TYPES OF TEACHING METHODS

There are different types of teaching methods which can be categorised into three
broad types. These are teacher-centred methods, learner-centred methods, content-
focused methods and interactive/participative methods.

(a) INSTRUCTOR/TEACHER CENTRED METHODS

Here the teacher casts himself/herself in the role of being a master of the subject
matter. The teacher is looked upon by the learners as an expert or an authority.
Learners on the other hand are presumed to be passive and copious recipients of
knowledge from the teacher. Examples of such methods are expository or lecture
methods - which require little or no involvement of learners in the teaching process.
It is also for this lack of involvement of the learners in what they are taught, that
such methods are called “closed-ended”.

(b) LEARNER-CENTRED METHODS

In learner-centred methods, the teacher/instructor is both a teacher and a learner at

the same time. In the words of Lawrence Stenhouse, the teacher plays a dual role
as a learner as well “so that in his classroom extends rather than constricts his
intellectual horizons”. The teacher also learns new things everyday which he/she
didn’t know in the process of teaching. The teacher, “becomes a resource rather
than an authority”. Examples of learner-centred methods are discussion method,
discovery or inquiry based approach and the Hill’s model of learning through
discussion (LTD).

(c) CONTENT-FOCUSED METHODS

In this category of methods, both the teacher and the learners have to fit into the
content that is taught. Generally, this means the information and skills to be taught
are regarded as sacrosanct or very important. A lot of emphasis is laid on the clarity
and careful analyses of content. Both the teacher and the learners cannot alter or
become critical of anything to do with the content. An example of a method which
subordinates the interests of the teacher and learners to the content is the
programmed learning approach.
(d) INTERACTIVE/PARTICIPATIVE METHODS

This fourth category borrows a bit from the three other methods without necessarily
laying emphasis unduly on either the learner, content or teacher. These methods
are driven by the situational analysis of what is the most appropriate thing for us to
learn/do now given the situation of learners and the teacher. They require a
participatory understanding of varied domains and factors.

In summary, three types of methods commonly used in instruction are: -

Teacher-centred methods
Learner centred methods
Content focused methods
Interactive/participative methods

SPECIFIC TEACHING METHODS

We can now consider a number of specific methods which can be drawn from in the
course of classroom instruction. It is however, important to note that the choice of
any form of methods should not be arbitrary, but needs to be governed by the
criteria we have already examined. At the same time each method is not fool-proof,
but has its own advantages and disadvantages. That is why I would recommend the
use of complementary methods rather than one method.

1. LECTURE METHOD

A lecture is an oral presentation of information by the instructor. It is the method of

relaying factual information which includes principles, concepts, ideas and all
THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE about a given topic. In a lecture the instructor tells,
explains, describes or relates whatever information the trainees are required to learn
through listening and understanding. It is therefore teacher-centred. The instructor is
very active, doing all the talking. Trainees on the other hand are very inactive, doing
all the listening. Despite the popularity of lectures, the lack of active involvement of
trainees limits its usefulness as a method of instruction.
The lecture method of instruction is recommended for trainees with very little
knowledge or limited background knowledge on the topic. It is also useful for
presenting an organised body of new information to the learner. To be effective in
promoting learning, the lecture must involve some discussions and, question and
answer period to allow trainees to be involved actively.

PREPARATION AND DELIVERY OF A LECTURE

As stated earlier, during the lecture, the trainees merely listen to the instructor. It is
therefore very important to consider the attention span of trainees when preparing a
lecture. The attention span is the period of time during which the trainees are able to
pay full attention to what the instructor is talking about. It is estimated to be 15-25
minutes only. It is difficult to hold the trainees attention for a long period of time and
careful preparation of lectures is very necessary.

The instructor should have a clear, logical plan of presentation. He/she should work
out the essentials of the topic, organise them according to priorities and logical
connections, and establish relationships between the various items. Careful
organisation of content helps the trainees to structure and hence, to store or
remember it. When developing a theme in a lecture, the instructor should use a
variety of approaches. A useful principle in any instruction is to go from the KNOWN
to UNKNOWN; from SIMPLE to COMPLEX, or from PARTS to a WHOLE.

