of a solar eclipse on August 1, 2008 in Novosibirsk, Russia. All times UTC (local time was
UTC+7). The time span between shots is three minutes.
Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment. In order for the disk of the
Sun/Moon to be easily visible, a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed (at least 200 mm for a
35 mm camera), and for the disk to fill most of the frame, a longer lens is needed (over 500 mm). As
with viewing the Sun directly, looking at it through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce
damage to the retina, so care is recommended.[84] Solar filters are required for digital photography
even if an optical viewfinder is not used. Using a camera's live view feature or an electronic viewfinder is
safe for the human eye, but the Sun's rays could potentially irreparably damage digital image sensors
unless the lens is covered by a properly designed solar filter.[85]
A total solar eclipse provides a rare opportunity to observe the corona (the outer layer of the Sun's
atmosphere). Normally this is not visible because the photosphere is much brighter than the corona.
According to the point reached in the solar cycle, the corona may appear small and symmetric, or large
and fuzzy. It is very hard to predict this in advance.[86]
Pinholes in shadows during no eclipse (1 & 4), a partial eclipse (2 & 5) and an annular eclipse (3 & 6)
Phenomena associated with eclipses include shadow bands (also known as flying shadows), which are
similar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool. They occur only just prior to and after totality,
when a narrow solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source.[87] As the light filters through leaves of
trees during a partial eclipse, the overlapping leaves create natural pinholes, displaying mini eclipses on
the ground.[88]
1919 observations
Eddington's original photograph of the 1919 eclipse, which provided evidence for Einstein's theory of
general relativity.
The observation of a total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, helped to confirm Einstein's theory of general
relativity. By comparing the apparent distance between stars in the constellation Taurus, with and
without the Sun between them, Arthur Eddington stated that the theoretical predictions about
gravitational lenses were confirmed.[89] The observation with the Sun between the stars was possible
only during totality since the stars are then visible. Though Eddington's observations were near the
experimental limits of accuracy at the time, work in the later half of the 20th century confirmed his
results.[90][91]
Gravity anomalies
There is a long history of observations of gravity-related phenomena during solar eclipses, especially
during the period of totality. In 1954, and again in 1959, Maurice Allais reported observations of strange
and unexplained movement during solar eclipses.[92] The reality of this phenomenon, named the Allais
effect, has remained controversial. Similarly, in 1970, Saxl and Allen observed the sudden change in
motion of a torsion pendulum; this phenomenon is called the Saxl effect.[93]
Observation during the 1997 solar eclipse by Wang et al. suggested a possible gravitational shielding
effect,[94] which generated debate. In 2002, Wang and a collaborator published detailed data analysis,
which suggested that the phenomenon still remains unexplained.[95]
In principle, the simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible. But these
events are extremely rare because of their short durations. The next anticipated simultaneous
occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of Mercury will be on July 5, 6757, and a solar eclipse and a
transit of Venus is expected on April 5, 15232.[96]
More common, but still infrequent, is a conjunction of a planet (especially, but not only, Mercury or
Venus) at the time of a total solar eclipse, in which event the planet will be visible very near the eclipsed
Sun, when without the eclipse it would have been lost in the Sun's glare. At one time, some scientists
hypothesized that there may be a planet (often given the name Vulcan) even closer to the Sun than
Mercury; the only way to confirm its existence would have been to observe it in transit or during a total
solar eclipse. No such planet was ever found, and general relativity has since explained the observations
that led astronomers to suggest that Vulcan might exist.[97]
Artificial satellites
The Moon's shadow over Turkey and Cyprus, seen from the ISS during a 2006 total solar eclipse.
A composite image showing the ISS transit of the Sun while the 2017 solar eclipse was in progress
Artificial satellites can also pass in front of the Sun as seen from Earth, but none is large enough to cause
an eclipse. At the altitude of the International Space Station, for example, an object would need to be
about 3.35 km (2.08 mi) across to blot the Sun out entirely. These transits are difficult to watch because
the zone of visibility is very small. The satellite passes over the face of the Sun in about a second,
typically. As with a transit of a planet, it will not get dark.[98]
Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or artificial satellites orbiting above Earth's atmosphere are not
subject to weather conditions. The crew of Gemini 12 observed a total solar eclipse from space in 1966.
[99] The partial phase of the 1999 total eclipse was visible from Mir.[100]
Impact
The solar eclipse of March 20, 2015, was the first occurrence of an eclipse estimated to potentially have
a significant impact on the power system, with the electricity sector taking measures to mitigate any
impact. The continental Europe and Great Britain synchronous areas were estimated to have about 90
gigawatts of solar power and it was estimated that production would temporarily decrease by up to 34
GW compared to a clear sky day.[101][102]
Eclipses may cause the temperature to decrease by 3 °C (5 °F), with wind power potentially decreasing
as winds are reduced by 0.7 meters (2.3 ft) per second.[103]
In addition to the drop in light level and air temperature, animals change their behavior during totality.