Knowing the trainees and addressing their needs and interests is very important. For
example, in explaining technical processes the instructor should search for
illustrations that will be familiar to the trainees. Unfamiliar technical words should be
introduced cautiously. New terminologies should be defined and explained and
examples given.

In order to gain and focus the attention of trainees, the instructor should be
adequately prepared, fluent in his/her presentation and should use various teaching
aids and illustrations such as charts, transparencies, codes and even the real
objects during presentation. Question and Answer periods should be included in the
lecture.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD LECTURE

1. A good lecture should not be too long as to exceed the trainees attention span
(up to 25 minutes).

2. A good lecture should address a single theme.

3. In a good lecture technical terms are carefully explained.

4. Familiar examples and analogies are given.

5. A good lecture establishes fluency in technical content.

6. A good lecture uses illustrations and examples.

7. A good lecture builds on existing knowledge.

8. A good lecture employs a variety of approaches.

2. THE DISCUSSION METHOD

Discussion involves two-way communication between participants. In the classroom

situation an instructor and trainees all participate in discussion. During discussion,
the instructor spends some time listening while the trainees spend sometimes
talking. The discussion is, therefore, a more active learning experience for the
trainees than the lecture.

A discussion is the means by which people share experiences, ideas and attitudes.
As it helps to foster trainees involvement in what they are learning, it may contribute
to desired attitudinal changes. Discussion may be used in the classroom for the
purpose of lesson development, making trainees apply what they have learnt or to
monitor trainees learning by way of feedback.

LESSON DEVELOPMENT
In areas in which trainees already have some knowledge or experience, discussion
may be used to develop the main points to be covered in a lesson. For example, in
safety training many of the procedures and behaviour that should be observed can
be established through discussion with trainees. Trainees can draw on their
experience of working in workshops contract sites to contribute to the discussion. In
discussing some issues, differences of opinion arise. The discussion can help to
clarify the different points of view and may assist each trainee to define his or her
own opinion. Used in this way, discussion may be more effective in motivating
trainees than lectures. Trainees can see that some importance is attached to their
contributions.

APPLICATION

Discussion may also be used, following a lecture or demonstration, to help trainees

apply what they have learned. The instructor can ask questions, that help trainees to
relate concepts and principles to contexts that are familiar to the trainees or in which
they will ultimately be needed. For example following a lecture on “types of wood
joint”, the instructor may, lead a discussion directing trainees attention to the places
or pieces of furniture where each type is found, and the reasons for using one type
than the other. Used in this way discussion contributes to the transfer of learning.

FEEDBACK

The discussion method also provides an opportunity to monitor trainees learning.

The answers provided by trainees and the questions they ask, reveal the extent and
quality of learning taking place. Instructors can use this information to repeat or
modify an explanation to improve learning. They can also provide feedback to
trainees, thereby helping to reinforce learning that has taken place. Discussion used
in this way should follow after other methods of classroom instruction such as
lectures, demonstration or practice sessions.

CONDUCTING A DISCUSSION

Discussion sessions can be led by the instructor, or can take place in groups. In
either case, the goal is to meet the lesson objectives by allowing the trainees to:-
a) Relate relevant personal experiences or events which have occurred in the work
setting.
b) Contribute ideas or personal opinions.

c) Apply what has been learned to familiar situations or solving problems.

d) Express what had been learned.

Whether the discussion is instructor led or takes place in groups it must be guided
by the instructor. It must be focused on the objectives of the lesson: it is the
instructors responsibility to see that the objectives are met. If it is not properly
guided, a discussion can degenerate into a consideration of inappropriate or
unimportant topics adding confusion rather than clarification to the lesson.

3. THE DEMONSTRATION LESSON

“The most effective way to teach an occupational skill is to demonstrate it... one of
the two most essential teaching skills is the ability to demonstrate; the other is the
ability to explain. Both are vital to the success of either an operation lesson or an
information lesson”. Weaver and Cencil in APPLIED TEACHING TECHNIQUES.

DEFINITION

Demonstration means any planned performance of an occupation skill, scientific

principle or experiment.

TEACHER PREPARATION

1. Rehearse your presentation in advance of the lesson.

2. Anticipate any difficult steps, possible interruptions e.t.c.

3. Obtain all materials, tools, equipment, visual and teaching aids in advance and
check their useful condition.

4. Have all materials within reach and conveniently arranged.

5. Time the demonstration NOT to exceed 15 minutes.

6. Remove all extraneous materials; check lighting, visibility, student grouping, and
proximity to electric, gas and water outlets.

7. Plan to use a skill or method to advantage; work from simple to complex, one step
at a time.

PRESENTATION

1. Make sure all students can see and hear the lesson.

2. Be enthusiastic, professional, effective but not dramatic.

3. Relax; use any mishaps or humour to YOUR advantage.

4. Observe all safety rules and procedures.

5. Keep eye-contact with the class; ask and encourage class questions.

6. Explain WHY and HOW: use the techniques of SHOW and TELL.

7. Use a medial summary to strengthen your explanation.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Avoid interruptions; keep demonstration smooth and continuous.

2. Never demonstrate on a student’s material.

3. Work towards one aim.

4. Allow time for possible student participation.

CARRYING OUT A DEMONSTRATION

1. Give a good performance. Remember that the trainees learn by your good
example.

2. Explain each step or process as you proceed. Follow your lesson plan.

3. Make sure the trainees see the demonstration from the angle they will perform it
themselves.

4. Be sure everyone can see and hear. Maintain eye contact.

5. Emphasise key points, and if possible prepare before hand ask key questions as
you go along and allow trainees to ask questions.

6. Observe all safety rules, precautions and procedures; and emphasise them.

7. Use proper instructions, aids such as chalkboard, charts, handouts e.t.c. to

support your demonstration.

8. Provide for trainees participation where possible, during and after demonstration.
9. Demonstrate the correct way only. First impressions are important, therefore,
make them correct ones.

10. Always summarise the steps and emphasise key points again.

AFTER DEMONSTRATION

1. Return all items used during demonstration to their storage places.

2. Make arrangements to have the trainees practice the skill as soon as possible in
a practical class session.

3. Observe and analyse trainee(s) performance and correct mistakes.

4. Offer reinforcement where necessary.

5. Coach weak or slow trainees.

6. Check trainee’s completed work for accurate performance and record.

7. Allow sufficient time interval before demonstrating another operation.

4. BUZZ GROUPS

Another method of instruction is the buzz group. During a longer session, the
plenary group can break into sub-groups to discuss one or two specific questions or
issues. The room soon fills with noise as each sub-group ‘buzzes’ in discussion. If
appropriate, after the discussion one member of each group can report its findings
back to the plenary. Buzz groups can be in pairs, trios, or more depending on the
activity. People turn to their neighbours for a quick buzz, or form larger groups of
three or more. This allows almost every one to express an opinion. While they are
buzzing, participants are able to exchange ideas and draw on their wide collective
experience. It may provide a good opportunity for trainees to reflect on the content
of a lecture. A good buzz session will generate many ideas, comments and opinion,
the most important of which will be reported back.

Buzzgroups help trainers as they allow you to:

- Draw your breath

- Gauge the mood, by listening to some of the discussions

- Change pace of the session

- Encourage participants to reflect on what they have learnt and how they might
apply it in their work.

DISADVANTAGES

The main obstacle using buzz sessions lie in unfamiliarity with their use, the time
required, the need for leaders or facilitators within each sub-group, and the need to
have tables and chairs arranged for quick and easy discussion.