For example, birds and squirrels return to their nests and crickets chirp.[104]
Eclipses occur only in the eclipse season, when the Sun is close to either the ascending or descending
node of the Moon. Each eclipse is separated by one, five or six lunations (synodic months), and the
midpoint of each season is separated by 173.3 days, which is the mean time for the Sun to travel from
one node to the next. The period is a little less than half a calendar year because the lunar nodes slowly
regress. Because 223 synodic months is roughly equal to 239 anomalistic months and 242 draconic
months, eclipses with similar geometry recur 223 synodic months (about 6,585.3 days) apart. This
period (18 years 11.3 days) is a saros. Because 223 synodic months is not identical to 239 anomalistic
months or 242 draconic months, saros cycles do not endlessly repeat. Each cycle begins with the Moon's
shadow crossing Earth near the north or south pole, and subsequent events progress toward the other
pole until the Moon's shadow misses Earth and the series ends.[26] Saros cycles are numbered;
currently, cycles 117 to 156 are active.[citation needed]
1997–2000
This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats
approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.[105]
120
130
Annular−0.47260 145
Total 0.50623
Partial solar eclipses on July 1, 2000 and December 25, 2000 occur in the next lunar year eclipse set.
2000–2003
This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats
approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.[106]
Partial solar eclipses on February 5, 2000 and July 31, 2000 occur in the previous lunar year set.
Annular0.40885
137
Annular0.19933 142
Total −0.30204
147
Total −0.96381
2004–2007
This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats
approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.[107]
Solar eclipse series sets from 2004 to 2007
129
Annular0.33058
139
Annular−0.40624
149
2008–2011
This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats
approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.[108]
121
Annular−0.95701 126
Total 0.83070
131
Annular−0.28197 136
141
Annular0.40016 146
Total −0.67877
151
Partial solar eclipses on June 1, 2011, and November 25, 2011, occur on the next lunar year eclipse set.
2011–2014
This eclipse is a member of the 2011–2014 solar eclipse semester series. An eclipse in a semester series
of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of
the Moon's orbit.[109][Note 2]
118
Partial from Tromsø, Norway 2011 June 01
128
Annular0.48279 133
Total −0.37189
138
Annular−0.26937 143
Hybrid 0.32715
148
2015–2018
This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats
approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.[110]
120
2015 September 13
130
Annular−0.33301
140
Annular−0.45780 145
Total 0.43671
150
Partial solar eclipses on July 13, 2018, and January 6, 2019, occur during the next semester series.
2018–2021
This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats
approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.[111]
Note: Partial solar eclipses on February 15, 2018, and August 11, 2018, occurred during the previous
semester series.
Solar eclipse series sets from 2018 to 2021
117
Partial 1.14174
127
Annular0.41351
137
Annular0.12090 142
147
Annular0.91516 152
Total −0.95261
2022–2025
This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats
approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.[112]
119
Partial 1.07014
129
Total from
Annular from
Annular0.37534
Annular−0.35087
Partial −1.06509
2026–2029
This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats
approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.[113]
Total 0.14209
Total −0.60557
Partial −1.41908
Partial solar eclipses on June 12, 2029, and December 5, 2029, occur in the next lunar year eclipse set.
See also
Apollo–Soyuz: First joint U.S.–Soviet space flight. Mission included an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the
Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona.
Occultation: Generic term for occlusion of an object by another object that passes between it and the
observer, thus revealing (for example) the presence of an exoplanet orbiting a distant star by eclipsing it
as seen from Earth
Eclipses in history and culture: treatment of solar and lunar eclipses by historical and contemporary
society and religion
Solar eclipses in fiction
Solar eclipses on the Moon: Eclipse of the Sun by planet Earth, as seen from the Moon
Lunar eclipse: Solar eclipse of the Moon, as seen from Earth; the shadow cast on the Moon by that
eclipse
Transit of Venus: Passage of the planet Venus between the Sun and Earth, as seen from Earth.
Technically a partial eclipse.
Transit of Deimos from Mars: Passage of the Martian moon Deimos between the Sun and Mars, as seen
from Mars
Transit of Phobos from Mars: Passage of the Martian moon Phobos between the Sun and Mars, as seen
from Mars
Footnotes
In any given place it may happen only once every several centuries.
The partial solar eclipses of January 4, 2011 and July 1, 2011 occurred in the previous semester series.
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External links
(2 parts, 27 minutes)
These audio files were created from a revision of this article dated 3 May 2006, and do not reflect
subsequent edits.
NASA Eclipse Web Site, with information on future eclipses and eye safety information
Andrew Lowe's Eclipse Page, with maps and circumstances for 5000 years of solar eclipses
Five Millennium (−1999 to +3000) Canon of Solar Eclipses Database, Xavier M. Jubier
Animated explanation of the mechanics of a solar eclipse Archived 2013-05-25 at the Wayback Machine,
University of South Wales
Eclipse Image Gallery Archived 2016-10-15 at the Wayback Machine, The World at Night
Centered and aligned video recording of Total Solar Eclipse 20th March 2015 on YouTube
Solar eclipse photographs taken from the Lick Observatory from the Lick Observatory Records Digital
Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library’s Digital Collections Archived 2020-06-05 at the Wayback Machine
Video with Total Solar Eclipse March 09 2016 (from the beginning to the total phase) on YouTube
National Geographic Solar Eclipse 101 video Archived 2018-08-04 at the Wayback Machine
Wikiversity has a solar eclipse lab that students can do on any sunny day.
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