5. BRAINSTORMING

The purpose of a brainstorming session is to discover new ideas and responses

very quickly. It is particularly a good way of getting bright ideas. It differs from the
buzz groups discussion in that the focus is on generating as many ideas as possible
without judging them. In this technique, all ideas are given equal credence.

Participants are encouraged to let ideas flow freely, building on and improving from
previous ideas. No idea, however crazy, should be rejected. These ideas are listed
exactly as they are expressed on a board or flipchart, or written on bits of paper. The
combination of swiftly generated ideas usually leads to a very animated and
energising session. Even the more reserved participants should feel bold enough to
contribute. The purpose of listing responses is to collect existing experiences and
thoughts.
It is useful to collect answers to questions when you expect much repetition in the
responses.

After a brainstorm session, the ideas can be discussed further and evaluated, for
example listing the best options in a systematic way. Ideas can be grouped and
analysed so that they belong to the group rather then individuals. Unlike a buzz
session, a brainstorm session can work well with a large group and usually takes
less time. It is best to limit the time for plenary brainstorms, as you might lose the
attention of some participants.

6. ROLE PLAYS

In role plays, participants use their own experiences to play a real life situation.
When done well, role plays increase the participants self-confidence, give them the
opportunity to understand or even feel empathy for other people’s viewpoints or
roles, and usually end with practical answers, solutions or guidelines.

Role plays are useful for exploring and improving interviewing techniques and
examining the complexities and potential conflicts of group meetings. They help
participants to consolidate different lessons in one setting and are good energisers.

However, role plays can be time-consuming and their success depends on the
willingness of participants to take active part. Some trainees may feel a role play is
too exposing, threatening or embarrassing. This reluctance may be overcome at the
outset by careful explanation of the objectives and the outcome. Some role plays
can generate strong emotions amongst the participants. It is therefore essential that
a role play is followed by a thorough debriefing. This provides the opportunity for the
trainer and the participants to raise and assess new issues.

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

THE LECTURE METHOD

A formal or semi-formal discourse is which the instructor presents a series of events,
facts, or principles, explores a problem or explains relationships
USES
1. To orient students.
2. To introduce a subject.
3. To give directions on procedures.
4. To present basic material.
5. To introduce a demonstration, discussion, or performance.
6. To illustrate application of rules, principles, or concepts.
7. To review, clarify, emphasise or summarise.

ADVANTAGES
1. Saves time.
2. Permits flexibility.
3. Requires less rigid space requirement.
4. Permits adaptability.
5. Permits versatility.
6. Permits better centre over contact and sequence.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Involves one way communication.
2. Poses problems in skill teaching.
3. Encourages student passiveness.
4. Poses difficulty in gauging student reaction.
5. Require highly skilled instructors.

THE DISCUSSION METHOD

A method in which group discussion techniques are used to reach instructional
objectives.
USES
1. To develop imaginative solutions to problems.
2. To stimulate thinking and interest and to secure student participation.
3. To emphasise main teaching points.
4. To supplement lectures, reading, or laboratory exercises.
5. To determine how well student understands concepts and principles.
6. To prepare students for application of theory of procedure.
7. To summarise, clarify points or review.

ADVANTAGES
1. Increase students interest
2. Increases students acceptance and commitments.
3. Utilises student knowledge and experience.
4. Results in more permanent learning because of high degree of student
participation.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Require highly skilled instructor.
2. Requires preparation by student.
3. Limits content.
4. Consumes time.
5. Restricts size of groups.

THE PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION METHOD

A method of self-instruction
USES
1. To provide remedial instruction.
2. To provide make-up instruction for late arrivals, absentees, or translents.
3. To maintain previously learned skills which are not performed frequently enough.
4. To provide retraining on equipment and procedures which have become obsolete.
5. To upgrade production.
6. To accelerate capable students.
7. To provide enough common background among students.
8. To provide the review and practice of knowledge and skills.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Reduce failure rate.
2. Improves end-of-course proficiency.
3. Saves time.
4. Provides for self instruction.

ADVANTAGES
1. Require local or commercial preparation.
2. Requires lengthy programmer training.
3. Increases expenses.
4. Requires considerable lead time.

THE STUDY ASSIGNMENT METHOD

A method in which the instructor assigns reading to books, periodicals, project or
research papers or exercises for the practice.
USES
1. To orient students to a topic prior to classroom or Laboratory work.
2. To set the stage for a lecture demonstration or discussion.
3. To provide for or capitalise on individual differences in ability, background, or
experience through differentiated assignments.
4. To provide for the review of material covered in class or to give practice.
5. To provide enrichment material.

ADVANTAGES
1. Increase coverage of material.
2. Reduce classroom time.
3. Permits individual attention.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Require careful planning and follow up.
2. Poses evaluation problem.
3. Produce non-standard results.

THE TUTORIAL METHOD

A method of instruction in which an instructor works directly with an individual
student.
USES
1. To reach highly complicated skills operations or operations involving danger or
expensive equipment.
2. To provide individualised remedial assistance.

ADVANTAGES
1. Permits adaptive instruction.
2. Stimulates active participation.
3. Promotes safety.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Requires highly competent instructor.
2. Demands time and money.

THE SEMINAR METHOD

A tutorial arrangement involving the instructor and groups, rather than instructor and
individual.
USES
1. To provide general guidance for a group working on an advanced study or
research project.
2. To exchange information on techniques and approaches being explored by
members of a study or research group.
3. To develop new and imaginative solutions to problems under study by the group.

ADVANTAGES
1. Provides motivation and report.
2. Stimulates active participation.
3. Permits adaptive instruction.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Requires highly competent instructor.
2. Poses evaluation problems.
3. Is more costly than most other methods.

THE DEMONSTRATION METHOD

A method of instruction where the instructor by actually performing an operation or
doing a job shows the students what to do, how to do it, and through explanations
brings out why, where, and when it is done.
USES
1. To teach manipulative operations or procedures.
2. To teach troubleshooting.
3. To illustrate principles.
4. To teach operation or functioning of equipment.
5. To teach teamwork.
6. To set standards of workmanship.
7. To teach safety procedures.

ADVANTAGES
1. Minimise damage and waste
2. Saves time
3. Can be presented to large groups.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Require careful preparation and rehearsal.
2. Requires special classroom arrangements.

THE DEMONSTRATION METHOD

A method of instruction is required to perform under controlled conditions the
operations, skills or movement being taught.
USES
1. To teach manipulative operations or procedures.
2. To teach operation or functioning of equipment.
3. To teach team skills
4. To teach safety procedures.

ADVANTAGES
1. Builds confidence.
2. Enable learning evaluation.
3. Reduces damages and waste.
4. Promotes safety.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Requires tools and equipment.
2. Requires large block.
3. Requires more instructors.

THE BUZZ GROUP

USES
1. To develop and express imaginative ideas, opinions.
2. Stimulate thinking.

ADVANTAGES
1. Help trainers to draw breath.
2. Gauge the mood by listening to some discussion.
3. Change pace of discussion.
4. Encourage participants to reflect what was learnt.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Unfamiliarity in use.
2. Time required.
3. Need for group leaders.

BRAINSTORMING
USES
1. Discover new ideas, thoughts and responses very quickly.

ADVANTAGES
1. Leads to a very animated and energising session.
2. More reserved participants feel free to contribute.

DISADVANTAGES
1. It takes time particularly if it is a large group.
2. May consume a lot of material e.g. flipcharts or writing materials.
3. Requires high level facilitation skills.

ROLE PLAYS
USES
1. Exploring and improving interviewing techniques and examining complexities and
potential conflicts of groups.
2. To consolidate different lessons in one setting.

ADVANTAGES
1. Good energizers.
2. Promotes empathy of trainees for other situation.
3. Encourrages creativity in learning.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Participants might be reluctant.
2. May not work with trainees who do not know each other well.